Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
ISSN 2319-5991 www.ijerst.com
Vol. 2, No. 3, August 2013
© 2013 IJERST. All Rights Reserved
Research Paper
PHYSICAL PREPARATION OF ACTIVATED
CARBON FROM SUGARCANE BAGASSE AND CORN
HUSK AND ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Billy T H Guan1, Puziah Abdul Latif1* and Taufiq Y H Yap2
*Corresponding Author: Puziah Abdul Latif,  [email protected]
Sugarcane Bagasse (SB) and Corn Husk (CH) are examples of agricultural wastes being
generated in large quantities annually that can be converted into activated carbon that has the
potential to remove odorous gas pollutants. Activated carbons composed of a mixture of SB and
CH were prepared using the physical activation method. Initially, the SB and CH raw materials
were processed into pellets to maintain a uniform size and shape during activation. The activated
carbons were prepared by carbonizing the raw fiber pellets at different temperatures under a
nitrogen atmosphere for 2 h. This was followed by activation using air as a gasifying agent at
different activation temperatures for 40 min. Physical and chemical characterization of the
prepared activated carbons was performed. The activation temperature at 800°C gave the best
quality with respect to the porosity of the carbon. The highest Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface
area of 255.909 m²g–¹ was achieved by SBCHAC4.
Keywords: Agricultural waste, Activated carbon, Physical activation, Activation temperature,
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area
INTRODUCTION
Lee, 2005), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) (Duan et al.,
2006), and volatile organic compounds
(Sidneswaran et al., 2011). Besides activated
carbon, other types of adsorbents can be applied
in pollution control. Zeolites, polymers, silica gel,
and alumina are common examples of synthetic
adsorbents. However, due to the high production
cost of these synthetic adsorbents, there is a need
Traditionally, activated carbon was used to
decolorize sugar syrup in order to produce white
sugar. Nowadays, however, its application has
been extended to the treatment of a wide variety
of pollutants. Previous studies have shown that
activated carbon has the ability to remove gas
pollutants such as nitrogen oxide (NO) (Ao and
1
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia.
2
Centre of Excellence for Catalysis Science and Technology and Department of Chemistry, Faculty Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
for an alternative material that costs less and is
renewable and environmentally friendly. The
utilization of Agricultural Waste (AW) might be the
key to a healthy transformation. Each country
produces its own AW, which very much depends
on what kind of agricultural activity the country
engages in. In Malaysia, the annual production of
AW is approximately 1.2 million tons. Burning is
one of the common methods of disposing of AW,
and this has created problems in terms of air
pollution. Converting AW into activated carbon
provides an alternative disposal method and thus
indirectly reduces environmental problems. AW
can also be known as lignocellulosic waste,
because it has a high content of sulphur, nitrogen,
phosphorus, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin.
Although AW are biodegradable, they are difficult
to digest due to their lignocellulosic
characteristics. Some AW, such as corn cobs
(Bagheri and Abedi, 2011), mangosteen peel
(Devi et al., 2012), rice straw (Gao et al., 2011),
nuts (Kwaghger and Adejoh, 2012), rubberwood
sawdust (Prakash et al., 2006), durian shell
(Tham et al., 2011), and mango peanut shell
(Wilson et al., 2006), have been successfully
proven to be suitable precursors in making
activated carbon.
Emmett Teller (BET) surface area. On the other
hand, chemical activation is a one-step process
that usually involves the impregnation of materials
with dehydrating chemicals such as KOH, ZnCl2,
H3PO4, and ZnO prior to carbonization at a
desired temperature.
