CHAPTER - II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The review of literature is an essential step to get a full picture of what was
done with regard to the problem under study. This brings about a deep and clear
perspective of the overall field. Literature in any field forms the foundation upon
which future work will be built. It is a necessity one to formulate such a review of
various works of scholars. The collected reviews bring out a deep insight and clear
perspective of the overall field in such reviews. Such collected reviews have been
presented in logical order, in order of importance and in sequence of merit, in such a
way, for having the features of this appropriate heads for easy reference and to
understand the present trends in the area of present study. This chapter is a step to get
full picture of what has been done and said with regard to the problem under study.
The review of literature is given as follows.
2.0. STUDIES ON PLAYERS PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Kirkcaldy (1982) evaluated the personality and sex difference related to
positions in team sports. Athletes were administered personality inventory. The attacking
positions scored higher on psychoticism and extroversion as compared to middle field
players. The defenders showed more stable patterns than the offensive players.
The female attacking players were less extroverted and more neurotic than players
from other position.
Mann and Sandhu (1990) conducted a study on the adjustment of non
players, who were representatives from 202 universities, grouped into individual
sports athletes and team sports athletes, with the help of AICS. The athletes from
individual sports (n = 88), were drawn from athletics, boxing, gymnastics, wrestling
cross country race and weight lifting, while the team athletes (n = 114) were from
football, hockey, handball, basketball, kabaddi and volleyball. The team sports
athletes showed a better adaptation adjustment than the individual sports athletes.
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Raglan (2001) that as an athlete‟s mental health either worsens or improves
performance should fall or rise accordingly, and there is now considerable support for
this view. Studies have shown that between 70 and 85% of successful and
unsuccessful athletes can be identified using general psychological measures of
personality structure and mood state, a level superior to chance but insufficient for the
purpose of selecting athletes. Longitudinal MHM research indicates that the mood
state responses of athletes exhibit a dose-response relationship with their training
load, a finding that has shown potential for reducing the incidence of his staleness
syndrome in athletes who undergo intensive physical training.
Mc Carthy and Kelly (1978) studied a relationship between aggression and
performance among hockey players. With certain penalties used as a measure of
aggression, two groups of male college ice hockey players were compared for
differences in goals and assists. Those rated high in aggression scored significantly
more goals than those low in aggression. The direction of differences in assists was
the same but did not reach significance. When the same groups were compared for
shots on goals, significant differences were found, favoring the high aggressive group.
Attempts to relate performance and personality measures were not successful when
comparison on a self-report measure of anger was analyzed.
Pinter et.al., (2007) conducted a study to determine if there was a significant
difference between measures of ambition, perseverance, self-esteem, and power
motive between non-athletes and athletes, and also between different sports such as
soccer, volleyball, basketball, softball, baseball, football, track/cross country, and
cheerleading. The two experiments gave contracting results when done among group
leaders with interactions between individuals in a mixed-motive setting. Consistent
with the idea that being accountable to the in group implies normative pressure to
benefit the in-group, experiment I found that accountable leaders were more
competitive than individuals. Consistent with the idea that being unaccountable to the
in-group implies normative pressure to be cooperative and that high guilt proneness
provides motivation to be moral, experiment II found that when guilt proneness was
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high, unaccountable leaders were less competitive than accountable leaders and did
not differ significantly from individuals. In other words, the robust inter individualinter group discontinuity effect was eliminated when groups had unaccountable
leaders who were high in guilt proneness.
Uppal and Gill (1986) compared the psychological profile of twenty
males/females Junior National level Badminton players with that of twenty female
entrants to the Bachelors Degree course in physical education. The badminton players
were found to be significantly higher on factors A (outgoing), C (emotionally),
E (Assertive), F (Happy-Go-Lucky), L (Hard to fool) and Q (Analytical) than the
physical education entrants. In all other cases normalcy was reported.
Teipel (1989) individual and team performance in soccer is highly dependent
on the technical and psychological abilities of the individual players. Successful
behavior in specific game situations must be systematically taught and learnt in a
long-lasting process. In general, successful behaviour comprising the process of
anticipation is determined by problem analysis, decision making and evaluation of the
selected section. In that way decision making depends on time related complex,
perception of space as well as of movements of the ball, the opponents and the team
mates. In this study decision making of soccer players from high and low skill levels
is analyzed. A sample of professional players and a sample of low amateur players
evaluated thirty game scenes on a monitor in a laboratory situation with respect to the
expected action of the ball-leading players. The results show that at least in one third
of the thirty scenes significantly differ in decisions between professional and amateur
players. The professional players tend to prefer individual rather than group or team
related technical and tactical actions. The evaluation of the effectiveness of the
selected actions in the professional players in the most scenes is slightly higher than
in the amateur players. These findings are discussed with respect to the different skill
learning and aspects of decision making of professional and amateur players.
Radha and Powan (1995) studied the selected psychological variables
namely anxiety, aggression, motivation and personality traits in relation to Basket ball
performance. The psychological factors, aggression is highly correlated with the
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playing ability (r =.941). Further, it is noted that the coefficient of multiple correlation
(r =.981) revealed that psychological factors put together play in important role an
basketball performance.
Dureha (1995) administered the Kamlesh Sports Achievement motivation
test, and Rainer Martins Sports Competition Anxiety Test (Adult Form) to find out
achievement motivation and pre-competition anxiety among Indian inter varsity
hockey players and to compare high and low pre-anxiety competition anxiety group
on achievement motivation. It was concluded that there is a significant relationship
between achievement motivation and pre-competition anxiety of hockey players and
significant difference in the level of achievement motivation of high and low precompetition anxiety group of Indian inter varsity level male hockey players.
Bhuller (1991) conducted a study on five groups of sports women specializing
in hockey, hand ball, basket ball, cricket and volley ball, by using 16 PF questionnaires.
The results of inter group comparison with the help of t-ratio revealed that hockey
group was characterized by being emotionally stable (c) assertive (e) tough minded
(e) lively (f) and venturesome (g). The hand ball group was venturesome (h) like
hockey players. The traits of volley ball group observed were e (Mild), f (Sober), and
h (Shy), cricket group excellent were a (Outgoing) and volley ball were (Venturesome).
All the five groups in spite of differences in games had basically some common traits.
