After Antigone: Women, the Past, and the Future of Feminist Political Thought
Author(s): Catherine A. Holland
Source: American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Oct., 1998), pp. 1108-1132
Published by: Midwest Political Science Association
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AfterAntigone:
Women,thePast,and the
FutureofFeministPoliticalThought
CatherineA. Holland, UniversityofMissouri
Sophocles' tragedyof Antigoneoccupies a privilegedpositionin modernpolitical
forithasprovidedmodemthinkers
withan opportunity
toreflect
upontheplace
thought,
occuAntigone,
of womenwithrespectto boththestateandthehousehold.Its heroine,
feministthought,a figure
pies a similarlyprominent
positionwithincontemporary
haverecasttherelationofwomentopoliticalactionbycontestaroundwhomfeminists
relations
betweenhouseholdandpolisposedbythewestemtheoingandreconfiguring
poThisessayexaminesthreeinterpretations
ofthetragedy
byfeminist
reticaltradition.
liticaltheorists,
each of whomidentifiesin Antigone'sactionsa modelfora distinct
readstheworkas a meditation
offeminist
variety
politics,andeachofwhom,moreover,
fromwithina tradition
thatpositionswomen,
abouthowfeminists
mayspeakpolitically
eachin
as inimicaltothepublicorder.It suggeststhatthesethreereadings,
conceptually,
distinctions
a different
degree,inadvertently
collapseimportant
wayand to a different
riskacceptingin slightly
alteredforma varibetweenpastandpresentandconsequently
theycontest.The essaygoes on
etyofproblematic
premiseshandeddownbya tradition
ratherthanattenuate
thedistinctions
between
to rereadAntigonein waysthatheighten
aboutitsheroine'sactionsthat
anditsuggestswaysofthinking
politicspastandpresent,
feminist
theorists
withnewwaysof engagingthepolitical
mayprovidecontemporary
andtheoretical
pasts.
imagination,"
as SheldonWolinwrote
"The taskof thetheoretical
new
possibilities"
(Wolin1969,1082).
nearly
thirty
yearsago,"is torestate
for
that
thisessay,
is especially
Wolin'sformulation
apt theconcerns prompt
of
forit captures
thesensein whichpoliticaltheorists
revisitthethought
to
turn
former
distant
thatthought
and
erasandseemingly
problems,
only
is notwithout
thoseproblems
toward
morecurrent
affairs.
Suchan activity
we mine
ofcourse.As Wolinalso observed,
whenever
itscomplications,
forevaluating
thereis a dancontemporary
concerns,
pasttextsas resources
influence"
andcontemporaneous
ofthosetextscan
gerthatthe"persistent
workto limitourpoliticalvisionandthusnarrowourpoliticalhorizons
thepresent,
shrinking
(Wolin1960,26), a dangerthatthepastwilloverfill
thanexpanding
thespaceofpolitical
rather
possibility.
ofpasttexts,theirabilityto bothenableandforeclose
The ambiguity
who
concernto feminist
politicaltheorists,
politicalvision,is ofparticular
for
arecommitted
at minimum
tothebeliefthatwomenmatter
politically,
The authorgratefully
acknowledgesthemanyhelpfulcommentsand suggestionsmadeby Fred
Alford,Linda Angst,PeterEuben,Melissa Matthes,LymanSargent,GeoffSwindells,Victor
reviewers
fortheAmericanJournalofPoliticalScience.
Wolfenstein,
andthethreeanonymous
AmericanJournalofPoliticalScience, Vol.42,No. 4, October1998,Pp. 1108-1132?1998 bythe
ofWisconsinSystem
BoardofRegentsoftheUniversity
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1 109
within
thewestern
theoretical
tradition,
thefigure
ofWomanappearsnotto
it.Thisis espeopenuppoliticalpossibility,
butonthecontrary
topreclude
place
ciallytrueinthemodern
tradition,
wherewomenholdtheparadoxical
ofrepresenting
boththenecessary
condition
ofpoliticsanditsprepolitical,
In
evenantipolitical,
other.
Theexamplesaremany,
buttwoshouldsuffice.
deCivilizationand Its Discontents,Freudelaboratesboththephylogenetic
inways
velopment
ofthespeciesandthesocialorganization
ofcivilization
thatplace womenintopermanent
opposition
withthepublicsphere.For
thefledgling
politicalsociety
Freud,whilewomenbearandnurture
citizen,
lifeofthefamily
beginsonlywhenthemalechildabandons
the"primitive"
intothebackground
andgoesoutintotheworld.Thus"forced
bytheclaims
ofcivilization,"
it"andexerttheir
womenadopt"a hostileattitude
towards
onit"(Freud1961,50).
"retarding
andrestraining
influence
A similarlogicappearsovera century
earlierin Hegel'scelebrated
reThetaleofthewomanwhodefiesherKing
tellingofSophocles'Antigone.
forHegel,howtheinterests
of
to honorhertraitorous
brother
illustrates,
ofstatepower.
womenandfamily
areincommensurable
withthefunctions
Whilemenleavehometo becomecitizens,theirsistersremainbehindas
In thiscapacity,
ofthedivinelaw within
thehousehold.
women
guardians
forthe
unavoidably
endup,likeAntigone,
trying
toreclaimtheirbrothers
household
gods,"chang[ing]
byintrigue
theuniversal
endofthegovernment
intoa private
intoa workofsome
end,transform[ing]
itsuniversal
activity
ofthestateinto
theuniversal
andpervert[ing]
particular
individual,
property
a possessionandornament
forthefamily."
LikeAntigone,
womenarethus
ofthestate,atoncea necessity
anda
as the"internal
positioned
enem[ies]"
oftheethicalorder(Hegel1977,288).
threat
totheexistence
in
Itis nocoincidence
thatAntigone
position
occupiessucha privileged
forSophocles'tragedy
has functioned
as
Hegel'stheoretical
framework,
formoderns,
whatGeorgeSteiner
anopporcallsa "pivotofconsciousness"
in
ofmodernity
toreflect
tunity
uponthenature
(Steiner
1996,8). Beginning
thelateeighteenth
andcontinuing
day,Antigone
century
upuntilthepresent
ofconon a wholevariety
has servedas thetheoretical
stageforreflection
between
seenas endemicto themodern
condition:
flictsandambivalence
andobedience,
sentiment
theold andthenew,family
andstate,conviction
andreason,womenandmen.Andironically
enough,itis also toAntigone
intheirefforts
toengageandcontest
themarginal
thatfeminists
haveturned
anoccasiontoreplaceassignedtowomeninthewestern
political
tradition,
flectuponboththeperilsandthepromiseoftrying
to speakas feminists
thatdoesnoteasilyaccommodate
feminist
fromwithin
a tradition
thought.
theoThisessayexamines
three
ofAntigone
political
readings
byfeminist
ristsJeanBethkeElshtain,
MaryDietz,andLindaZerilli,eachofwhomsees
offeminist
inAntigone's
actsa modelfora verydifferent
politics.
variety
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1110
A. Holland
Catherine
soofananti-authoritarian
therepresentative
as,inturn,
Antigone
Interpreting
of
face,anda feminism
witha feminist
a radicaldemocracy
cial feminism,
boththegenerative
theirdebatedramatizes
otherness,
discursive
irreducible
offeminist
nature
andtherichandmultivalent
powerofSophocles'tragedy
as themodel
Antigone
indeploying
as I willargue,
speech.However,
political
past
thedistant
from
figure
anarchetypal
politics,
feminist
forcontemporary
offeminism,
ground
as theenabling
intothepresent
whocanbe transported
from
ourdistance
thepast,attenuating
normalize
ultimately
readings
allthree
is,infact,unlikeus.
degreetowhichAntigone
theprofound
itbyoverlooking
toour
from
us,herverystrangeness
difference
And,I argue,itis Antigone's
thinkers.
critical
valuetofeminist
thatis ofgreatest
present,
ofthe
significance
aboutthesymbolic
Thisraisesa seriesofquestions
is femiTo whatextent
feminist
politicaltheory.
contemporary
pastwithin
ground
an ontological
uponfirstsecuring
dependent
nistpoliticalthought
that
fromwhichwe mayspeak?How mighttheprojectof identifying
feminist
politicalvisionat leastas
groundin thepastlimitandconstrain
"restate
politicaltheorists
howcan feminist
muchas itenablesit?Finally,
oftheessay
thepast?Theremainder
without
reinstating
newpossibilities"
in yetanother
way.
seeksto addressthesequestionsbyreadingAntigone
is
linkedclaims.Thefirst
oftheplayarethree
tomyreinterpretation
Central
toher
anyofthepastsattributed
cannotbe madetorepresent
thatAntigone
inhercitywomenhadnopositive
ofreasons,
because,fora variety
precisely
toAeschylus's
from
whichtospeak.I developthisthemebyturning
ground
from
ofthetransition
whichcanbe readas a chronicle
theOresteia,
trilogy,
as a sortof
andwhichI arguefunctions
to a patrilineal
order,
a matrilineal
inSophocles'tragedy.
totheeventsdescribed
pre-history
andI arguethat
oftheplayitself,
thesetting
Mysecondclaimconcerns
actionsshouldbe readagainsttheplacethat
ofAntigone's
thesignificance
Thebes'sroleas thesymtragedy.
hercity,Thebes,occupiedinAthenian
ofAntigone's
dispute
newlighton thenature
bolicotherofAthensthrows
and
Mythird
whatis atstakeinthatdispute.
withCreon,anditalsoclarifies
finalclaimis thatit is preciselybecauseof thewayin whichAntigone
ofhercity-thatherwordsand
inthevernacular
authority,
speaks-without
in
ofopeningup thespaceofthepoliticalpresent
actionshavetheeffect
acts,I go on to argue,
"unwomanly"
Thebes.Anditis here,toAntigone's
toarlookintheirownattempts
thinkers
feminist
might
thatcontemporary
feminist
ticulate
a specifically
politicalvision.