Sugarcane is a type of plant from the genus
Saccharum L. belonging to the grass family
Poaceae, while corn is a type of plant from the
genus Zea belonging to the same family as
sugarcane. The stalk from sugarcane is the most
valuable part of the whole plant. The juice extracted
from the stalk can be processed into many
products. Sugarcane Bagasse (SB) is the fibrous
material that is left behind when the juice has been
extracted. For corn, the most craved part of the
whole plant is the corn kernel. The hairy green
layers that envelope the kernel are known as Corn
Husk (CH). In Malaysia, large-scale sugarcane
plantations can be found in the northwest
extremity of Peninsular Malaysia, in the states of
Perlis and Kedah. Corn plantations in Malaysia
are not as large as those in the United States of
America at the moment. Nevertheless, Malaysia’s
largest corn plantations can be found in Simpang
Renggam and Pontian in Johor; these plantations
are both situated in the southern parts of
Generally, there are two methods of preparing
activated carbons: physical activation and
chemical activation. Physical activation is a twostep process that starts with the carbonization of
the materials followed by the activation of the
resulting char in inert (Ar or N2) or oxidizing
atmosphere (CO 2 or O 2 ) at the elevated
temperature range of 600°C to 1000°C. A study
by Yang et al. (2010) demonstrated that activated
carbons prepared using agents such as steam,
CO2 and a mixture of steam-CO2 with physical
heating process produced a high Brunauer
Peninsular Malaysia. The lack of information
regarding on the use of SB and CH as precursors
in the production of activated carbons prompted
the present study to prepare activated carbon from
SB and CH using the physical activation method.
This method was used because of the simplicity
of the process and the ability to produce quality
activated carbons in terms of the carbon porous
structure. The physical and chemical
characteristics of the prepared activated carbons
were determined.
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
MATERIALS AND METHODS
using a thermal analyzer (Mettler Toledo TGA/
STDA 851). Samples of known weights were
placed in ceramic crucibles and heated from 25°C
to 1000°C at a heating rate of 5°C min–¹ at N2
atmosphere.
Raw Material Preparation for
Characterization Studies
The raw SB and CH utilized in this study were
obtained from homegrown sugarcane and corn.
The raw materials were also collected at night
market in various locations in Negeri Sembilan,
Malaysia. They were washed several times to
remove the dirt and impurities present on the
materials, then the washed materials were dried
in an oven at a low temperature of 60°C for 24 h
to remove the moisture content. The dried
materials were then stored in a dry container in
desiccators until needed. The dried raw SB and
CH were finally sent for ultimate and proximate
analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and
Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) analysis.
Surface chemistry
The chemical compositions of raw SB and CH
and activated SB and CH were determined using
FT-IR spectroscopy (FTIR-200, Perkin-Elmer).
FT-IR spectra were obtained from all the samples.
Preparation of Activated Carbon
The dried raw SB and CH were subjected to
grinding using a conventional tooth claw grinding
machine. The ground raw SB and CH were mixed
according to the selected ratios stated in Table 1.
Table 1: The type of Mixing Ratios for the
Making of Each Raw Fiber Pellets (RFP) and
Sugarcane Bagasse and Corn Husk Activated
Carbons (SBCHAC)
Physical and Chemical Characterization
of Raw Material
Ultimate and Proximate Analysis
RFP
The moisture content was determined using the
direct wet-weight method, which is also known
as the gravimetric method. Samples of known
weights were dried in the oven at a temperature
of 105°C for 2 h until constant weight was
obtained. The standard dry-ashing method (ASTM
D 2974-87 standard test method C) was applied
to determine the ash content at which the raw
materials were ignited in an opened muffle
furnace at 440°C for 2 h. The ultimate analysis of
the raw materials typically involves the
determination of the percentage by weight (dry
basis) of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N),
and sulfur (S). This was carried out using the
CHNS elemental analyzer model (LECO CHNS932).
SBCHAC
Mixing ratios (%)
SB
CH
1
1
0
100
2
2
30
70
3
3
50
50
4
4
90
10
They were then inserted into a common
animal feed pelletizing machine to turn the endproducts into pellet form. The pelletized endproducts are called Raw Fiber Pellets (RFP).
Carbonization was performed in a horizontal
laboratory tube furnace (LT-furnace). The RFP
were carbonized at temperature of 500°C starting
from room temperature (27°C) for 2 h in N2
atmosphere (flow rate = 200 ml min –¹). The
heating rate was 5°C min – ¹. The furnace
temperature was maintained at 500°C, and the
carbonized RFP continued to activate in air
Thermal Analysis
The TGA curve for raw SB and CH was obtained
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
Analysis
atmosphere for 40 min at the same flow rate. The
carbonization and activation of RFP were
repeated at different activation temperatures of
600, 700, and 800°C. After that, the samples were
cooled to room temperature by flowing N 2
through the samples (flow rate = 200 ml min–¹).