Lemmink et.al., (2004) to determine the reliability of two field hockeyspecific tests: the Shuttle Sprint and Dribble Test (Shuttle SDT) and the Slalom Sprint
and Dribble Test (Slalom SDT). The shuttle sprint and dribble performances of 22
young male and 12 young female field hockey players were assessed on two
occasions within 4 weeks. Twenty one young female field hockey players took part in
the Slalom SDT twice in a four week period. The Shuttle SDT required the players to
perform three 30-m shuttle sprints while carrying a hockey stick alternated with short
periods of rest and, after a 5-minute rest, three 30-m shuttle sprints alternated with
rest while dribbling a hockey ball. The Slalom SDT required the players to run a
slalom course and, after a 5-minute rest, to dribble the same slalom with a hockey
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ball. There were no differences in mean time scores between the two test sessions.
The mean differences were small when compared with the means of both test
sessions. With the exception of the slalom sprint time, zero lay within the 95%
confidence interval of the mean differences indicating that no bias existed between
the two measurements. With the exception of delta shuttle time (0.79), all intra class
correlation coefficient values for the Shuttle SDT, met the criterion for reliability of
0.80. Intra class correlation coefficient values for Slalom SDT were 0.91 for slalom
sprint time, 0.78 for slalom dribble time, and 0.80 for delta slalom time. This study
shows that the Shuttle SDT and the Slalom SDT are reliable measures of sprint and
dribble performances of young field hockey players.
2.1. STUDIES ON MENTAL TOUGHNESS
Loehr (1982) defines mental toughness in sport as the ability to perform well
under pressure. In essence, the mentally tough athlete is one who consistently performs to
his potential, even under adverse conditions. A problem for some competitive athletes is
that they never know whether today would be a "good day" or a "bad day."
Lazarus & Folkman (1984) In order to cope with negative outcomes, a
person must believe that failure is not permanent and that the capability for successful
performances still exists. This ability to understand that failure does not imply a
permanent incapability is related to the concept of resiliency. A resilient person may
fail on the first attempt at a task but continues to strive till he succeeds. Resiliency is a
term that generally means achievement in the face of adversity
Adam (2009) to hypothesize that there would be significant differences in mental
toughness among athletes of different: (a) achievement level, (b) gender, (c) age, (d)
sporting experience, and (e) sport type (team vs. individual and contact vs. non-contact
sports). Participants were 677 athletes who were competing at international (n = 60),
national (n = 99), county (n = 198), club/university (n = 289), and beginner (n = 31)
levels. Results revealed a significant relationship between mental toughness and gender,
age, and sporting experience. However, achievement level and the type of sport an athlete
participated in were not significantly associated with mental toughness.
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Jim and Michael (2009) examined the potency of measures of personality
style and mental skills in predicting success in the criterion sport of professional
rugby league. Mental toughness was assessed by questionnaire using the Psychological
Performance Inventory. Hardiness was assessed by questionnaire using the Personal
Views Survey III-R. Subjects in this study were 115 professional rugby league
footballers representing the top three playing levels in the game in Great Britain
(International, Super League, and Division One). Findings demonstrated that performers
playing at the highest standard (International players) scored significantly higher in
all three hardiness subscales (commitment, control and challenge) and in two of the
seven mental toughness subscales (negative energy control and attention control).
Results are discussed relative to previous findings, in particular, of the efficacy of
high levels of hardiness. Practical implications focus on the advocacy of mental
toughness and hardiness training to improve sports performance.
Daniel et al. (2008) employed an attempt to reveal a holistic understanding of
mental toughness in the context of Australian Football. Eleven male coaches (M age =
42, SD = 9.62) with considerable playing and coaching experience at the elite level
were interviewed using a PCP-based interview protocol. Transcribed verbatim data
were analyzed using grounded theory procedures. Three independent categories
(characteristics, situations, behaviors) were inductively derived and integrated into a
model in which the importance of understanding each component individually was
emphasized. The relationship between these three central categories was also
highlighted. Results identified the key mental characteristics and their contrasts
together with those situations that demand mental toughness, and the behaviors
commonly displayed by mentally tough footballers. Conceptualized in the context of
these three categories, mental toughness in Australian Football can be considered as a
buffer against adversity but also as a collection of enabling factors that promote and
maintain adaptation to other challenging situations. Practical implications of the
findings are discussed and focus on issues pertaining to enhancing and/or developing
mental toughness.
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Stephen et al., (2005) to addressed two main objectives: 1) develop a greater
understanding of what mental toughness is within cricket, and 2) identify how
existing mentally tough English cricketers developed their mental toughness. Twelve
English cricketers identified as being among the mentally toughest during the
previous 20 years were interviewed. Analysis of the focused interview transcripts
identified the critical role of the player's environment in influencing 'Tough
Character,' 'Tough Attitudes,' and 'Tough Thinking.' The global themes are presented
in a mental toughness framework that has been used to disseminate the findings to the
cricket coaching and playing population in England. The contrasting and complementary
nature of the global themes are used to help provide a structural appreciation of the
need for consistent interaction between environment, character, attitudes, and thinking
in order that a performer can consistently be considered as mentally tough in cricket.
Implications of the findings in relation to the delivery of sport psychology support
within English cricket are also highlighted.
Declan et al. (2007) were conducted to elicit the participants' perceptions of
how mental toughness is cultivated and retained. Findings indicated that the
development of mental toughness is a long-term process that encompasses a multitude
of underlying mechanisms that operate in a combined, rather than independent,
fashion. In general, these perceived underlying mechanisms related to many features
associated with a motivational climate (e.g. enjoyment, mastery), various individuals
(i.e. coaches, peers, parents, grandparents, siblings, senior athletes, sport psychologists,
team-mates), experiences in and outside sport, psychological skills and strategies, and
an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed. It was also reported that once
mental toughness had been developed, three perceived underlying mechanisms were
required to maintain this construct: a desire and motivation to succeed that was
insatiable and internalized, a support network that included sporting and non-sporting
personnel, and effective use of basic and advanced psychological skills. Practical
implications and future avenues of research are discussed.
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Mariana et al. (2009) investigated the relationship between mental toughness,
stressor appraisal, coping strategies and coping effectiveness among a sample of
athletes. Participants were 482 athletes (male n = 305; female n = 177), aged between
16 and 45 years (M age = 20.44 years, SD = 3.98). In support of priority predictions,
mental toughness was associated with stress intensity and control appraisal, but not
the type of stressor experienced by athletes. Total mental toughness and its six
components predicted coping and coping effectiveness in relation to the self-selected
stressor. In particular, higher levels of mental toughness were associated with more
problem-focused coping, but less emotion-focused and avoidance coping. Coping
effectiveness was influenced by the coping strategy employed by the athletes.