1. THREE FEMINISMS,THREE ANTIGONES,THREE PASTS
takesplaceina Thebesabandoned
byOedipusafter
Sophocles'tragedy
killedhisfather,
KingLaius,married
thathe hasunknowingly
discovering
fourchildren
andfathered
byher.Oedipus'ssons,
Jocasta,
hisownmother,
in a disputeoversucceshavekilledone another
EteoclesandPolyneices,
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OF FEMINISTPOLITICALTHOUGHT
INTERPRETATIONS
1111
andCreon,theiruncleandThebes'snewking,declares
sionto thethrone
daughter
ofOedipus
andforbids
hisburial.Antigone,
Polyneicesa traitor
performs
theritesofburialforPolyneices,
andJocasta,
defiesCreon'sorder,
herbrother's
passageintoHades.Caughtbytheking's
andthusguarantees
defends
heractionsas thesacreddutyofa sisguards,
Antigone
insistently
tofamily,
ancestors,
andthe
thatherresponsibility
terto a brother,
arguing
gods overridesthedictatesofherking.Forherdisobedience,forherdefense
of a brothercondemnedfortreachery,
Creon pronouncesAntigoneto be a
and eventualdeathin a
as well,and he sentencesherto imprisonment
traitor
cavejustoutsidethecity.
forcontemporary
debateaboutthemeaningofAntigone
The feminist
in 1982,whowroteto"advancea noteof
feminism
wasopenedbyElshtain
ofthestateas exemplified
bytheNacaution"againstthefeminist
embrace
to havewomenincludedin the
tionalOrganization
ofWomen'sinitiative
shesuggests,
is itselfthe
draft
military
(1982,46). The allureofinclusion,
consequenceof an ancientdefeat,namely,of theusurpationof powerfrom
forms
ofauthority"
likethefamily
thatvaluewomenas
lessuniversal
"older,
in sociallife"(55). To embrace
thepublicorderwithout
full"participant[s]
itsterms,Elshtaininsists,is to ignoretheancient
contesting
simultaneously
wisdomof Antigone,"thewomanwho [threw]sand intothemachineryof
defiance
ofherkingmarksa final,
arrogant
publicpower"(55). Antigone's
todefend
theprerogatives
offamily
andhousehold
againstthe
fatalattempt
claimsofstatepower[that]runrough"imperiousdemandsandoverweening
shod overdeeplyrootedvalues" (56). For Elshtain,Antigonechroniclesthe
oftraditional
"finalsuppression
femalesocialworlds"(46),andinherview,
notonlybolsters
statepowerbutalso
a feminism
thatpursuesassimilation
that"precedesandoverridesthelaws
violatesa "primordial
familymorality"
ofthestate"(53).
is "to see ourselvesas
The taskElshtainproposesformodernfeminists
thinkers"
(58-59) who reject
(59) as "maternal
Antigone'sdaughters,"
amoral statecraftby workingto preserve"the arena of the social world
andprotected
fromdayto day"(55). She counsels
wherelifeis nurtured
tohersister,
Ismene:
feminists
toheedAntigone's
challenge
contemporary
ora traitor
toyourfam"Andnowyoucanprovewhatyouare:A truesister,
defia socialfeminist
actionsexemplify
Antigone's
ily"(53). ForElshtain,
ance of the "impersonal,abstract,and rationalstandards"of statesmen,a
and
andchastens
statepowerbyhumanizing
feminism
thattempers
arrogant
ofactivism
thatruns
sociallife(51). Drawingona tradition
repersonalizing
MothersofthePlaza de Mayo,
theArgentine
fromJaneAddamsthrough
intowhichcurrent
to "breakoutoftherigidities
Elshtainurgesfeminists
discourse
hasfallen"andtoactinpubliconbehalfoftheconcerns
feminist
of household and family,of "humangood and civic necessity"(Elshtain
1982, 56-59; Elshtain1989, 229, 231-33).
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1112
Catherine
A. Holland
bytheconcerns
engendered
WhileElshtain
showshowtheperspectives
forlimits
tocampaign
byfeminists
oftheprivate
spheremaybe marshaled
renegothewisdomofElshtain's
onthepowerofthestate,Dietzquestions
ofthe
theprimacy
torecognize
divide.Infailing
ofthepublic-private
tiation
an alandgendering
political,Dietz argues,Elshtainendsup reinforcing
realms"
thepublicandprivate
splitbetween
and"abstract
readyexaggerated
anddepofthehierarchy
criticism
(Dietz1985,25). DietzsharesElshtain's
participaofa centralized
statethathasexchanged
bureaucracy
ersonalized
notthefamily,
However
forDietz,politics,
efficiency.
tionforadministrative
be theypublicorprivate"(27);
to all otherhumanactivities,
is "primary
thatitis
forget
whorejectthepublicrealmtoembracethefamily
feminists
theforandperpetually
determine[s]
that"collectively
an engagedcitizenry
desofwhatis private
andpublic"(28). Elshtain's
boundaries
evershifting
actionmisses,
spaceoffeminist
ofthehousehold
as theprivileged
ignation
theveryvenueofpublicpoliticsthat,Dietzargues,holds
indeed,dismisses
andwomen'sequality.In doingso,
freedom
outthepromiseof feminist
ofthestateandthus
reducespoliticsto theactivity
Elshtaininadvertently
idealizingthose
womenwithinthefamilyandthehousehold,
reconfines
themyriad
inegalispacesas locationsofwomen'spoweronlybyignoring
within
them.Oppressive
thathavehistorically
prevailed
tarianrelationships
arebestchalliketheadministrative
state,Dietzinsists,
institutions
political
butonly[by]thelanlengednotby"thelanguageofloveandcompassion,
andequality"
(34).
guageoffreedom
ofAntigonesees in the
It follows,then,thatDietz's interpretation
"citizenship
heroine'sactionsa modelfora morepublicandparticipatory
asa concerted
face."InDietz'sreading,
Creonhaslaunched
witha feminist
order,andAntigoneactsnotso
saultuponThebes'sancientdemocratic
"thecustoms
ofthefamily
as topreserve
muchtodefendtheprerogatives
ofa collectivecivillife"(28-29). Read thisway,Antigone
andtraditions
notsimplyas a 'sister'whosefamilialloyaltiespitheragainsta
"emerges
ofherbrother
is rootedin a
King,butas a citizenofThebeswhosedefense
to thegodsandto thewaysandlawsofhercity"(29). Thechaldevotion
is to politicizeratherthan
forcontemporary
feminists
lenge,therefore,
andforDietzthismeansthatfeminism
women'sconsciousness
matemalize
mustbe guidedbyovertly
publiccommitments.
Elshtain's
socialfemibetween
irremediable
opposition
Theseemingly
witha feminist
face"whichZerillimaintains
nismandDietz's"citizenship
feminism
inherowncontribution
tothedebateis notso mucha splitwithin
oftheexistofElshtain'sandDietz'stooreadyadoption
as itis a function
is an obForZerilli,theirundertaking
ofpoliticalthought.
ingvocabulary
tospeakfromwithin
withfeminist
attempts
jectlessonintherisksinvolved
an establishedcanon thatforcesthemto "translate. . . theforeign,disso-
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1113
reassuring
voiceofmothers
nantvoiceofAntigone
intothemorefamiliar,
whatZerilli
and/or
citizens"(Zerilli1991,257). Bothpositionsrepresent
fortheiroverdeterminacalls "counterfeit
utterances"
(257), problematic
fathers"
andthusfortheir
tionin/by
thediscourseofthe"politicaltheory
blandinability
to transmit
the"moreradicaltonesoffeminist
discourse"
turntofamily
andhousehold,
Zerillimaintains,
embraces
(258). Elshtain's
anditacrather
thanchallenges
a patriarchal
visionoffemaledomesticity,
a mereshadowofthepowerwomen
ceptsin thenameofsocialfeminism
languageofcivicfriendship
onceheld.Dietz'sdevotion
to anAristotelian
of thefeminine
requiresherto subsumeall concernforthespecificity
withinsexualdifference
in orderto arguefora modelofcitizenship
that
In theend,neiandincidentally
feminist.
canbe atbestonlyoccasionally
therElshtain'smaternalist
socialfeminism
norDietz'sfinally
sexuallyunmodelof civicfriendship
managesto escape fromtheredifferentiated
ofthewestern
theoretical
ceivedcategories
tradition.
within
andagainst
thetraHowthencanfeminists
speaksimultaneously
inwhichtheywork?Whatalternative
doesthetraditions
modesofspeaking
ditionoffer
itbuttotransform
it?Suchquesthosewhoseeknottomaintain
answered
byrereading
Sophocles'
tions,Zerillisuggests,
maybe partially
tragedyin yetanotherway.Drawingheavilyupontheworkof Irigaray
(1985),1Zerillireadstheconflict
betweenAntigoneandCreonas "more
moremutually
orDietzcan alexclusive"(256) thaneither
Elshtain
tragic,
ofa prepatriarchal
low,forAntigone
preserves
anddeploysthelastvestiges
a matricide
anancient
mostpowermatricide,
past.Heractionsmemorialize
inhisOresteiatrilogy.