Finally, the samples were kept in desiccators for
further use. The activated end-products are called
Sugarcane Bagasse Corn Husk Activated
Carbon (SBCHAC). The determination of the
porosity area was performed on the SBCHAC
made from different mixtures of SB and CH.
Subsequently, the SBCHAC that possessed the
highest BET surface area was selected for further
testing through Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX).
The physical and chemical analyses included in
this study were ultimate and proximate, TGA, FTIR, porosity, SEM, and EDX. Not all AW can be
used for the production of activated carbon.
Therefore, it is necessary to carry out ultimate
and proximate analysis to f ind out the
compositions of the raw SB and CH to determine
their suitability for carbon conversion. TGA is used
solely to determine the decomposition of material
as the heating temperature changes. FT-IR
provides information on the principle of adsorption
to remove pollutants by certain substances
present within the activated carbon. The
adsorption also depends on the porosity area. The
adsorption power of the adsorbent gradually
increases with a higher BET surface area of the
adsorbent. SEM is commonly used for observing
microscopic pores that exist on the carbon
surface. An activated carbon should have a higher
carbon composition than it had in its previous
form. Hence, EDX is important to determine the
carbon composition of the material to make sure
the carbon conversion is a success.
Surface Porosity
The SBCHAC was degassed at 290°C in a
vacuum condition for at least 24 h. The pore
structure characteristics, such as the specific
surface area, pore volume, and pore radius of
the samples, were determined from the nitrogen
adsorption isotherm measured using a
Micromeritics ASAP 2000 instrument at a
temperature of about 77 K. The specific surface
area was calculated using the BET method with
the analysis software available in the instrument.
The total pore volume was determined by
estimating the amount of nitrogen adsorbed at a
relative pressure (P/P0) of 0.95.
Table 2: Ultimate Analysis and Proximate
Analysis (Mean ± SE, n = 3)
Ultimate Analysisa
Carbon
Weight (%)
SB
CH
65.20 ± 1.70
51.24 ± 4.13
Surface Morphology and Composition
Hydrogen
5.94 ± 0.08
6.14 ± 0.41
The surface morphology, such as the surface
shape, pattern, and feature of the selected
SBCHAC and its precursor RFP, was observed
using JEOL JSM-6400 SEM attached with EDX.
Nitrogen
1.69 ± 0.08
2.48 ± 0.08
Sulfur
0.07 ± 0.09
0.21 ± 0.12
Moistureb
70.25 ± 1.17
85.22 ± 0.28
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Asha
27.93 ± 0.34
28.81 ± 0.20
The Importance of Physical and Chemical
Note: a – Dry basis; b – Wet basis
Proximate analysis
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
Raw Material Characteristics
the material. The second derivative peak
temperature was 343.78°C. The weight loss went
as high as 79.30%, which is about 10 times higher
than the weight loss that was recorded at the
earlier peak. At temperatures ranging from 350°C
to 500°C, the huge weight loss could be attributed
to the decomposition of organic components in
the raw material, such as cellulose,
hemicelluloses, and lignin. There was almost
zero weight loss when the temperature was
heated above 500°C, as the thermal curve shown
flattens.
As shown in Table 2, the ultimate analysis result
indicated that the carbon content in both raw
materials, i.e., SB and CH, was high. The carbon
content analyzed in SB was as high as 65.20%,
whereas in CH it was 51.24%. On the other hand,
the ash contents obtained from the proximate
analysis for SB and CH were about 27.93% and
28.81%, respectively.
The high carbon content associated with low
ash content demonstrated by SB and CH
indicates that they have the potential to be the
suitable raw materials for the production of
activated carbon.
Figure 2: TG Curve of Raw CH
TGA
The thermal stability of raw SB and CH was tested
by measuring the mass loss during a heating
ramp rate. The descending TGA thermal curve
Figure 1: TG Curve of Raw SB
Figure 2 gives the TGA curve for CH, showing
three stages of thermal decomposition behavior.