Vanessa Horsburgh (2009) investigated of mental toughness, as measured by
the 48-item mental toughness (MT48) questionnaire, and the first BG investigation of
relationships between mental toughness and the Big-5 factors of personality.
Participants were 219 pairs of adult monozygotic and dizygotic twins from across
North America. Twin study methodology was used to determine the extent to which
genes and/or environmental factors contributed to individual differences in mental
toughness and also to determine the genetic and/or environmental basis of any
relationship between mental toughness and personality. Univariate BG analyses
revealed that individual differences in mental toughness (as well as in personality)
were largely attributed to genetics and no shared environmental factors. Bivariate BG
analyses revealed that phenotypic correlations between mental toughness and
personality were largely attributed to common genetics and common no shared
environmental factors.
Seyedeh and Mohammad Ali (2010) investigated the association of resilience
with sport achievement and mental health in a sample of athletes. One hundred and
thirty-nine athletes (96 males, 43 females) were included in this study. All participants
completed Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) and Mental Health Inventory
(MHI). The athletes‟ coaches were asked to rate the Sport Achievement Scale (SAS)
in order to measure athletes‟ sport achievement. The results revealed that resilience
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was positively associated with sport achievement and psychological well-being, and
negatively associated with psychological distress. It can be concluded that resilience
is associated with sport achievement and mental health.
Salehi and Besharat (2010) investigated the association of resilience and
hardiness with sport achievement and mental health in a sample of athletes. 139
athletes (96 males, 43 females) completed Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CDRISC), Hardiness Scale (HS), and Mental Health Inventory (MHI). The athletes‟
coaches were asked to rate the Sport Achievement Scale (SAS) in order to measure
athletes‟ sport achievement. The results revealed that both resilience and hardiness
were positively associated with sport achievement and psychological well-being, and
negatively associated with psychological distress. It can be concluded that resilience and
hardiness can predict changes of sport achievement and me Do developmental differences
in mental toughness exist between specialized and invested Australian footballers.
Daniel F. Gucciardi (2009) to examined developmental differences in mental
toughness between specialized and invested Australian footballers. Participants were
350 footballers aged between 13 and 18 (M = 15.88; SD = 1.71); 144 (Mage = 14.06;
SD = .89) and 206 (Mage = 17.02; SD = 1.06) footballers from the specialized and
investment developmental stages, respectively. A confirmatory factor analysis of the
AfMTI using AMOS did not reveal support for its psychometric structure; however, a
revised version received support. A MANOVA revealed the presence of a significant
difference between the two developmental groups, and follow-up ANOVA‟s indicated
that the desire success and sport awareness subscales contributed to multivariate
effect. It appears that developmental differences should be considered in future
theorize on the development of mental toughness.
Jones et al. (2002) also identified 12 attributes of mentally tough performers,
which covered self-belief, desire/motivation, dealing with pressure and anxiety,
performance-related focus, lifestyle-related focus, and pain/hardship factors. The top
three ranked attributes were found to be: (1) having an unshakeable self-belief in your
ability to achieve your competition goals, (2) bouncing back from performance
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setbacks as a result of increased determination to succeed, and (3) having an
unshakeable self-belief that you possess unique qualities and abilities that make you
better than your opponents.
Kobasa (1979) suggested that hardiness comprises the three distinct but
interrelated attitudes of commitment, control, and challenge. According to Kobasa,
commitment (in contrast to alienation) reflects the tendency to become deeply
involved in what one is doing. This investment in their social relationships make
committed persons less likely to give up in pressurized situations. In general, commitment
is seen as reflecting active, approach type behaviors rather than passivity and avoidance.
Middleton et al. (2004) presents an overall description of mental toughness,
rather than a prescribed route to acquiring mental toughness. These researchers have
suggested that there are various ways of achieving mental toughness and that, to be
mentally tough, an individual will not necessarily require all of the 12 identified
components. It is more likely that different combinations will be required for different
sports, although a core set of essential components might be identifiable following
further research. This makes intuitive sense when considering that some characteristics of
mental toughness have appeared more frequently in the research literature than have
others. The relative contribution of each of the 12 components of mental toughness to
overall mental toughness has not yet been established.
Bull et al. (2005) suggested that different "types" of mental toughness are
likely to exist. These researchers make the important observation that "final-putt"
mental toughness in golf is likely to be more related to mind-set and perhaps coping
skills, whereas the mental toughness of a racing car driver taking calculated risks in a
dangerous sport requires a somewhat different form of mental toughness.
Furthermore, according to Bull et al., an aspiring Olympic swimmer would need to
show yet another form of mental toughness to endure high volumes of training and
peak in a one-off event (in contrast to season-long sports) in order to achieve his or
her goals. The focus on a general or specific approach to the study of mental
toughness is not only important from a conceptual and theoretical perspective; it also
has implications for the development of measurement instruments.
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Davis and Zaichkowsky (1998) used a form of observational analysis to
assess the mental toughness of ice-hockey players. Five scouts, the general manager,
the coach, and two assistants were involved with rating players mental toughness (via
their on-ice performances) in relation to: (1) adversity response (i.e., increased work
rate), (2) over-achievement (exceeds usual performance under stress), (3) effort
(consistency), (4) enthusiasm (encourages teammates), and (5) skill (subjective assessment
of demonstrated ability). Unfortunately, no justification for the five categories listed
above was given, and no standardized performance/behavioral checklists were
produced to allow a form of quantifiable analysis. The subjectivity of such ratings
calls into question the findings of this research, which contradict much of the extant
literature by finding a relationship between mental toughness and pessimism, and clearly
the approach taken lacks scientific rigor. Observational analysis may prove to be an
innovative way of assessing mental toughness, but much work is needed to ensure the
validity and reliability of this approach. To enhance this approach it would appear
necessary to identify overt behaviors that are ascribed the construct mental toughness.
Robert and Stephanie (2010) Field hockey players (n =39) assessed their
own psychological strengths and weaknesses by rank-ordering various mental skills.
Coaches (n=5) who had daily contact with these athletes ranked the same skills on the
basis of their perception of the players' strengths and weaknesses. Comparisons
indicated that the specificity of the skills being ranked influenced the amount of
agreement between the responses of players and coaches. When general categories of
skills were ranked, there was very little consistency between the groups. When
specific skills within the general categories were ranked, there was considerable
consistency between the groups. The results are discussed in relation to the nature of
the questions asked when designing mental training programs. It is suggested that
consultants should take care to identify potential problems in terms of specific skills
rather than general categories. By doing so, they may increase the likelihood of
agreement about mental training needs and increase their effectiveness. The issue of
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conducting self-assessments via rating-scale and rank-order formats is also addressed.