ForZerilli,thetaleofthe
fullydepicted
byAeschylus
murder
ofClytemnestra
recounts
thefinalsuppression
of
byherson,Orestes,
a matrilineal
world,once securedby the"visiblebondofblood,"by an
thatreorganizes
andstate.. . aroundtheinvisemerging
patriarchy
"family
oftheOresteia,
ofpaternity"
ible:thelegalfiction
(256).Inlightoftheevents
Zerilliconcludes,
"discourse
is notonlycriminal
butsuicidalina
Antigone's
voice"(256).
political
citywhichrecognizes
onlythemasculine
is theconviction
thatthelanguageofthe
Centralto Zerilli'sargument
mafathers
obscuresandsuppresses
itsrootsinthisancient
politicaltheory
ofitsownfounding.
tricide
butcanneverfinally
theviolent
terms
extinguish
interpretation
presented
drawsuponIrigaray's
IMorespecifically,
Zerilli'sreadingofAntigone
hasproposeda variin thecommentary
on Hegelin SpeculumoftheOtherWoman.In fact,Irigaray
ofAntigone
as tragicheroinewho
overtheyears,ranging
fromthatofAntigone
etyofinterpretations
in defenseofthecivic
defendshermaternal
genealogy(Irigaray1985) toAntigoneas spokesperson
is arguablymuchcloser
moregenerally
(Irigaray1994).Whilethislatterinterpretation
community
to Dietz's thanitis to Zerilli's,mydiscussionofIrigarayin thisessayis occasionedbymydiscusto theIrigarayofwhichZerillimakes
confinemycomments
sionofZerilli,andI will accordingly
see Muraro(1994).
numerous
readingsofAntigone,
use. Fora moredetailedsurveyofIrigaray's
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1114
A. Holland
Catherine
madeavailable
mustspeakintheterms
politicalthinkers
as feminist
Insofar
thoseterms,
theycanneverspeaksimplywithin
ofdiscourse,
bya tradition
ForZerilli,feminists
othercommitments.
speechmaintains
forfeminist
onlyinsofaras theirspeech,likethatof
as feminists
speakspecifically
in the
beginnings
their"material
andmemorializes
remembers
Antigone,
ofdiscursive
a variety
(262). Zerillisuggests
homeofthemother"
original
toa lostpast:fromtheuse of
thiscomplexrelation
thatmaintain
strategies
ofpoliticalspeechto a
andexploittheambiguities
masksthatdemonstrate
affirintofeminist
offemalesubordination
theterms
mimesis
thatconverts
by which
heteroglossia
an evocativeandprovocative
mationand,finally,
ofmeaning.
levelsandstrategies
withmultiple
feminist
speechresonates
injury
wouldbothbringtolighttheoriginal
Feminist
politicsthusconceived
poweranddemandredress
atthehandsofpatriarchal
womenhavesuffered
symbolic.
feminine
ofa once-suppressed
therevaluation
through
"cannotreclaimbutmusttransWhileI agreewithZerillithatfeminists
in
theirabsence"(270; emphasis
thatinscribes
form
a politicalconversation
andDietzfalltooeasbyElshtain
andthatthepositions
promoted
original),
ilyintothereceivedcategoriesofthewesterncanon,thereis a sensein
thana transforrather
whichZerilli'sprojectalso movesina reclamationist
inwaysnotso verydifenough,
Anditdoesso,curiously
mativedirection.
differthesubstantial
minimizing
fromElshtainandDietz.Without
ferent
ences amongthem,I wantto suggestthata commoncriticalstrategy
waysandtodifferent
indistinct
theirreadings:
runsthroughout
nonetheless
ofa lostpast,a
inAntigone's
actionstheremnant
degrees,eachidentifies
politicsandthus
groundoffeminist
pastthatmayserveas theontological
In eachcase,whatis
practice.
feminist
inform
contemporary
andinvigorate
valuedinAntigone'sactionis itsabilityto helpus recallan almostpreorpatriantidemocratic,
bystatist,
ofresistance
unsullied
moment
lapsarian
tocontain
and
stanceis understood
Antigone's
archalpower.Putdifferently,
to
might
actioninthepresent
a pastthatfeminist
a priormoment,
command
becomes
theactofreading
Forthesethreefeminists,
somedegreereinstate.
inthepastandto
whathasbeenlostwithAntigone
torecapture
an attempt
Antigone
as a feminist
politics.ForElshtain,
itto us in thepresent
return
the
morality
[that]precedesandoverrides
family
drawsupona "primordial
feminists,
lawsofthestate"(Elshtain1982,53) inwaysthatcontemporary
ofthehumanperson"and
ofthedignity
too,maytakeup as "anaffirmation
beings"(59). For
that"publicpolicyhasanimpactonrealhuman
a reminder
Dietz,it is notthefamilybutthepolis thathas beeneclipsed,and here
ofa collective
andtraditions
the"customs
anddefends
represents
Antigone
to
feminists
Dietzurgesmodern
civillife"(Dietz 1985,53). Accordingly,
"fora modelofthekindofbondwe
lookto a tradition
ofcivicfriendship
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1115
citizens"
(32)2.Finally,
might
expectfrom,
orhopetonurture
in,democratic
forZerilli, Antigone"refusesto forget. . . a repressedmatricidewhich
andpatriarchal
state"
hauntsthetermsofdiscoursein Creon'spatrilineal
thinkers
toreconsider
(Zerilli1991,256),andZerilliinvitescontemporary
theirvocation
"from
theposition
ofthewomanwhospeaksbutwhorefuses
inthehouse"(254).
toforget
ordenyhermaterial
origins
to an
Of course,thesethreethinkers
arenotuniquein takingrecourse
strategy
ofradicalfeminism
as
imagined
past,forsucha deviceis a frequent
wellas a wholevariety
ofnationalisms3.
However,
whilefeminists
havelong
ofsomeprepatriarchal,
pretyrannical
past,littleattendebatedthecharacter
tionhasbeendevoted
ofsucha strategy
for
to examining
theconsequences
andthe
feminist
thatis,to acttoreshapethepresent
vision,forourability,
in explicitly
I wantto suggestthatthisstrategic
reinfuture
feminist
terms.
femiofthepastdoesnotservefeminism
well,foritovercommits
statement
andreclamationist
rather
thana transformative
niststoa backward-looking
toresurrect
Antigone
as a modelfor
imagination.
In theirvariousattempts
norDietz,norevenZerilli,allows
contemporary
feminism,
neither
Elshtain
disruptive.
On thecontrary,
Antigone's
disruptive
courseofactiontoremain
inAntigone's
oforderthatechoesthepast,and
eachdiscovers
actsa register
oforder,
toreinstate
it
eachembraces
thatpastas a counter-principle
seeking
ofa feminist
as theground
redeemourpresent.
politicsthatmight
thinkers
is, as Nietzsche
The allureofancienttextsforcontemporary
to ourtimeand
putit,theiruntimeliness,
theircapacityfor"actingcounter
thereby
actingon ourtimeand,letus hope,forthebenefitof a timeto
come"(Nietzsche1983,60). Thefigure
ofAntigone
is a powerful
one,forit
witha setofpossibilities
nowforeclosed,
provides
contemporary
feminists
notyetcoma languageofpoliticsno longerin use,thoughimportantly,
ofminingthepastfor
pletelyforgotten.
Yet,howevermuchthisstrategy
criticalresourcesenablesElshtain,Dietz,andZerillito thinkoutsidethe
I amconcerned
thattheydo so inwaysthatunnecessarlimitsofthepresent,
thepast,elidingwhatis mostdistinctive
ily-and paradoxically-normalize
thepastforthepresent
riskslosingsightof
aboutit.Theattempt
torecover
theirinthatmotivated
theimportant
distinctions
betweenpastandpresent
an ancientheroineintothepresent
quiryin thefirstplace. By escorting
citizento reconstruct
to notethatwhileDietz marshallsthepastin hereffort
2Jtis important
betweenthestateanda patriarchal
oftherelationship
face,"herunderstanding
ship"witha feminist
WhereasElshtainandZerillisee
posedbyherinterlocutors.
different
thanthatorderis significantly
forDietzthe
ofthesamephenomenon,
expressions
as different
authority
centralstateandpatriarchal
linkedto,patriarchy.
riseofthestatemaycoincidewith,butis notintrinsically
3See forexample,Rich (1986), Lerner(1986), and O'Brien (1989). On nationalism,see
Bhabha(1990),Anderson(1991), andHengandDevan(1992).