The first derivative peak temperature was
63.04°C. At temperatures ranging from 63°C to
300°C, the weight loss was only 7.91%. This low
percentage in weight loss may be due to the
moisture being released from the material. When
the temperature reached between 300°C and
550°C, a huge weight loss of 67.42% occurred.
The second derivative peak temperature was
524.98°C. CH is a type of lignocellulosic material,
just like SB, but it is slightly different in
composition. CH contains 39% hemicellulose,
26.5% cellulose, and 11.6% lignin (Garlock et al.,
2009). On the other hand, SB comprises 24%
of SB from Figure 1 indicates the occurrence of
weight loss.
Two stages of thermal decomposition behavior
were found despite two derivative peaks in
temperature in the TG curve of SB. The first
derivative peak temperature was 53.18°C. About
7.98% of weight loss occurred in the temperature
ranging from 53°C to 350°C. The weight loss
might be due to the moisture being dried off in
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
adsorbent is essential so that the adsorbent can
be optimally utilized to remove hazardous gas
pollutants through adsorption. For example, the
acidic functional groups on the carbon surface,
such as hydroxyl and carbonyl on the surface,
are able to attract ammonia molecules (Takashi
et al., 2006).
hemicellulose, 34.5% cellulose, and 22% to 25%
lignin (Lee et al., 2009). At high temperature, the
weight loss may due to the breakdown of
hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. No weight
loss was detected when the temperature rose
above 550°C as the curve started to flatten into a
straight line. Finally, the line slopes downward,
and the third derivative peak temperature of
647.55°C can be observed. About 4.53% of the
weight was lost at the temperature between
600°C and 740°C. This unusual weight loss was
probably due to the strongly bonded lignin residue
in the material. Lignin is complex and is resistant
to degradation, and thus high heat may be
required to break it apart. Above 740°C, there was
almost no weight loss. As a result, the activation
temperature of 800°C was suggested for both
raw materials from the TG study, since both
curves show a straight line, which means a stable
state. Therefore, no remains could be found at
the heating temperature of 800°C.
Effects of Activation Temperature on Pore
Characteristics of SBCHAC Derived from
Different Mixing Ratios of SB and CH
Activation temperature is one of the crucial
factors that can affect the physical porous
structure of the prepared activated carbon. The
details of the pore characteristics shown in Table
4 indicate that the development of pores in the
carbon corresponded to the different activation
temperatures used. For example, SBCHAC4
demonstrates that the BET surface area,
micropore volume, and total pore volume
increase with temperatures from 500°C to 600°C
and from 700°C to 800°C. It is clear that among
the activation temperatures, that of 800°C gave
the best development of pores in the activated
carbon. This indicates that heat treatment does
favor the development of pores in the carbon. On
the other hand, further increases of temperature
showed a reduction of average pore diameter.
This may due to the contraction of the new pores
forming and thus to the narrowing of the pores.
Note that the surface area of SBCHAC4
increased drastically from 1.422 m² g–¹ at 500°C
to 146.093 m² g–¹ at 600°C. However, the surface
area decreased to 0.609 m² g–¹ at 700°C. At higher
temperatures, such as 700°C, more ash is
produced since the burn-off rate is higher, and
this might be the factor that contributes in the
reduction of surface area (Tham et al., 2011). The
surface area further increased to 255.909 m² g–¹
at 800°C. Table 4 shows the results of the porosity
Surface Chemistry
FT-IR spectroscopy is an important method to
determine the presence and absence of particular
bands of functional groups. The instrument used
was able to record spectra from wave numbers
of 4000 to 280 cm–¹. Spectrum is produced as a
result of the absorption of infrared radiation. The
functioning group is determined based on the
interpretation of the infrared spectrum obtained
by comparing it with the standard spectrum group
frequencies. Table 3 lists the functional groups
that may generally be present in raw SB and CH
and activated SB and CH at 800°C.