Problems that the consultant may encounter in the use of a rating-scale format are
noted, and the potential advantages of a rank-order format are discussed.
Daniel (2010) identified the mental toughness profiles of adolescent
Australian footballers and to explore the relations between the mental toughness
clusters and achievement goals and sport motivation. A total of 214 non-elite, male
Australian footballers aged 16-18 years (mean = 16.8, s = 0.7) provided self-reports
of mental toughness, achievement goals, and sport motivation. Cluster analysis
supported the presence of two-groups in which players evidenced moderate and high
levels of all four mental toughness subscales. Significant multivariate effects were
observed for achievement goals and sport motivation with the high mental toughness
group favoring both mastery- and performance-approach goals and self-determined as
well as extrinsic motivational tendencies. The results suggest those adolescent
Australian footballers' self-perceptions of mental toughness fall within two clusters
involving high and moderate forms of all four components, and that these profiles
show varying relations with achievement goals (particularly mastery-approach) and
sport motivation.
Garry and Jolly (2007) examined the association between goal orientations
and mental toughness and its influence on performance outcomes in competition.
Wushu athletes (n = 40) competing in Intervarsity championships in Malaysia
completed Task and Ego Orientations in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and Psychological
Performance Inventory (PPI). Using cluster analysis techniques including hierarchical
methods and the non-hierarchical method (k-means cluster) to examine goal profiles,
a three cluster solution emerged viz. cluster 1 - high task and moderate ego (HT/ME),
cluster 2 - moderate task and low ego (MT/LE) and, cluster 3 - moderate task and
moderate ego (MT/ME). Analysis of the fundamental areas of mental toughness based
on goal profiles revealed that athletes in cluster 1 scored significantly higher on
negative energy control than athletes in cluster 2. Further, athletes in cluster 1 also
scored significantly higher on positive energy control than athletes in cluster 3. Chi-
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square (χ2) test revealed no significant differences among athletes with different goal
profiles on performance outcomes in the competition. However, significant differences
were observed between athletes (medalist and non medalist) in self- confidence
(p = 0.001) and negative energy control (p = 0.042). Medallist's scored significantly
higher on self-confidence (mean = 21.82 ± 2.72) and negative energy control
(mean = 19.59 ± 2.32) than the non-medalists (self confidence-mean = 18.76 ± 2.49;
negative energy control mean = 18.14 ± 1.91).
Lee and Kayvon (2010) to assessed the relationship between mental
toughness and athletes' use of psychological performance strategies. Sixty-seven male
(mean age 22.6 years, s=5.0) and 40 female (mean age 21.1 years, s=2.8) athletes,
who competed at club/university to national standard in a variety of sports,
participated in the study. Participants completed the MTQ48 (Clough et al., 2002) to
measure mental toughness, and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et
al., 1999) to measure the use of psychological strategies in practice and competition.
Results of Pearson correlations and linear regression analyses revealed that self-talk,
emotional control, and relaxation strategies were significantly and positively (r=0.26
to 0.37, P<0.01) related to mental toughness in both practice and competition. Of the
MTQ 48 subscales, commitment was found to load most frequently against performance
strategies and thus it is possible that the results of this study reflect highly committed
performers seeking performance enhancement strategies. Consistent with theoretical
predictions, athletes of county standard and above reported significantly higher
mental toughness than club/university athletes (t 105=−2.25, P=0.03).
2.2. STUDIES ON FLOW STATES
Jackson and Roberts (1992) examined the flow-peak performance relationship
in sport competitions, hypothesizing that flow would underlie athletes‟ peak
performance. To investigated the flow-peak performance relationship using quantitative
and qualitative methods. Participants described factors of focused attention, enjoying
the experience, and feeling in control as the most common aspects of their best
competition performance. In addition, comparing means of frequency of flow
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experiences in competitions and flow experiences in best performances, results
revealed that flow was more intense in best performances than in competitions in
general.
Jackson (1996) reported that over 80% of the elite athletes she interviewed
reported that the autotelic experience, action-awareness merging, concentration on the
task at hand, and sense of control were antecedents of their frequent flow experiences.
It was concluded that these dimensions of flow could be more significant for the flow
experience in elite athletes than the Challenge-skills balance, clear goals, unambiguous
feedback, loss of self-consciousness, and time transformation dimensions.
Jackson (1995) examined factors facilitating flow in 28 elite athletes from a
range of team and individual sports. Dimensions facilitating flow, which athletes
frequently referred to, were pre-competitive and competitive plans and preparation
(64%), confidence and positive attitude (64%), optimal physical preparation and
readiness (57%), and achieving optimal arousal level before competing (57%). Being
prepared and feeling confident and ready to perform had a strong influence on elite
athletes‟ flow experience.
Young (2000) interviewed professional tennis athletes with reference to one
outstanding performance in competition and dimensions of flow. Over 50 percent of
the players referred to flow dimensions of concentration, sense of control, actionawareness is merging, clear goals, and unambiguous feedback being part of their most
outstanding competition. It was concluded that flow was related to optimal
performance, but that this optimal performance was not necessarily associated with a
winning performance.
Jackson et al. (2001) examined the relationship between athletes‟ flow state
and perceived performance and real performance results in surf life saving, road
cycling, and orienteering. Jackson et al. developed a self-report performance scale for
participants to evaluate their event specific performance compared to how they
perform in similar competitions in general on an 11-point scale, anchored by 0
(extremely low) and 10 (extremely high). Subjective performance ratings and
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objective performance results, measured by finishing position and errors in orienteering,
were entered as criterion variables into a standard multiple regression equation, with
dimensions of flow state, as measured by the FSS (Jackson & Marsh, 1996), as
predictor variables. The results revealed that dimensions of flow state explained 46%
of the subjective performance rating, 33% of errors in orienteering, and 13% of the
actual performance outcome. Subjective performance was significantly predicted by
flow state dimensions of autotelic experience and challenge-skills balance. Errors in
orienteering were significantly predicted by autotelic experience, clear goals, action
awareness merging, and unambiguous feedback. Finishing position was significantly
predicted by clear goals, challenge-skills balance, and action-awareness merging.