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1116
A. Holland
Catherine
thembyitsstrangeness,
attracted
whatinitially
theymakefamiliar
moment,
thepastas theontological
pastwithpresentbyreasserting
assimilating
feminism.
forcontemporary
ground
feminist
politics,
a transformative
withdeveloping
Ifwe areconcerned
butdo not
andactinwaysthattakeplacewithin,
onethatenablesus tothink
we need
thepastorthepresent,
ofeither
andconstraints
theterms
reinstate,
of
a relation
toestablish
theabilityto viewthepastdifferently,
tocultivate
anditsunfamiliaritsstrangeness
withthepastinwaysthatretain
difference
helpsus toviewnot
we willfindthatsucha strategy
ity.In doingso,I think
as something
as strange,
as problematic,
onlythepastbutalso thepresent
ofpriorevents.
culmination
otherthanthegiven,logical,orevennecessary
ofall
charged
toforget
thatthemostpolitically
Forfeminists
cannotafford
is neibetween
pastandpresent
thattheconnection
is thepresent,
moments
of
butpolitical.As ithappens,thetragedy
therlogicalnorchronological
differthisandtothink
mayhelpus tounderstand
readdifferently,
Antigone,
politics
totransform
tothepastinourattempts
entlyaboutthewayweresort
inthepresent.
bothAntigone
thatwe trytounderstand
I wanttosuggest
Inthisregard,
in other,
moreradical-femicomestorepresent
and"thepast"itsheroine
actionsmaybe readas a mobilizaAntigone's
nistanddemocratic-terms.
itonceandfor
itbutinsteadrelegates
tionofthepastthatdoesnotreinstate
anidyllicpastas exemdoesnotso muchrepresent
all tothepast.Antigone
withit.Withtheseconsiderplifyherdistancefromit andherdifferences
century
ationsin mind,I wantto turnnowtotwotragiccyclesofthefifth
beforethecommonera (B.C.E.), Aeschylus'sOresteiaand Sophocles'
interpretations,
Thebanplays,toreadthemwithandagainstpriorfeminist
withwhich
and by doingso, examinemorecloselythetwoinstitutions
herhomeandhercity,
namely,
Antigone:
Dietz,andZerilliidentify
Elshtain,
helpus to despeechandcan,therefore,
foreachis centraltoAntigone's
ofherintervention.
velopa morecomplexunderstanding
2. THE HOUSE Is NOT A HOME
andthe
anancient
patricide
WhileSophocles'Oedipuscycledocuments
inmanywaysKingLaius's
ofthatmurder,
consequences
transgenerational
another
sagaoffamildeathatthehandsofhissonechoesandsupplements
theOresteia,revengeance,andjustice.Aeschylus'strilogy,
ial murder,
countsthestoryoftheHouse ofAtreus,therulingfamilyof thecityof
ofwomen'ssocial
alteration
andpermanent
Argos,anditmarksa profound
theOresteiaas thesymbolic
havelongidentified
status.Commentators
inthewest,a
ofkinship
ofa turning
pointinthesocialorganization
marker
whenmatribyconjugalright,
whentiesofbloodweresuperseded
moment
ofjusticeand
andpublicunderstandings
lineagegavewaytopatrilineage,
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1117
of womenfrom
aroundtheactiveestrangement
powerwerereorganized
"the
andpolis.4In bothcycles,womenmaybe saidtorepresent
bothfamily
forcesandvaluesofthepast"(Zeitlin1996,103),of a pastthatis relinArguofstateandsociety.
inthenameofa newform
quishedandrenounced
takeplaceon a concepintheThebesofAntigone
ably,theeventsdepicted
evenif,as we willsee,theOedipus
bytheOresteia,
established
tualground
ofkinshipin waysmorein
thetransformation
cyclerevisitsandreworks
withtheThebantradition.
keeping
openswithKing
The firstplayof theOresteiacycle,Agamemnon,
at theclose oftheTrojanWar,his
homecoming
victorious
Agamemnon's
atthebehest
Iphigeneia
-of
hisdaughter
byhissacrifice
secured
city'striumph
lures
toArgos,hiswifeClytemnestra
return
ofthegods.UponAgamemnon's
sacrifice.
himtoavengeIphigeneia's
himintoherhome,whereshemurders
Bearers,thesecondplayofthecycle,openswithClytemnestra
TheLibation
andcorrupting,
corrupt
inpower.HerruleoverArgoshasbecomethoroughly
Electrais conjustice.Herdaughter
toboththegodsandhuman
an affront
finedtothehome;hersonOresteshasbeenexiledfromthecity.Withthe
fromexileto avengehis father's
helpof thegodApollo,Orestesreturns
herlover.Thematricide
andAegisthus,
death,andhekillsbothClytemnestra
queen.
theancient
senttoavengethemurdered
femalespirits
conjures
Furies,
totrialin
Orestesis brought
In thefinalplayofthecycle,TheEumenides,
ofthe
bythepronouncement
Athens.DefendedbyApollo,he is acquitted
purgestheFuoverthetrial,andhisacquittal
goddessAthenawhopresides
cosmogony.
themintotheAthenian
riesoftheirangerandincorporates
depictedin theOresteiais strikingly
The symmetry
of themurders
herhusbandto avengethesacrificeof her
gendered-a womanmurders
to avengethedeathofhisfather-and
a sonmurders
hismother
daughter;
oftheseevents.Aeschylus's
implications
so, too,arethemytho-historical
formofsocialandpoliticalordepictsthefinaldaysofa particular
trilogy
ofnewforms
ofkinship
materialto a closebytheemergence
derbrought
thefigureof thefatherratherthantheties of (the
ized in and through
as ruler
blood.5Thisnewformoflawwhichelevatesthehusband
mother's)
in
hasdistinct
repercussions
andhousehold,
moreover,
overwife,children,
4See,forexample,Bachofen(1967), Engels(1981), Rich(1986), Irigaray(1985), andZerilli
(1991).
fromZerilli's.As I readtheOresteia,itis notso muchOrestes'sma5Here,myreadingdiffers
ofkinshipthataltersthestatusofwomenandestablishesa differtricideas Apollo'sreorganization
an ideal,iffisignifies
encefromthepriororder.I am less convincedthanZerillithatClytemnestra
who,in PeterEuben's words,
nal, instanceof femininepower:in "public" she acts as a tyrant
politicalspeech"(Euben 1990,73); in herown
"chokesthespace of publicactionby intimidating
(Aeschylus1979,
Electraputsit,she"insultsthename"ofmother
daughter
home,as Clytemnestra's
191-92).
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1118
A. Holland
Catherine
ofjustice
thetriumphs
realm,forit complements
thepolitical-philosophical
over vengeance,of logos over mythos,of futureover past (Zeitlin 1996,
111-12). Orestes'sacquittalat thehandsofAthenanotonlyjustifiesa matricidebutfullydisplaceswomenfromthepublicorder,reshapingthepubof theHouse and thehousehold.
lic throughan assaulton thetraditions
made in his defensebyApollo,
Orestes'sacquittalrestson a distinction
betweentherelativesignificanceof male
who insistsupon differentiating
and femaleparentswithrespectto theiroffspring:
ofthechild
Thewomanyoucallthemother
justa nursetotheseed,
is nottheparent,
seedthatgrowsandswellsinsideher.
thenew-sown
Themanis thesourceoflife-theonewhomounts.
keeps
fora stranger,
She,likea stranger
theroots.
theshootaliveunlessgodhurts
I giveyouproofthatall I sayis true.
a mother.
forth
without
canfather
Thefather
Lookourlivingwitness.
Hereshestands,
Athena]
[Exhibiting
Zeus,
fromOlympian
full-blown
Childsprung
ofthewomb
neverbredinthedarkness
1979,260-61)
butsucha stocknogoddesscouldconceive!(Aeschylus
a femaleparent'srelationto herchildas one ofa "stranger
By characterizing
of the
fora stranger,"
Apollo accomplishes a significanttransformation
themfromthefamilyand espestatusof women,estranging
mytho-cultural
themother'sclaimto herchild
ciallyfromtheirownprogenyby supplanting
the
of thelegal fictionof thepaternalname.6Significantly,
withthepriority
securingof a democraticformofjustice, and throughthatthepoliticalreofkinship,on thesubordinademptionofArgos,turnson thereorganization
tionof womento menwithintheHouse.
dead and Electramad,by theend of
WithIphigeneiaand Clytemnestra
emptiedof
the OresteiaboththeHouse and thepolis have been effectively
women.While the Oresteiais closed by a chorusofAthenianwomenwho
peace
outof thetheaterproclaiminga permanent
lead theway triumphantly
of a new orderof submissionto
thispassage as theinitiation
6Irigaray (1985) understands
and ... raise
"symbolicrulesthatmightbe supposedto carrythepotencyofbloodone stepfurther
to thetypesof laws in forcein thecity,"by elevatingtheFather'slaws,the
thefamilycommunity
Father'slanguage,and theFather'snameoverthemother's"powerof redblood" (216). Euben
from
ofmotherhood
as a redemption
ofthepassagedifferently,
theimplications
(1990) understands
view
theconventional
biologicalterms.As he suggests,Apollo "inverts
and exclusively
explicitly
insteadto womentheroleof hostess
thatmanbelongsto cultureand womanto nature,"granting
(xenos)(80).