Figures 3 and 4 show the infrared spectra for
raw SB and CH, respectively, while Figures 5 and
6 show the infrared spectra of the activated SB
and activated CH, respectively.
The presence of the functional groups in the
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
Table 3: Surface Functional Groups
Sample
Spectrum Wave Number (cm–¹)
Functional group
Raw SB
3619,
3527.07,
3445.45,
3320.95,
3207.05
3320.95
Hydroxyl (O-H, diametric O-H,
& N-H stretch)
Alkyne (C-H bend)
Reference
Demiral et al., 2011 and
Yang et al., 2010
Coates, 2000
3138.79,
3172.63
Inorganic
3039.74
Alkene (C-H stretch, C-H in-plane bend,
& cis- or trans-C-H stretch)
2597.32,
2553.88,
2159.82,
663.71,
480.94
Thiols (S-H, S-CN, C-S, & S-S stretch)
1205.3
548.04
Hetero-oxy
Organohalogen (C-I stretch)
2954.81,
2915.85,
2856.85
Aliphatic or alkyl
(methyl & methylene)
1932.42,
1735.55
Carbonyl (C=O
stretch)
774.61
Aromatic
Raw CH
3645, 3568.47, 3319.79
3645, 3568.47
3319.79
3130.64
754.82, 603.69, 553.08
2902.58
2558.72, 439.38
2178.21, 2004.24
3319.79, 1203.39, 1032.02
1546.55, 1032.02
Hydroxyl (O-H stretch)
Coates, 2000
Carbonyl (COOH stretch)
Alkyne (C-H stretch)
Aromatic (C-H stretch)
Organohalogen (C-Cl, C-Br, & C-I stretch)
Aliphatic (asymmetric & symmetric C-H stretch)
Yang et al., 2010
Thiols (S-H & S-S stretch)
Inorganic
Amino (N-H & C-N stretch)
Hetero-oxy (nitrogen-oxy, silicon-oxy,
Barkauskas and Dervinyte,
& phosphorus-oxy)
2004
Activated SB
3639.22
3353.61
3198.81
3037.09
2556.67, 2166.98, 2037.22, 460.20
1109.59
567.26
870.60, 806.20, 751.26
3315.13
Hydroxyl
Amino
Inorganic
Alkene
Thiols (-SCN, -NCS & S-S stretch)
Hetero-oxy (Si-O-C)
Aliphatic (C-I stretch)
Aromatic (C-H out-of-plane bend)
Hydroxyl,
carbonyl,
amino,
or alkyne
Aliphatic
Thiols
Inorganic
Activated CH
2902.46
2566.63
2177.94
Yang et al., 2010
Coates, 2000
Olivares-Marín et al., 2012
Coates, 2000
Bouchelta et al., 2008
Coates, 2000
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Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
Table 3 (Cont.)
Sample
Spectrum Wave Number (cm–¹)
Functional group
1033.23
554.39
1417.17
753.66, 1587.34, 871.49, 809.35
Hetero-oxy
Organohalogen
Alkene (vinyl C-H in-plane bend)
Aromatic (C-H, C=C, N=N, &
C-H out-of-plane stretch)
Figure 3: FT-IR Spectra for Raw SB
Reference
Swiatkowski et al., 2004
Figure 4: FT-IR Spectra for Raw CH
Table 4: Pore Characteristics of SBCHAC Derived from Different Mixing Ratios
at Different Activation Temperatures (n=1)
Activation
temperature
Type
of
BET
Surface Area
M icropore
Volume
Total
Volume
Av erage
Pore
(°C)
SBCHAC
(m²g –1 )
(cm³g –¹)
(cm³g–¹)
Diameter (Å)
500
1
0.000
0.014
-0.425
62.593
2
0.000
0.011
-3.055
48.261
3
12.452
0.053
-11.132
21.684
4
1.422
0.009
1.287
32.770
1
41.359
0.031
20.603
17.078
2
102.469
0.034
39.91
17.098
3
99.738
0.029
37.91
17.059
4
146.093
0.032
53.88
19.144
1
0.951
0.014
0.911
24.615
2
0.414
0.013
0.220
62.414
3
13.511
0.014
5.981
15.306
4
0.609
0.008
-0.529
39.256
1
167.218
0.049
63.440
17.105
2
137.176
0.043
53.338
17.105
3
135.713
0.017
46.256
17.098
4
255.909
0.027
91.641
17.125
600
700
800
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
that can be converted into activated carbons with
good physical and activity properties. Among the
AW, SB and CH have the fourth highest yield of
activated carbon produced. However, the
activated carbon generated from SB and CH has
the least BET surface area, which might be due
to the different activation method, temperature,
and time applied (Abdullah et al., 2001). The
carbon yield is influenced by the different activation
conditions used (Qureshi et al., 2008).