Flow dimensions of autotelic experience, clear goals, and challenge-skills balance
were the strongest predictors of performance variables, each contributing significantly
toward two performance aspects. The results of the study demonstrated the important
association between flow dimensions and subjective performance, and between flow
and ecologically-valid performance outcomes. The performance-outcome variables
were particularly meaningful for the various sports, including finishing position and
errors in orienteering. Future studies investigating the flow-performance link should
examine flow state with regard to crucial, ecologically-valid performance variables,
which address core Components of the performance.
Stavrou and Zervas (2004) investigated the relationship between flow and
subjective performance. In a sample of 385 athletes from individual sports,
participants were asked to make a note of the performance goal set for the
competition with regard to their discipline, such as distance in metres for the long
jump or overall points in archery. Following the competition, participants reported
their actual performance outcome. Participants were then asked to assess their
performance with regard to their pre-competition performance goal on a bipolar scale
anchored by -5 (very low performance) and +5 (very high performance). The subjective
performance measure was positively connected with flow state for the specific
competition. Moderate to strong correlations were found for all flow subscales, except
time transformation, which was the only subscale not significantly related to flow.
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The strongest associations between performance assessment and flow were found for
autotelic experience, challenge-skills balance, Unambiguous feedback, and sense of
control.
Csikszentmihalyi (1988a) proposed that the coalescence of body and mind is
likely to be the result of another flow antecedent, which he referred to as concentration
on the task at hand. The total focus on one single activity keeps dysfunctional thought
processes (e.g., preoccupations and distractions) out of consciousness and enables
individuals to perform at their best.
Csikszentmihalyi (2002) outlined that setting goals of low difficulty would
hardly lead to enjoyment, because those types of goals are too easy to achieve.
Enjoyment and flow will not occur in an activity, unless individuals are able to set
challenging and attainable goals. In addition, clear goals can facilitate focus on and
awareness of one‟s intentions, reflecting the main aspects of a game plan. That is,
process goals enhance awareness of what to do next and facilitate concentration on
the present, whereas performance goals, such as winning or outperforming, can
increase motivation. On the other hand, becoming aware of not being able to reach
performance-related goals might prevent or decrease flow.
Jackson and Marsh (1995) to extended this validation work by subjecting the
data from the original sample (N = 394) of elite younger athletes and a subsequent
sample (N = 398) of older athletes to Rasch analysis. These Rasch analyses showed
quite clearly that the flow dimensions may be conceptualized as a continuum with
“autotelic experience” being experienced more readily than dimensions such as
“transformation of time”, a state that may only be encountered at the height of a deep
flow experience. The Rasch analyses provide useful additional information about the
areas of the flow continuum tapped by the items and scales of the FSS and, in so
doing, help to confirm the construct validity and generalizability of the scale itself.
Csikszentmihalyi (1988) a more precise term would be autotelic experience,
but respondents seemed to prefer “flow” when describing the feelings while involved
in their favorite activities. A common set of structural characteristics was found that
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distinguished the patterns of actions that comprised flow from everyday life. It was
also found that these intrinsic rewards could be built into any activity, including work.
Jay and Gary (1992) to discussed how the concept of flow an optimal
psychological state can be studied in the sport context to increase an understanding of
athletes' subjective experience. Conceptual issues with respect to conducting flow
research in sport were presented, followed by a discussion of the methodological
concerns to consider for researchers who want to study flow in sport. Two major
conceptual questions were addressed: What is flow and how do flow states occur.
The latter question was discussed taking into account both the person and situation
factors that may underlie athletes' flow experiences. The section on methodological
concerns highlighted the pros and cons of conducting flow research with qualitative
or quantitative approaches, explained the experience sampling form, and briefly
discussed the complexity of analyzing flow data.
Thais Piassa Rogatko (2009) was examined whether engaging in flow
promoting activities would lead to increased positive affect (PA). Participants in this
study consisted of 57 undergraduate university students who participated in order to
receive extra credit in a psychology class. The randomly assigned high flow induction
group performed a flow activity for 1 hour, and filled out the PANAS and Flow State
Scale 2 before and after the activity. The low flow induction group performed a low
flow activity for the same amount of time and filled out both questionnaires as well.
Findings indicated that participants in the high flow condition reported higher
increases in PA and flow than those in the low flow condition, and that change in
flow mediated the relationship between group and change in PA.
Jackson and Eklund (2002) measured participant‟s scores on the nine
subscales of the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2) which correspond to Csikszentmihalyi
nine flow characteristics. Their participants included people in individual, team,
exercise, sports, dance, music performance, creative and performing arts, and yoga
(N = 417). Possible scores on the subscales range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree) on a Likert Scale. Means of each subscale ranged from 3.41 to 4.05
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(with standard deviations ranging from .65 to .92).This demonstrated the fact that
participants experience moderate to high levels, on average, in each of the nine
characteristics of flow.
Robert Eisenberger et al., (2005) was asked whether the quality of experience
was more influenced by a person was at work or at leisure or more influenced by a
person in flow (i.e., in a condition of high challenges and skills). Results showed that
all the variables measuring the quality of experience, except for relaxation and
motivation, are more affected by flow than by the respondent is working or in leisure.
Moreover, the great majority of flow experiences are reported when working, not
when in leisure. Regardless of the quality of experience, however, respondents are
more motivated in leisure than in work. But individuals more motivated in flow than
in apathy reported more positive experiences in work. Results suggest implications
for improving the quality of everyday life.
Jackson (1995) to investigated Twenty-eight elite level athletes from seven
sports was interviewed about the factors they perceived influenced their experience of
flow state. Inductive content analyses of athletes' responses to questions about what
facilitates prevents and disrupts flow, resulted in 10 dimensions that synthesized the
361 themes suggested by the athletes. These themes and dimensions provided insight
into factors that may influence whether or not flow occurs in elite athletes. Some of
the more salient factors influencing whether or not flow occurred included:
preparation, physical and mental; confidence; focus; how the performance felt and
progressed; and optimal motivation and arousal level. This study also involved asking
elite athletes about the perceived controllability of these factors, and of the state of
flow itself. The majority of the athletes interviewed perceived the flow state to be
controllable or potentially within their control. A large percentage of the factors seen
to facilitate or prevent flow were perceived as controllable; however, factors seen as
disrupting flow were largely seen as uncontrollable.