(xene)to stranger
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1119
andan endtoall civilwar,thischorusofwomenis notably
notcoextensive
withthejuryofAthenian
citizens(exclusively
male)thathearsOrestes's
case andis empowered
topassjudgment
on him.AfterOrestes'sacquittal,
theLeaderoftheFuriesconfronts
Athena
withtheaccusation
thatherjustice
has renderedan olderorderarchaicand obsolete:"You, you younger
gods!-you haveriddendowntheancientlaws,wrenched
themfrommy
grasp"(266).Athenapersuades
theFuriestoacceptrecompense,
a newau"inthedepthsoftheearth,
thority
yoursbyall rights-stationed
athearths
equippedwithglistening
thrones,
coveredwithpraise!My peoplewillrevereyou"(267). The finalact of theOresteia,as FromaZeitlinargues,
"completes
thetransference
ofthepoliticalpower... whichClytemnestra
hadbrazenly
claimedinthefirst
play,totheritualpowerofthefemale"as
of theFuriesintoAthenianspirituallife
exemplified
by theintegration
inoriginal).7
(1996,113;emphasis
Briefly
put,underthecombined
ministrations
ofApollo'sdefenseand
Athena's
justice,womenaretransformed
intosomething
likeinternal
strangwithin
theHouse,andlikewise,
within
theCity.Therefore,
ers,strangers
to
understand
laterspeechas an effort
to confront
Antigone's
thecentralized
statewiththeinterests
ofeither
theHouse(following
orthedemoElshtain)
craticcitizenry
(following
thenature
ofthefulltransforDietz)is tomistake
mation
ofbotheffected
intheOresteia.
muchAntigone
However
mayarticulatea discourse
offamily,
herownrelationship
tothatdiscourse
is already
too
onbehalfoftheHouseofLaius.Insofar
complexforhertospeaksimply
as
theHouse,likethehousehold,
was the"visualsymbolofpaternal
heredity
whichentitles
sonstosucceedtheir
father
as proprietors
ofitswealth... and
as rulers
overitsinhabitants"
(Zeitlin1990a,131),Antigone's
"defense"
is of
thatis notherown.Putanother
something
theancient
Greek
way,although
household
mayhavebeenthedomain
propertowomen,
itremained
thepropandsymbolically.
ertyofmen,bothmaterially
Insofaras shemayspeakof
herHouse,shecannotspeakfor
it;sheis confined
totheHouse,butsheis not
itsrepresentative.
can Antigoneact as citizen.WhileDietz maybe
Neither,
however,
to suggest
right
takesactioninthepublicrealm,sheactsin a
thatAntigone
whichshehasno indespaceshemayfromtimetotimeoccupybutwithin
In theaftermath
ofthedevelopments
oftheOresteia,
pendent
the
standing.
womanwhospeaksin Greektragedy
in termsprovided
byeitherthepolis
orthehousehold
is neverquitespeaking
forherself
forsheis a stranger
to
both,thatis, shehas no positivegrounduponwhichto standwithin-or
71tis preciselythisdisplacement
of womenfrompoliticalto spirituallifethatis embraced,
considerably
later,by Hegel's as well as Elshtain'sdepictionsofAntigoneas theguardianof the
hearthandspokeswoman
forthePenates.
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1120
Catherine
A. Holland
without-either
ofthosespaces.SophoclesgivesvoiceinAntigone
to the
difficulties
encountered
bya womanwhoattempts
to speakandactwithin
anyorderthatcan,as theLane's havesuggested,
"recognizeonlymale
actors"(1982, 165).8How,then,can we understand
of
thesignificance
Antigone's
actions?If,as I wantto maintain,
Antigone'sspeechdoes indeedhavesomething
toteachus aboutthetransformative
of
possibilities
towhatendandfromwhatperspective
feminist
politics,
doesshearticulate
ofCreon?
herdefiance
WhileI agreewithZerillithatSophocles'tragedy
is caughtup,interwiththeeventsandthemes
intheOresteia,
I mustdiffer
textually,
examined
fromheranalysisofpreciselywhatit is thatoccupiesthespace of that
intertext.
Zerilli'sfocuson thematricide
ofinstalling
theobhastheeffect
andunalterable
jectofthatcrimeas theunaltered
subjectoffeminist
poliI amsuggesting
intheOresteia
tics.Bycontrast,
herethatwhatis significant
oftheground
is notso muchanoriginal
matricide
as itis thetransformation
ofpolitics.
normemorialize
thepastbut
Antigone's
actionsneither
reinstate
rather
resignify
it.Heractionsdo notpreserve
andrestore
butinsteadrefoofherHouseandhercity.InAntigone
cusandreorient
thetraditions
thereis
redemption
neither
ofnorfrom
thepast;rather,
thetragedy
showsus whatit
meanstodisclosea political
present.
Letmeturn,
then,
toAntigone's
House,
theHouseofLaius,andtohercity,theThebesthatis depicted
inAthenian
tragedy.
3. ATHENS'S THEBES
Ifitis all tooeasytomistake
Antigone
fora figure
whospeaksforsome
orprepatriarchal
familial,
pretyrannical,
past,thismaybe dueatleastinpart
totheplacethatAntigone
occupieswithin
hercity,andtheplace,moreover,
thathercityoccupiesintheAthenian
tragicimagination.
As Zeitlin(1990b)
ofthe
has suggested,
thecitiesofThebesandArgos,therespective
settings
in Athenian
Oedipusand theOresteiacycles,holdspecialsignificance
botharetheaters
nontragedy:
forthestagingofdistinctly
non-Athenian,
democratic
andtheir
fateful
Ofthethree
political
possibilities
consequences.
a middletermbecities,Thebesis byfarthemostcorrupt;
Argosrepresents
tweenThebantyranny
andAthenian
democracy.
Argos,as wehaveseen,may
be troubled
oftyranny
andcorruption,
butitis nonetheless
cabymoments
on womenin ancientGreeksociety
8AsCohen(1989) has pointedout,however,
scholarship
maypresenta distorted
pictureofwomen'sliveswhenitfocusesexclusively
on women'spositions
in thepolisandthehousehold,theveryinstitutions
withwhichI am concerned
here.Acknowledgingthatwomenhad no standing
in thepublicorderandweresimilarly
subordinated
to thewillsof
a socialspherethatenabledthem
meninthefamily,
Cohenarguesthatwomennonetheless
inhabited
ofactivities
toparticipate
in a widevariety
bothinsideandoutsidethehome.
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1121
thatOrestes'actionsaccomplish.
thekindofredemption
pableofachieving
those
Thebes,ontheotherhand,is byZeitlin'saccountbeyondredemption:
ofthe
inThebesaremiredina placewheretheendlessrepetition
whoremain
andforthisreasonZeitlindenominates
pastmakesescapingitimpossible,
Return"
(1990b,150)."TimeinThebes,"sheobThebesthecityof"Eternal
sinceitcannever
alwaysandagaintoitspointofdeparture,
serves,"returns
thatcanescapetheparadigmatic
andnewprogeny
newstructures
generate
over
rules"overthefuture,
ofthebeginning."
The "pastinevitably
patterns
ofdeparting
from
ofnewbeginnings,
overthecity'sprospects
thepossibility
(153).
repetition
itsendlesscycleofself-identical
and
andstate,ofidentity
thatthecrisesoffamily
It is no coincidence
in Sophocles'Oedidramatized
andfuture
citizenship,
andofpast,present,
pus cycleshouldtakeplace notin AthensbutThebes.The problemsat
inThebes'sauat theverybeginning,"
Thebes,as Zeitlinputsit,"started
infact,thatlie atthe
founding
(1990b,141).9It is beginnings,
tochthonous
only
onegeneration
problems
thatcyclethrough
heartofThebes'sproblems,
withAthenians,
andrepeatedbythenext.By contrast
tobe reconstituted
a breakfromthepastand
future
bynegotiating
whoimagined
a democratic
theirmythsof origin(duBois 1995,20-21; Dodds 1951),Thebansare
in theirownpast,unabletobreakwithit,unableto see
caughtperpetually
eventheneedtobreakfree.1I
Thebans
thepresent:
itsuffocates
politics.
InThebes,thepastsuffocates
andtheyadheretono canon
no viablepoliticalinstitutions,
havedeveloped
theyhavenomeansofengaging
oflaw (Zeitlin1990b,147).Consequently,
outsid"Unabletoincorporate
anddifference.
thetensions
between
identity
ofthe
ofthebloodrelations
andlockedintothepriority
ersintoitssystem
ofrigidinclutheextremes
shuttles
between
genos[clan],Thebesendlessly
on
ofdifference
ontheonehandandradicalconfusions
sionsandexclusions
theother"(148). In manyways,theproblemswithintheHouse ofLaius
to theThebanmythof origins,thecitywas establishedwhenCadmusslew the
9According
FromthoseseedsgrewtheSpartoi,who
dragonofAresandsowedhisteethlikeseedsintheground.
grownfromthe
thefivewho survivedbecameThebes'sfirstinhabitants,
weretornby infighting;
earthon theveryspotwherethecitystood.
analyzes
'l0n her discussion of Euripides's Ion, Dougherty(1996) very thoughtfully
myths
yetcontradictory
as a meansofengagingtheirsimultaneously-held
use oftheatre
Athenians's
Athethatinformed
oforiginandthetensionsentailedbetween,in thiscase,a mythofautochthony
analysis
Dougherty's
imperialism.
Athenian
andtheideologyofIoniathatjustified
niandemocracy,
and
betweenautochthony
questions,especiallyabouttherelationship
raisessomeveryinteresting
is also promoted
byAthenian
pages,autochthony
foras I will suggestin thefollowing
democracy,
inThebes.Although
itis a subjectforanofantidemocratic
governance
as theundergirding
tragedy
to be pursuedbythisauthor),itmaywellbe thatthemyth
otheressay(thoughone notnecessarily
potential.
andantidemocratic
containsat oncebothdemocratic
ofautochthony
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1122
A. Holland
Catherine
condense and contain the larger,more collective ills of the city.As, in
Antigone,theChorusintones:
ofthedeadofthe[HouseofLaius]falltimesI see thetroubles
Fromancient
releaseanother,
butsome
nordoesonegeneration
inghardupononeanother,
.... For
andtheyhavenomeansofdeliverance
oneofthegodsshatters
them,
andpastthislaw shallsuffice:
to noneamongmortalsshall
present,
future
(Sophocles1994,59-61).
disaster
greatwealthcomewithout
Indeed,it is in termsof thetale of Oedipus thatThebes's place in Athenian
tragedycan be broughtintogreaterfocus.
collapse all boundaries-spatial,temporal,
Oedipus's actionseffectively
as muchagainstthepolis as
and finallymoral-for his crimesarecommitted
theHouse. In patricide,Oedipus commitsregicideas well; in incest,he recirculateshis parents'sblood throughhis motheronce more,(re)producing
withinthenextgenerationApollo's originalcurse
in greaterconcentration
on his familyand his city.As Euben putsit,Oedipus "occupiestwo generationsat once" and thuslives not"in a progressof years,buton a coincident
plane of diachronyand synchrony"(1990, 113). Like his city,Oedipus is
husbandto his mother,he becomes his own father,and
self-engendering:
brotherto his own children.Thebes,thecitythat"respectsno laws or institutions"(Zeitlin 1990b, 147), and Oedipus, theman who "collapses space
and timeintoperversesingularity"
(Euben 1990, 103), come togetherin a
thatprivilegestheselfsameas bothorigin
sharedprincipleof reproduction
and incesthavein commontheideal of a selfand destination.