of the SBCHAC made from different mixtures of
SB and CH. Among them, SBCHAC4 apparently
possesses the best quality in terms of its porosity
characteristics. SBCHAC4 prepared at 800°C is
more preferable to the others for mass production
because it possesses a higher BET surface area.
In other words, it has higher adsorption sites for
molecules to attach onto the surface of the
carbon. Therefore, SBCHAC4 prepared at 800°C
Figure 5: FT-IR Spectra of Activated
SB Produced at 800°C
SEM and EDX Analysis
The microstructures of SBCHAC4 prepared at
800°C and its precursor RFP4 were investigated
under SEM because of the high BET surface area
of SBCHAC4. Figure 7 shows
microstructures of RFP4 and SBCHAC4.
the
For RFP4, under a magnification of 500, the
surface exhibited a poorly developed and loosely
packed structure with no visible exact shape. The
pores within the RFP4 structure were little and
scattered. The image of SBCHAC4 after heat
Figure 6: FT-IR Spectra of Activated
CH Produced at 800°C
treatment at 800°C shows a well-developed and
closely packed structure accompanied with many
thin sheets or layers. Under a magnification of
500, pores can be seen between the layers within
the SBCHAC4 structure. The difference in
composition for RFP4 and SBCHAC4 was
determined using EDX.
Table 6 shows the results. The determined
element content includes carbon (C), oxygen (O),
and other elements. Among the elements, those
that should be mainly focused on are the carbon
and oxygen content. An activated carbon will
was chosen for the subsequent studies, which
are SEM and EDX analysis of the carbon.
usually have a higher carbon content than the
starting precursor. In this case, the carbon
content is 61.67% for RFP4, whereas the carbon
Table 5 compares the characteristics of
activated carbon produced in this work with other
types of raw materials and the many potential AW
content increased to 87.49% after the activation
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
Table 5: Comparison of Preparation and Characteristics of Activated Carbon
from this Work With Other Studies
Act a
Tool
Temp b
T im e
BET
Surface
Area
(m2g–1)
Physical
Laboratory
800°C
40 min
256
29.73
(N2 and
tube furnace
750°C
60 min
724
49.95
700°C
60 min
322
23.37
750°C
30 min
523
n/ac
750°C
180 min
587
15.90
550°C
120 min
479
n/ac
800°C
45 min
n/ac
15.00
n/ac
880°C
60 min
948
30.50
Physical
High-
800°C
120 min
484
16.00
(N2 and
temperature
steam)
furnace
900°C
210 min
2288
37.50
Reference
Raw
M aterial
Act a
M ethod
Present
Corn husk and
wor k
sugarcane
bagasse
air)
Jute stick char
Physical
Stainless steel
(N2 and
horizontal tube
steam)
reactor
Asadullah
et al., 2007
Bouchelta
Date stone
et al., 2008
Physical
Tubular
(N2 and
furnace
Yield
(%)
steam)
Demiral et
Olive bagasse
al., 2011
Physical
Vertical tube
(N2 and
furnace
steam)
Khezami et
Firewood
al., 2007
Physical
Stainless steel
(N2 and
vertical
CO2)
cylindrical
reactor
Physical
Horizontal
Marína et
(N2 and
tubular furnace
al., 2012
air)
Olivares-
Cherry stones
Qureshi et
Sugarcane
Physical
Cylindrical
al., 2008
bagasse
(N2 and
shaped reactor
steam)
Sun and
Rubber-seed
Physical
Jiang, 2010
shell
(N2 and
steam)
Toles et al.,
Almond shell
2000
Yang et al.,
2010
Coconut shell
Physical
Mic rowave
(N2 and
tubular furnace
CO2)
Note: a – Activation; b – Temperature; c – Data not available.