Jackson (1992) was conducted in order to gain greater insight into the nature
of flow in sport. Sixteen former US National Champion Figure Skaters, who held
their titles between 1985-1990, were interviewed on an optimal skating experience,
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and then questioned extensively about factors associated with achieving optimal, or
flow states, during performance. Factors perceived as most important for getting into
flow included a positive mental attitude, positive pre-competitive and competitive
affect, maintaining appropriate focus, physical readiness, and for some pairs/dance
skaters, unity with partner. Those factors which were perceived to prevent or disrupt
flow included physical problems/mistakes, an inability to maintain focus, a negative
mental attitude, and lack of audience response. Drawing on the experience of elite
athletes may enhance understanding of flow states as they occur in sport.
Debnath (1990) was measured using portable Wright's peak flow meter on 21
male hockey players of Indian national hockey team probable attending a zonal
coaching camp. The mean PEFR was observed to be 580.95 43.34 1/minute.
The PEFR in hockey players were higher than those recorded in inter-university
'kabaddi', basketball players and football goalkeepers. All the group of players had
shown higher mean PEFR than those of age matched healthy Indian males.
Bray et al., (2002) to examine athletes' pre competition psychological states
prior to playing evenly-matched opponents over a balanced series of regular-season
home and away competitions. A team consisting of 11 female field hockey players
completed questionnaires assessing cognitive and somatic state anxiety, self-confidence,
and self-efficacy prior to home and away games over the course of an eight-game
series of regular-season competition. Consistent with previous research, it was
hypothesized that athletes would report higher levels of self-confidence and selfefficacy prior to home games compared to away. Due to inconsistencies in previous
findings about precompetition state anxiety, no hypotheses about the effect of game
location on these perceptions were advanced. Results showed that players'
psychological states were variable, but reflected a significant pattern of higher selfefficacy and self-confidence as well as lower cognitive and somatic state anxiety prior
to playing at home compared to away. Findings are discussed relative to previous
home advantage research and self-efficacy is proposed as a potential theory-based
explanatory mechanism of the home advantage.
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KristaHall Munroe-Chandler (2008) examined the relationship between
imagery use and confidence in soccer (football) players. The participants included
122 male and female soccer athletes ages 11-14 years participating in both
house/recreation (n = 72) and travel/competitive (n = 50) levels. Athletes completed
three questionnaires; one measuring the frequency of imagery use, one assessing
generalized self-confidence, and one assessing self-efficacy in soccer. A series of
regression analyses found that Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M) imagery was a
significant predictor of self-confidence and self-efficacy in both recreational and
competitive youth soccer players. More specifically, MG-M imagery accounted for
between 40 and 57% of the variance for both self-confidence and self-efficacy with
two other functions (MG-A and MS) contributing marginally in the self-confidence
regression for recreational athletes. These findings suggest that if a youth athlete,
regardless of competitive level, wants to increase his/her self-confidence or selfefficacy through the use of imagery, the MG-M function should be emphasized.
Matthew (2004) examined the relationships between four kinds of flow, group
cohesion, and athletic performance. The relative contributions of the kinds of flow
and group cohesion to performance were also examined. The participants (n = 114)
were elite female ice hockey players from seven Canadian university, college, and
professional teams, and their head coaches. The measures of flow were individual
state flow, individual dispositional flow, team state flow, and team dispositional flow;
group cohesion was also assessed. There were four measures of athletic performance
including: player perceptions of personal and team performances after a game,
coaches' perceptions of team performance after the same game; and an objective score
based on performance outcome (the difference between the two team scores). Several
patterns of findings emerged. First, patterns of relationships occurred among the four
kinds of flow and group cohesion. Second, individual state flow contributed to player
ratings of self-performance. Third, team state flow contributed to both player and
coaches' ratings of the team performance. Fourth, team state and dispositional flow
both contributed to actual game scores. Fifth, group cohesion did not provide a
significant nor consistent contribution to athletic performance over and above that of
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individual or team flow. The overall findings indicated that female ice hockey players'
perceptions of individual and team flow (state and dispositional) differentially
influenced performance, depending on the kind of performance measure. These and
other results were discussed, as were limitations of the study and implications of the
findings for players, coaches, and sport consultants.
Dureha et.al., (2010) compared the status of national and international
hockey players on the selected psychological variables. Sixty male hockey players of
India divided into two groups national (n=30) and international (n=30). The age range
of the subjects was 1725 years. The collection of data was based on four test-batteries
that is, Alberta Incentive Motivation Inventory, the Sports Achievement Motivation
Test, State and Trait Anxiety Inventory and Sports Competition Anxiety Test.
As shown by the result of the study there were insignificant difference was found in
incentive motivation, achievement motivation, state anxiety and trait anxiety between
national and international hockey players and significant difference was found in
sports competition anxiety. In order to test t test was used and 0.05 level of
significance was used. The hypothesis that international and national players would
not differ accepted in achievement motivation and rejected in the case of achievement
motivation, state, trait and sports competition anxiety.
Keith et al., (1990) was assessed how Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement
(MSPE), a new 4-week program, affected flow states, performance, and psychological
characteristics of 11 archers and 21 golfers from the community. Participants
completed trait measures of anxiety, perfectionism, thought disruption, confidence,
mindfulness, and flow. They additionally provided data on their performances and
state levels of mindfulness and flow. Analyses revealed that some significant changes
in dimensions of the trait variables occurred during the training. Levels of state flow
attained by the athletes also increased between the first and final sessions.
The findings suggest that MSPE is a promising intervention to enhance flow,
mindfulness, and aspects of sport confidence. An expanded workshop to allot more
time for mindfulness practice is recommended for future studies.
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Fournier et al., (2007) were analyzed with reliability and confirmatory factor
analyses as well as with correlation and regression analyses. Results of confirmatory
factor analyses on the French FSS-2 replicated the factor structure of the original
FSS-2 with the first-order 9-factor and the hierarchical models both displaying
adequate level of goodness-of-fit. Results of multi-sample analyses indicated that
most parameters of the FSS-2 were invariant across languages. As expected, flow
state correlated significantly with goal attainment during a sport competition. The
relationship between flow and goal attainment was invariant across levels of competition.
This study provided support for the factor structure of the French version of the FSS-2
and for the invariance of the flow construct across languages. Flow state is
significantly associated with goal attainment and the relationship is equivalent across
athletes' levels of competition.
Susan and Robert (2002) assessed flow experiences in physical activity. Item
modifications were made to the original versions of these scales in order to improve
the measurement of some of the flow dimensions. Confirmatory factor analyses of
item identification and a cross-validation sample demonstrated a good fit of the new
scales. There was support for both a 9-first-order factor model and a higher order
model with a global flow factor. The item identification sample yielded mean item
loadings on the first-order factor of .78 for the FSS-2 and .77 for the DFS-2.