Autochthony
self-identical,self-continuous,
self-referential,
self-generating,
originary,
of beginningsthathas nowhereto go exand finally,self-enclosednarrative
point.Oedipus,a seekerof "a place where
ceptback to its originalstarting
he mightbe at home,wherehe mighttrulybelong"(Zeitlin1990b, 131-32),
findsin Thebes a place thatis at once too muchof and yetnotenoughof a
home-too muchbecause his "adopted" familyand cityturnout to have
been his originalabode all along; notenoughbecause in Oedipus's case the
embrace of thathome not only fails to bringhim redemption,but more
himintopreciselythosecrimesfromwhichhe mustbe redeeplyintroduces
deemed.Finally,it is AthensratherthanThebes to whichOedipus mustrefromhis crimes,and it is in AthensthatOeditreatin searchof redemption
pus, like Orestesbeforehim,gains thenecessarydistancefromhome that
enableshimto develophis sense ofjustice.
forAthenians,forthistheatEventsin Thebes are especiallysignificant
rical Thebes is the site onto whichAtheniansdisplaced theirdeepest and
mostprofoundconcernsabouttheirown polis; in short,Thebes represents
whatAthensmightbecome ifits citizensfailto engagetheproblemsof de-
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1123
mocracyin thoughtful
andcreativeways.I wantto suggest,as well,that
ofAntigone
holdsa specialsignificance,
within
Athens's
Thebes,thefigure
oftheThebantradition
inwaysthatcomforherspeechandactionspartake
plexlyreorder
them.
4. THEBES'S ANTIGONE
thedegreeto whichchangein a place
The Oedipuscycledramatizes
work,
likeThebesis as impossibleas itis unthinkable,
yetitsconcluding
aboutunthinkable
changeandthe
Antigone,
maybe readas a meditation
inwhichitmight
infactbe madepossible.In it,Antigone
andCreon
terms
eachproducea competing
discourseofkinshipandcitizenship,
offamily
a distinct
visionofthecity'sfuture
andpolis,andbydoingso eachpromotes
is
toalterthecourseofThebantime.In neither
case,however,
thatattempts
andDietz
thelanguageoffamily
as fullyopposedtothatofcityas Elshtain
difwouldhaveit,rather
theirrespective
discourses
negotiate-toradically
betweenthetwothatpertainsin
ferent
effect-thepeculiarrelationship
howAntigone
norCreonemergesvictorious;
Thebes.In theend,neither
toimever,whileCreon'sfailures
maybe seenas thedefeatofan attempt
workto different
failures
pose a whollyneworderon thecity,Antigone's
Thebesona foundation
of
effect.
WhereCreonfailsinhisattempt
torebuild
gendered,
Antigone's
speechandacdistinctions
thatarerigid,andrigidly
in novelways.
tionsdeploydifference,
sexual difference,
particularly
toclaimthatAntigone's
speechrecallswhatwemight
ThoughZerilliis right
thepastheractionssuggest
theposreinstating
callthe"old"ways,farfrom
tosetaside
ofa newbeginning
toThebanstheopportunity
andoffer
sibility
a pastthatis otherwise
inescapable.
ofJocasta,
ascends
Creon,sonoftheHouseofMenoeceusandbrother
to powerunderwhattheChoruscalls "thenewconditions
givenby the
whooversawthedefenseof
gods"(Sophocles1994,19)-as thewarrior
In hisopeningspeech,Creontracesthe
ThebesagainstitsArgiveattackers.
onwhichherestshisclaim:from
LaiustoOedipus,from
linesofsuccession
with
"byreasonofmykinship
OedipustoEteocles,andthenontohimself,
thesameterms
thedead"(19).YetCreoncannotassumepowerinprecisely
forthenature
ofCreon'skinship
totheHouseofLaius
as hadhisnephews,
itis affinal
thanancestral.
TheGreektextdenotesa break
is different:
rather
in Creon'sgenealogy,
a gapin lineagebetweenOedipusandhis
indicating
IntothisbreaktheLloyd-Jones
sonsontheonehandandCreonontheother.
thephrase,
"withmysisteras hiswife"(19). Thisinserted
inserts
translation
inCreon'sgenealogy,
thediscontinuities
overandobscures
passagesmooths
Theappearance
butitalsopointstowhatis novelaboutCreon'sneworder.
ofan unbroken
linefromLaius to Creon,is
ofcontinuity,
theappearance
withthelegal
oftiesofbloodandancestry
achievedbyCreon'sreplacement
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1124
Catherine
A. Holland
fiction
ofmarriage,
andhisneworderthusinstrumentalizes
kinshipas a
function
oflaw.
These"newconditions
givenbythegods,"butpronounced
byCreon,reofkinship:
notJocasta
buthermarriage(s)
gardwomenas passiveconduits
ofOrestesrelinkCreontoLaiusandhisHouse.Muchas Apollo'sdefense
womenas mere"nursetotheseed,"Creon'sneworderreliesupon
defined
theformalexclusionofwomenfrombothpoliticalandfamilialauthority.
theguardstoremoveAntigone
andIsmenefromthepublic
Commanding
hasbeenchallenged,
spaceinwhichhisauthority
Creondemands
that"from
nowonthesetwomustbe women,andmustnotbe on theloose"(59). The
howHousetowhichthesisters
areconfined
is nota placeoffemalepower,
notonlyinthecitybutintheHouseas well.
ever,forCreon'sruleis absolute
"there
is noworseevil
hissonandAntigone's
As hetellsHaemon,
betrothed,
Thisitis thatruinscities,thisitis thatdestroys
houses
thaninsubordination!
... In thiswaywe haveto protect
andwe mustneverallowa
discipline,
us"(65).11Ismene,
thedutiful
Creonas
womantovanquish
niece,recognizes
ofbothHouseandcitywhen,intheplay'sopeningscene,sheadpatriarch
whocannot
viseshersister
that"wemustremember
thatwearewomen,
fight
againstmen,andthenthatwe areruledbythosewhosepoweris greater"
defianceas a double
(11). Indeed,Creonseemsto experience
Antigone's
challenge
tohispublicruleandtohismanhood
atonce:"nowI amnoman,
butsheis a manifsheis toenjoysuchpoweras thiswithimpunity"
(47).
withtheruleoflawby
Creon'sneworderreplacestheruleoftradition
transforming
thetermsofkinship
andcity.In thenew
thatorganizefamily
Thebes,kinship
nolongersignifies
a sharedancestry,
butinsteadestablishes
thatdepend
thelinksthatrelatementooneanother
through
marriage-links
inandenforce
their
uponandformalize
women'spresence,
butalsorequire
in bothHouseandcity.Wherethelaw ofmarriage
visibility
linksmen,it
betweenmenand women.As the
also establishesjuridicaldistinctions
himselfas theenforcer
of a
founder
of thisneworder,Creonenshrines
wholeseriesofdistinctions
conferred
bythestate:womanandman,oldand
and
Creon'slaw seeksto simplify
new,deadandliving,enemyandfriend.
theThebes
thedensewebofrelations
andeventsthatcharacterized
untangle
all
ofOedipus'srule.ButwheretheThebesoftheHouseofLaiusmuddled
This
theThebesofCreon'smakingdrawsthemtooharshly.
distinctions,
thatarereallyoppomarked
neworderis tooorderly,
as itis bydistinctions
Creon'slaw,impervious
toreasitions,
politically
congealedinandthrough
orderwithin
holdsforth
at somelengthabouttheparallelnecessitiesformaintaining
11Creon
toCreon,headsofhouseholdandheadsofstate
According
thecityandobediencewithinthefamily.
andaccepting
no arguments
fromthose
no disagreement
alikemustmaintain
disciplinebytolerating
undertheircommand.See Sophocles(1994, 63-65).