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
Table 6: Elements in the RFP4 and SBCHAC4 from EDX analysis (mean ± SE, n = 3)
M aterial
Elements (%)
C
O
Others
Total
RFP4
61.67 ± 0.88
37.29 ± 0.70
1.20 ± 0.47
100
SBCHAC4
87.49 ± 1.83
11.00 ± 1.52
1.58 ± 0.46
100
Figure 7: SEM Image: (a) RFP4 image (× 500 times); (b) SBCHAC4 image (× 500 times)
(a)
(b)
process for SBCHAC4. This phenomenon is due
CONCLUSION
to the organic substances inside the carbon
Undeniably, SB and CH are potential precursors
for preparing activated carbons because of their
high carbon and low ash content. The porosity
test revealed that activation temperature plays an
important role in determining the quality of the
carbon. The carbon with the highest BET surface
area was obtained by activating the precursor at
800°C, as suggested by the thermogram in TGA.
In addition, the prepared activated carbon showed
a satisfying micropore carbon characteristic
despite the average pore diameter being within
the diameter range of 10 to 100 Angstroms. The
air-activated SBCHAC had an edge over other
types of activated carbon prepared from different
types of precursors with respect to the carbon
yield. Here, an SBCHAC carbon yield of 29.73%
matrix becoming unstable and forming liquid and
gaseous substances during the activation
process at high temperature (Chowdhury et al.,
2012). The oxygen content is also an important
aspect, because it can form surface oxygen
functional groups, such as carboxylic acid and
carbonyls that have an impact towards the
adsorption process (Hua and Pendleton, 2011).
For SBCHAC4, since the average pore diameter
was within the diameter range of 10 to 100
Angstroms (Å; Angstrom = 1.0 × 10 –10 ),
micropores mostly existed in the carbon structure
(Richards, 2000).
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Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013
Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013
of methane on corn corbs based activated
Carbon”, Chem Eng Res Des., Vol. 89, No.
10, pp. 2038-2043.
was achieved. In terms of its chemical properties,
the type of functional groups present on the
surface of the carbon was identified based on
the spectra obtained from FT-IR analysis. It was
found that there are quite a number of functional
groups, such as hydroxyl (C – OH), carbonyl (C
= O), and hetero-oxy (X = O), that can form
surface oxides. Surface oxides can influence the
gas adsorption process in the carbon. Thus,
SBCHAC possesses the required characteristics
as an applicable adsorbent for treating a variety
of gas pollutants in the future.
5.
Barkauskas J and Dervinyte M (2004), “An
investigation of the functional groups on the
surface of activated carbons”, J Serb
Chem Soc., Vol. 69, No. 5, pp. 363-375.
6.
Bouchelta C, Salah Medjram M, Bertrand
O and Bellat J P (2008), “Preparation and
characterization of activated carbon from
date stones by physical activation with
steam”, J Anal Appl Pyrol., Vol. 82, No. 1,
pp. 70-77.
7.
Chowdhury Z Z, Mohd. Zain S, Atta Khan
R, Arami-Niya A and Khalid K (2012),
“Process variables optimization f or
preparation and characterization of novel
adsorbent from lignocellulosic waste”,
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Coates J (2000), “Interpretation of infrared
Spectra, a practical approach”, in Meyers
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9.
Demiral H, Demiral Ý, Karabacakoðlu B
and Tümsek F (2011), “Production of
activated carbon from olive bagasse by
physical activation”, Chem Eng Res Des.,
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Devi A S, Abdul Latif P, Tham Y J and Yap T
Y H (2012), “Physical characterization of
activated carbon derived from mangosteen
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Duan H, Koe L C C, Yan R and Chen X
(2006), “Biological treatment of HS using
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express their sincere thanks to
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Malaysian
Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) for the
financial support given to this research (03-0212-1739RU).
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