Reliability estimates ranged from .80 to .90 for the FSS-2, and .81 to .90 for the DFS-2.
In the cross-validation sample, mean item loadings on the first-order factor were .80
for the FSS-2, and .73 for the DFS-2. Reliability estimates ranged between .80 to .92
for the FSS-2 and .78 to .86 for the DFS-2. The scales are presented as ways of
assessing flow experienced within a particular event (FSS-2) or the frequency of flow
experiences in chosen physical activity in general (DFS-2).
2.3. STUDIES ON DOMICILE
Loucaides et al., (2007) was assessed differences in the correlates of PA
between Canadian urban and rural youth. The sample consisted of 1398 adolescents
from 4 urban schools and 1290 adolescents from 4 rural schools. Mean age of the
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participants was 15.6 ± 1.3 years. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to
examine the association between self-reported PA and a number of demographic,
psychological, behavioral, and social correlates. Common correlates between the 2
locations included gender (with girls being less active than boys) perceptions of
athletic/physical ability, self-efficacy, interest in organized group activities, use of
recreation time, and friends‟ and siblings‟ frequency of participation in PA. Active
commuting to school and taking a physical education class were unique correlates of
PA at the multivariate level in urban and rural students, respectively. Variance
explained in PA ranged from 43% for urban school students to 38% for rural school
students Although more similarities than discrepancies were found in the correlates of
PA between the 2 geographical locations, findings from this study strengthen the
policies that argue for a coordinated multi sector approach to the promotion of PA in
youth, which include the family, school, and community.
Rhea et.al., (2004) explored the relationship between sports participation and
self-reported violent, delinquent, and aggressive behaviors in rural high school
populations. Three-hundred and thirty-eight athletes and non-athletes from four rural
high schools completed the YRBSS and the Conflict Behavior Scale (CBS). The results
indicated that: (a) males demonstrated similar violent and delinquent behaviors to
other urban and suburban populations, (b) male non-athletes reported significantly
more assaults, trouble at school, drinking while driving, trouble with the police, and
marijuana use than male athletes, and (c) female athletes reported significantly less
and male athletes reported significantly more aggressive behaviors than their nonathlete counterparts on the CBS. These data illustrate that violent, delinquent, and
aggressive behaviors do exist in rural populations, but that sports participation does
not necessarily influence higher rates of these behaviors.
Jean Côtéa et al., (2006) assessed whether contextual factors related to where
or when an athlete is born influence their likelihood of playing professional sport.
The birthplace and birth month of all American players in the National Hockey
League, National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball, and Professional
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Golfers Association, and all Canadian players in the National Hockey League were
collected from official websites. Monte Carlo simulations were used to verify if the
birthplace of these professional athletes deviated in any systematic way from the
official census population distribution, and chi-square analyses were conducted to
determine whether the players' birth months were evenly distributed throughout the
year. Results showed a birthplace bias towards smaller cities, with professional
athletes being over-represented in cities of less than 500,000 and under-represented in
cities of 500,000 and over. A birth month/relative age effect (in the form of a distinct
bias towards elite athletes being relatively older than their peers) was found for
hockey and baseball but not for basketball and golf. Comparative analyses suggested
that contextual factors associated with place of birth contribute more influentially to
the achievement of an elite level of sport performance than does relative age and that
these factors are essentially independent in their influences on expertise development.
Elizabeth and Baljit (2010) find out relationship and differences of Adjustment,
Goal orientation and Attitude of physical activities among rural and urban college
going girls of Haryana. A sample of 300 rural and urban college going girls were
consisting 150 rural (75 sports and 75 non-sports) and 150 urban (75 sports and
75 non-sports) girls was selected on random selection basis. Standardized and validity
proved tests were used for collection of data. Statistical analysis was done by
applying t-test and matrix of correlationship to find out the results of the study.
Analysis of findings and results of the study conclude that significant differences
were found on adjustment level, goal orientation and attitude towards physical
activities among all sports and all non sports college going girls of Haryana. Analysis
of results further revealed that non-significant differences were found on adjustment
level, goal orientation and attitude towards physical activities among all rural v/s all
urban girls; rural sports v/s urban sports girls and rural non sports v/s urban non sports
college going girls of Haryana. However, rural girls shows better results on home,
health and urban girls of these groups shows better results on emotional and social
adjustments in comparisons. Further results of study conclude that significant
relationships were found in correlations of adjustment, goal orientation and attitude
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towards physical activities with in groups of study. Results of study also confirm that
environment factors, facilities and socio-economic status provided to college girls
affect the psychological makeup and development of interest towards physical
activities.
Shobhna and Rekha (2009) was investigated the self-esteem and academic
achievement of urban and rural adolescents, and to examine the gender differences in
self-esteem and academic achievement. The sample of this study consisted of 400
adolescents (200 urban and 200 rural) from Varanasi District. The boys and girls
(aged 12 to14) were equally distributed among the urban and rural sample. Selfesteem was measured by Self-esteem questionnaire and academic achievement was
measured by academic school records. The findings indicated that there were no
significant differences with regard to self-esteem of rural and urban adolescents.
There were significant differences with regard to academic achievement of rural and
urban adolescents. Urban adolescents scored higher in academic achievement as
compared to rural adolescents. Boys would score significant higher on self-esteem as
compared to girls. Significant gender differences were found in academic achievement.
Girls were significantly higher on academic achievement as compared to boys.
Scott Huebner (1985) to investigated the effects of rural vs. non-rural
background and setting variables upon 383 school psychologists' expectations for a
case study child. The results indicated that school psychologists' expectations were
not influenced by the child's background or school setting. However, school
psychologists who worked in rural school settings had higher future academic and
vocational expectancies for the case study child in general than urban school psychologists.
Feng (2006) determined whether participating in sport activities had any
impact on students‟ academic achievement in rural high schools. The participating
students (N=225) were selected from four rural high school districts. The participants‟
immediate pre-season grades in English, math, science and social science were
compared with their immediate postseason grades in the same courses. The independent
variable was participating in school-sponsored sport activities and the dependent
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variable was the participants‟ postseason grades. The comparisons were conducted on
a course-by-course and team-by-team basis. Results of data analyses indicated that no
significant differences were found between the students‟ pre-season and postseason
grades, which suggest that participating in school-sponsored sports activities did not
affect the academic achievement for the participating rural high school students.