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1125
evenwhenhe
is nevera friend,
orevendeath."Anenemy
son,humanaction,
(51).
is dead,"CreoninsiststoAntigone
andhisintransigence
hisoppositions,
himself
within
Creonimprisons
fosteronlyfailure.The godsdo notrewardCreonin his
andinflexibility
of
himpainfully
butinsteadremind
a neworder,
atimposing
brashattempt
as wellas tothosehehasdeclared
tofamily,
commitments
hisownaffective
It is notthelivingbutthedeadwho
traitors,
enemies,andtransgressors.
bringdownCreon'srule:onlyinlightofhisson'sand,later,hiswife'ssuiin theHouse.
cides does Creoncometo recognizehis owninvestments
withdeath,"
andfraught
mind,obstinate
ofmymistaken
"Woefortheerrors
Haemon'sbodybackintothecity."Ah,myson,young
bearing
he laments,
myfolly... ." (119).Bytheir
andnewlydead,alas,alas,youdied... through
ofCreon's
directly
at thefoundations
strike
deaths,HaemonandAntigone
marthrough
kinship
thepowerofthestatetoregulate
namely,
neworder,
of
theirmarriagenotwiththeimprimateur
riage,fortheyconsummate
Creon'sstatebutinstead"inthehouseofHades"(117).Creonis condemned
by
corpse"(111) reproached
ofkin,"ananimated
toliveouthisdaysbereft
whichtherecanbe noexpiation.
thedeadforcrimesfrom
a fundamentoridThebesofitscurse,Creoninitiates
If,inhisattempt
andofthestate,hisantagonist,
oftheHouse,ofkinship,
talreorganization
oftheoldways,as the
as thedefender
wellbe understood
might
Antigone,
The
byCreon'sneworder.
fora pastthathasbeensuperseded
spokesperson
speech
Antigone's
however,
is notwhether
question,
interpretive
important
andperhapscomrecallsthepast-indeed,herspeechcallsuponmultiple
new,something
something
howherspeecheffects
petingpasts-butrather
ineffect,
break
actions,
toAthens's
Thebes.Antigone's
unfamiliar
decisively
it.Her
thecyclicalcourseofThebantimeevenifherwordsseemtoreiterate
and
inwaysthatbothundercut
andsexualdifference,
actsdeploydifference,
ofhome
distinctions
andgendered
Creon'srigidsimplifications
overflow
thana
rather
effects
a departure
from,
andstate,andin doingso Antigone
of,thepastthatherspeechrecalls.'2
repetition
from
theeternally
repetitive
departure
Antigone's
difference,
Antigone's
of
inthevernacular
is carefully
articulated
spiralinwhichhercityis caught,
heractsentailbotha
hercity,herpeople,and theirgods. Significantly,
one thatsees AntigoneandCreonas equally
argument,
12Nussbaum(1986) makesa different
becausehe viewsall thingsand all persons
and guiltyofoversimplification-Creon
single-minded
valueto thegood ofthecity;Antigonebecauseshe is drivenby
onlyin lightoftheirinstrumental
to buryingthe dead. While Nussbaum is rightin sayingthat
a single-mindedcommitment
thecounselofferedby
Antigone'sresolveto buryherbrotherleads herto rejectunnecessarily
to
Ismeneand theChorus,Nussbaumfailsto notethecomplexnatureofAntigone'scommitment
butforall ofThebesandits
Polyneices,whichshedoesnotonlyforthesakeofherbrother
burying
gods.
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1126
A. Holland
Catherine
ofOrestes'intheOresteiaandofOedipus'inOeandaninversion
repetition
dipusat Colonus.Unlikethosetragicheroesbeforeher,bothofwhommust
to see thingsdifferently,
traveltoAthensto achievethedistancenecessary
in terms
Theban,articulated
findsa languagethatis specifically
Antigone
varidefends,
theplayAntigone
Throughout
toThebandiscourse.
internal
hercityanditscitizens,andtheirgods.13
herfamily,
ously,herbrother,
yetshe
oftheThebantradition,
theentirety
languagerestates
Antigone's
whatis mostfathepriororder.Rather,
shereassembles
doesnotreinstate
as wellas
inwaysthatheighten
itsstrangeness,
miliarinThebandiscourse
herown,foranywomanwhospeaks,whoactspubliclyin Creon'sorder,
tospeak
(Euben1997,166).Unabletoclaimtheground
acts"unwomanly"
comspeakshercity'stradition
foreither
theHouseorthepolis,Antigone
of
in terms
theironyandliminality
thatheighten
witha difference,
plexly,
tobothHouseandpolis.
withregard
herownposition
as shedoes,whereshedoes,inwaysthattransandacting,
By speaking
placeduponwomenintheTheban(as wellas theAthegressthelimitations
right
inaninstance
whereshehasnoformal
Antigone
interferes
nian)order,
as onewhoactswithout
heras a stranger,
orstanding.
Heractionsposition
on whichheractionstakeplace.As Creonputs
theground
fullyoccupying
differently"
it,Antigone
"act[s]apart"(Sophocles1982,128),she"think[s]
likensher(Sophocles1994,49) fromotherThebans;forherpart,Antigone
once marriedto a Thebanking
selfto Niobe, "thePhrygianstranger"
traditions
at
ofthemultivocal
(Sophocles1994,81).14Yetherdeployment
to
heras notanabsolutebutafamiliarstranger
workwithin
Thebesposition
alone,worktoopenup
undertaken
though
herownpeople,andheractions,
andrestore
publicspace.15
pointsin theplay.As she tells
at different
'3Antigonedefendseach of theseconstituencies
andyours,ifyouwillnot.I willnotbe caught
Ismenein theopeningscene,"I willburymybrother
andmy
mymother
beforesheis led awayto herdeath,sheproclaims,"with
him"(9). Just,
betraying
heractionsto Creon,
brother"
(87). In explaining
father
in Hades below,I couldneverhaveanother
"I wouldsaythatall thesemenwouldapprovethisif
shespeaksforherfellowcitizensbyclaiming,
that"I
itwerenotthatfearshutstheirmouths"(49). Finally,Antigonedefiesherunclebyinsisting
mortalas theywere,the
strongenoughto havepowerto overrule,
didnotthinkyourproclamations
ofthegods"(45).
andunfailing
ordinance
unwritten
ofTantalus,Kingof Sipylus.After
Niobewas thedaughter
14Accordingto Greekmythology,
capacities,shewas punishedbyApolloandArtemis,
progenitive
havingboastedabouthersuperior
who struckherchildrendead. As legendhas it,hersorrowturnedherto rockon MountSipylus,
to weepwhensnowmelts.
whichcontinues
151 takeissue herewithNussbaum's(1986) conclusionsthatAntigone's
actionsare solitary
Insofar
damning.
thisis notparticularly
thoughinNussbaum'sestimation
andwithout
publiceffect,
unlikeCreonsheharmsno one: "shemaybe strangely
as Antigoneactsalone,Nussbaumsuggests,
I wantto suggestthatif
remotefromtheworld;butshe does no violenceto it" (66). By contrast,
ones (thoughAntigoneherselfconteststhischaracterAntigone'sactionscan be said to be solitary
private
areneither
to hercause),theireffects
izationwhensheclaimsthatThebansare sympathetic
norindividual.
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1127
a lostpast,an old
notofreinstating
Antigone'sspeechhas theeffect
thedisbyCreon'sedicts,butofreorienting
orderthathasbeensupplanted
proofThebantraditions
tinctively
Thebanorder.Hercomplexreiteration
duceswhatFoucaultcalls a "minutedeviation"(1984, 81) fromthem,a
forhermobilithatinthiscase makesa worldofdifference,
tinydifference
ofthat
alterstheterms
immobile
pastfundamentally
zationofan otherwise
WhileZeitlin's
andfuture.
pastand,thus,thetermsoftheThebanpresent
ofThebesas thecityof "EternalReturn"(1990b,150-67)
denomination
of thatcityundertheruleof
description
appropriate
maybe an entirely
ofAntigone'sdeployLaius,Oedipus,andhis sons,it missestheeffects
whichlendsto heracts an irreducibleand
mentof sexual difference,
ways.A
nonsimpledimensionthataffectstheirmeaningin important
(thoughnot
unwomanly
actsin waysthatareexplicitly
woman,Antigone
limitations
manly),in waysthatcontestand defythehighlyconstrained
in waysthatcompoundandconfound
placeduponwomen'smovements,
ofgenderinCreon'sThebes.
theorderliness
cannotsimplybe lostin pastcrimes;
actslikeAntigone's
Unwomanly
with
offather
andsonorbrother
withpastrivalries
theycannotbe confused
and
Evenas hercondemnation
fortheyareconstitutively
nonsimple.
brother
insistence
uponsecurAntigone's
disavowalofhersisterechoesparricide,16
of
theeffects
oratleasttempers,
placein Hadesreverses,
ingherbrother's
another
actofparricide.
Further,
shedoesnot-cannot-claimthepowerof
theydo notesAs Eubenhasputit,heractionsare"an-archic":
thethrone.
tablishheras thenewleaderofThebes,nordo theyinstallheras theorigin
of a neworder(Euben1997,166). It is notuntilAntigone'sactionshave
herfrom
familiar
tostranger
thatthecurseofherHouse-and a
transformed
whois andbecomesa familcourseofactionsetintomotionbya stranger
both
iar-can be broken.WhereOedipus'sincest,his hyperfamiliarity,
groundlessness,
thepolis,Antigone's
strangeness-her
shapesanddestroys
ofCreon,hersuicide-repealstheOediherrhetorical
stance,herdefiance
if
toThebansthepossibility,
deathreturns
pal order.In theend,Antigone's
ofactingandspeaking
freedoms
doublyobliterfreely,
onlythepossibility,
ofOedipusandlaterofCreon.
first
atedbythetyranny
endlesscycleof
actionsbringto an endThebes'sotherwise
Antigone's
as herlife:shewholived
Herdeathstrikes
a noteas paradoxical
beginnings.
withthe
noras a shadeamongtheshades,neither
amongthemortals
"neither
friendless,
livingnorwiththedead"(Sophocles1994,83) is sent,"unwept,
wordsand
tomb"(83). Although
unwedded"
Antigone's
(85) toher"strange
Thebanterms,
theyproducefundaactionsareworkedoutin distinctively
into
another
fortheydo notintroduce
generation
different
effects,
mentally
forPolyneices'sburial,Antigoneall butdisto shareresponsibility
'6AfterIsmeneattempts
ownsher:"I do nottoleratea lovedone whoshowsherloveonlyin words,"(Sophocles1994,53).
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A. Holland
Catherine
1128
takeswithhertohergravethe
17Rather,
Antigone
thecycleofThebantime.
sheis "thelast"
House.Ofherdoomedfamily
curseonThebesanditsruling
translates
forAnti-gone
(87)18andinthissense,evenhernameis significant,
resides,
1975,156-57).Itssignificance
(Benardete
tomean"anti-generation"
of genderas Arlene
ofAntigone'srenunciation
notin itsannouncement
ofsexual
intheconnotations
butprecisely
(1992,69) suggests,
Saxonhouse
and,thus,recirfateis nottoregenerate
Antigone's
difference
thatitbears.19
the
havingrefused
todiechildless,
culatethebloodofherHouse,butrather
terms
imposedonthelifeofhercitybyboththecurseplaceduponherfamthatcurseandconquerthe
tovanquish
whoseactssought
ilyandbya tyrant
repetitive
cycleof
it.Heractionsbreaktheendlessly
godswhopronounced
herfrom
genostoxenos,a known
Thebancrimesandindoingso transform
onfamiliar
territory.
stranger
(ifnot,quite,a foreigner)
that-a
Dilemma"is precisely
(1986) calls"Antigone's
WhatHartouni
whereactionandinactionalikeharbortheconsequenceofnonsituation
ofinactionadvisedbyIsmene
thewomanliness
whereneither
innocence,
ofpublicactionoffer
by Creon,northe"unwomanliness"
anddemanded
cannotsurAntigone
If,unlikeOrestes,
anymeansofescapefromtragedy.
tobegin
toThebansnottheopportunity
viveherownacts,herdeathreturns
ondifferent
tobeginanewbycontinuing
theopportunity
yetagainbutrather
withCreonis thepossibility
dispute
byAntigone's
Whatis generated
terms.
ofa spacewe mightcall
ofthepastbutfortheclearing
notfora repetition
time,in itsprofound
whichappears"as ifforthefirst
thepoliticalpresent,
and divisions. . . ripewithpossibilitiesonce foreclosed"(Shuldifficulties
man1996,312).
5. A DIFFERENT "PAST"1?
forcontempois a valuableenterprise
Rereading
Sophocles'Antigone
becauseitsheroineshowsus how
precisely
politicalthinkers
raryfeminist
Antigone's"success" lies in thefactthatshe does not"win" herdisputewith
171ronically,
hadAntigonepersuadedCreonto allow herto buryher
Creon.Had eventsworkedoutdifferently,
and thusled to commitsuicide,thereis littlereasonto
hadAntigonenotbeenimprisoned
brother,
Antigone's
believethatthecourseofThebantimewouldhavebeenalteredat all. On thecontrary,
cycle
herfamilyandhercityintoyetanother
tohercousinHaemonwouldhaveintroduced
marriage
intoThebes'sendlesscycleofbeginnings.
ofThebantime,anda newgeneration
forhersisterIsmenesurvivesher.InsoAntigoneis not"thelast"ofherfamily,
'8Technically,
however,
she
ofpowerandkinship,
to Creon'sreorganization
faras Ismenehas alreadycapitulated
as, inthewordsof
herself
familyandthusnormalized
fromthisstrange
divorcedherself
has arguably
(Zizek 1989,117). FordiscusSlavoj Zizek,"thefigurewithwhichwe can [mostreadily]identify"
theater,
see Steiner(1996, 148).
sionofIsmene'ssurvivalin ancientmythandintwentieth-century
ofthefateof
Zeitlin(1990b, 152) readsthisonlyas an (inevitable)repetition
191nterestingly,
ofdeath.Saxonhouse(1992, 69), on theother
Thebes,evidenceof "Antigone's... overvaluation"
to"neuterherself'in herrehand,readsthisas evidenceofAntigone'srefusalofgender,an attempt
ofyoungThebans.
andgivebirthto a newgeneration
fusalto marry
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INTERPRETATIONSOF FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT
1129
a setof
we mayinnovate
from
within
a tradition,
howwe mayspeakthrough
languages
handeddowntous bydisciplinary
conventions
thatmaynotcomfortably
accommodate
feminist
politics,howwe mayemploythoselanguagesin waysthatdo notsimplyreiterate
ourownexclusionfromthose
butinsteadremakethemforthepresent.
In doingso, we use the
traditions,
pastnottolegitimate
ourspeech,notto establish
itas ourown,as an ontobutrather
logicalfoundation
from
whichwemayspeakandactas feminists,
to establish
ourpresent
as different
fromthepast,toputan endto pastinthatmakefeminism
appear
egalitarian,
exclusionary
doctrines
andpractices
impossible.
As
What,then,
coulditmeantotreatthepastas a relation
ofdifference?
I havetriedtosuggest
ofAntigone,
feminist
critics
through
myownreading
a canonoftextsandtextual
the
whomustworkwithin
practices
mayproduce
tothosemoments,
critical
as distinct
from
itspast(s)bylooking
those
present
inwaysthatare
those"historical
accidents"
wheredifference
texts,
emerges
thetradition(s)
inwhich
atonceirreducibly
complexandyetalsofullywithin
in thisregard,is butone exampleofmany.
theyreside.SurelyAntigone,
Feminist
politicalthinkers
maynot-indeed,do not-sharethesamerelatothe"languages
ofthepoliticaltheory
fathers"
as do ourbrothers,
tionship
andyetwe maynonetheless
a counterspeakthemtoproducea difference,
intheveryplacewheredisciplinary
current,
practices
mayseemtoassurethe
ofthesame.In thissense,we might
viewbothAntigone
andthe
continuity
canoninwhichsheresidesas a "pastfrom
whichwemayspring
disciplinary
rather
whichwe seemtohavederived"
1949,24).
thanthatfrom
(Nietzsche
Thepastis a powerful
andsuggestive
place,a placethatwe canneither
It showsus thatthepresent
can be
fullyescapenorstrategically
reinstate.
otherthanwhatitis orappearstobe,anditcanprovide
us withmanyofthe
toolsandthetermswe needto imaginesomething
different
from
radically
ourpresent.
Butifinturning
tothepastwe embraceitas thekeytothepoifwe seektoreestablish
itstermsas ourpoliticalpresent
in
liticalpresent,
thepast,andthuswerob
ourpolitical
weruntheriskofnormalizing
present,
itofitsdifference(s)-and
in doingso we deprive
ourselves
oftheveryindrawfromit.
sightsthatwe might
In verydifferent
ways,Elshtain,
Dietz,andZerillieachlooktosomeasto locatea space and a
pectof a past,and withthosepaststoAntigone,
stancethatcontemporary
feminists
mayreclaimas thegroundoffeminist
politicalspeechandaction.As HannahArendt
(1958,199-207)knew,however,thespacein whichpoliticstakesplacedoesnotprecedepoliticalacoffeminist
intobeingbyit.In thissense,theground
polition,itis brought
ticsneednot-indeed,cannot-besettled
uponinadvance.
us witha prepatriIfwe looktoAntigone
connect
fora linkthatmight
archalorpreauthoritarian
past,whatSophocles'heroineshowsus is thenethatlinkage,
oflearning
howtoengagethepast-and
cessityofsuspending
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1130
Catherine
A. Holland
howtovaluethepast-as a relation
ofdifference
lestwe,likethepeopleof
Thebes,collapsetemporal
distinctions
andbydoingso lose ourselvesas
turntothepast
wellas ourcapacitytojudgeandto act.Indeed,Antigone's
embodiedinherarticulation
ofa familiar
Thebanlanguagebringsthatpast
toitslongoverdue
terminus,
toa conclusion
thatrecallspastriddlesandpast
them.The artistry
ofAntigone'sreexperiencesevenas it reformulates
tofind
sponsetothecrisesofherHouseandhercityconsistsinherability
a "minute
deviation"
within
hertradition
themeansbywhichshecaneffect
fromit,andthuscultivate
a difference
in theveryplace wheredifference
interms
was oncemostimpossible,
oftheverylanguagethatmakesitmost
necessary.
three
"Whatseemstohavebeenforgotten,"
as Wolinreminded
us nearly
notbecausetheyarefamiliar
decadesago,"is thatonereadspasttheories,
andtherefore
butbecausetheyarestrange
proandtherefore
confirmative,
feminists
lookonlyformovocative"(1969,1077).If,inreading
pasttexts,
thepastto ourpresent,
we areboundto unmentsthathelpus assimilate
coveronlywhatwe alreadyhave in commonwiththosetexts,and we
tous.In doingso,we disregardengageonlywhatis already
mostfamiliar
andtoengagethe
indeed,weobliterate-important
opportunities
todiscover
ofsexualdifference,
withinthosetextsandwithinthat
playofdifference,
hisinquiry
intothemurder
ofKingLaius,we
past.LikeOedipusconducting
learnonlywhatwe already
recogknew,we encounter
onlywhatwe already
politics
nizeas ourown,andwe derivefromthepasta ground
forfeminist
so conthatconfirms
onlywhatis alreadygiven.Feminist
politicaltheory
ofvision,
ceivedis onlythentruly
impossible,
foritis a politicsdeprived
ofeachofitsconstitutive
feminism,
politics,
neglecting
thechallenge
terms:
theory.
28 February1997.
Manuscriptsubmitted
Final manuscriptreceived4 December1997.
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