Roxana Dev and Omar Dev (2009) identified the different body image
perception, body mass index (BMI) and dieting behavior among female secondary
school students in urban and rural area of Gombak district, Malaysia. Body mass
index (BMI) was carried out on 200 Malay students at four secondary schools around
Gombak. It was found that there is no significant difference in BMI of female
students in the urban secondary schools (19.27 ± 3.83kg/m²) and rural secondary
schools (18.65 ± 3.60kg/m²). Respondents answered questions regarding demography
and body silhouette chart. Average age of respondents in urban area is 14.53 ± 0.520
years with a family income of RM4570 ± 1890 and the rural area is 14.56 ± 0.47
years with a family income of RM1690 ± 580 (p=0.002, p<0.05). Body image
perception was done by asking the respondents to identify own body image through
five picture diagrams provided (Body Silhouette Chart). Although more of urban
respondents giving inaccurate perception compared to rural respondents, however
there is no significant difference in body image perception as compared to body mass
index among urban and rural respondents [t(198)=1.18, p=0.23, p>0.05]. But there is
significant difference between urban and rural respondents in the body image
perception and the desired body image [t(198)=4.57, p<0.05]. Overweight was found
to occur among urban female as compared to rural female adolescents because of the
economic status of the urban adolescents being higher than their rural counterparts.
Furthermore, body image perception between urban and rural adolescents differs from
their mother‟s perception. Meanwhile, Index of Mild Dieting showed high and
moderate mean scores while Index of Extreme Dieting Behaviors showed moderate
and low mean scores, indicating that the respondents generally were somewhat taking
actions to control their dietary intake. Urban adolescents seemed to score more on the
Index of Mild Dieting and Index of Extreme Dieting Behaviors, significant
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differences were seen with their rural counterparts (t=3.2, p=0.02; p<0.05) and
(t=2.45, p=0.03; p<0.5) respectively. The result of this research shows that body
image and dieting behavior should also be given more attention in promoting healthy
living style especially among female adolescents.
2.4. STUDIES ON RELATIONSHIP AMONG PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Lee (2009) to tested the relationship between mental toughness and affect
intensity to determine whether mentally tough athletes generally experienced more or
less intense emotions. A sample of 112 sport performers (55 men and 57 women)
aged between 18 and 51 years (M = 29.3, s = 10.3) acted as participants, and ranged
from recreational to national level in a variety of sports. Mental toughness and affect
intensity were found to be unrelated. This is an important finding because it suggests
participants with high or low levels of mental toughness do not characteristically
experience more or less intense emotions. Thus there is no evidence to suggest the
ability of mentally tough athletes to remain relatively unaffected by pressure or
adversity is due to lower levels of affect intensity. More research is required to
understand how mentally tough athletes (in comparison to less tough athletes)
maintain control and high levels of performance in stressful circumstances.
Lee (2011) tested relations between two measures of mental toughness.
A sample of 110 male athletes (M age = 20.81 years, SD = 2.76), derived from
University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before
completing two questionnaires to assess mental toughness. It was hypothesized that
scales and subscales from the two different instruments, which purported to measure
the same or substantially overlapping scales, would be strongly correlated. Predictions
concerning the expected relations were made a priori. Pearson correlations revealed a
significant and positive relationship between higher order mental toughness scores
(r = .75; p < .001). Correlations between similar mental toughness subscales were
found to be positive and significant but somewhat lower than expected (r = .49–.62).
Results suggest instrument subscales with similar labels are not measuring the same
components of mental toughness.
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Adam et al., (2008) explored the relationship between: (a) mental toughness
and coping, (b) mental toughness and optimism, and (c) coping and optimism.
Participants were 677 athletes (male 454; female 223) aged between 15 and 58 years
(M age = 22.66 years, SD = 7.20). Mental toughness correlated significantly with 8 of
the 10 coping subscales and optimism. In particular, higher levels of mental toughness
were associated with more problem or approach coping strategies (mental imagery,
effort expenditure, thought control, and logical analysis) but less use of avoidance
coping strategies (distancing, mental distraction, and resignation). Eight coping
subscales were significantly correlated with optimism and pessimism. In conclusion,
the relationships observed in this study emphasize the need for the inclusion of coping
and optimism training in mental toughness interventions.
Lee and Richard (2010) to tested the relationship between mental toughness
and attitudes towards risk-taking in undergraduate student athletes attending two
Universities in the North of England. A sample of 69 men (M age = 22.2 years,
s = 5.28) and 36 women (M age = 24.6 years, s = 7.67) participated and ranged from
club to national level in a variety of sports. Participants gave informed consent before
completing questionnaires to assess mental toughness and attitudes towards risk.
Pearson Product Moment Correlations found significant and positive correlations
between overall mental toughness and attitudes towards physical risks, but no
relationship with psychological risk. Regression analysis found the mental toughness
subscale of challenge to be the most significant predictor of attitudes towards physical
risk. Interpersonal confidence was the only mental toughness subscale found to be
significantly and positively related to attitudes towards psychological risk. Independent
t-tests found men reported significantly higher overall mental toughness, confidence
in abilities, and attitudes towards both physical and psychological risk, than women.
These results are discussed with regard to previous research findings and future
researchers are encouraged to consider employing experimental methodologies in
order to manipulate contextual factors to more fully understand any individual
differences.
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Lee and Kayvon (2010) to assessed the relationship between mental
toughness and athletes' use of psychological performance strategies. Sixty-seven male
(mean age 22.6 years, s=5.0) and 40 female (mean age 21.1 years, s=2.8) athletes,
who competed at club/university to national standard in a variety of sports,
participated in the study. Participants completed the MTQ48 (Clough et al., 2002) to
measure mental toughness, and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et
al., 1999) to measure the use of psychological strategies in practice and competition.
Results of Pearson correlations and linear regression analyses revealed that self-talk,
emotional control, and relaxation strategies were significantly and positively (r=0.26
to 0.37, P<0.01) related to mental toughness in both practice and competition. Of the
MTQ48 subscales, commitment was found to load most frequently against performance
strategies and thus it is possible that the results of this study reflect highly committed
performers seeking performance enhancement strategies. Consistent with theoretical
predictions, athletes of county standard and above reported significantly higher
mental toughness than club/university athletes (t 105=-2.25, P=0.03).
Crust and Swann (2011) to tested relations between two measures of mental
toughness. A sample of 110 male athletes (M age = 20.81. years, SD = 2.76), derived
from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before
completing two questionnaires to assess mental toughness. It was hypothesized that
scales and subscales from the two different instruments, which purported to measure
the same or substantially overlapping scales, would be strongly correlated. Predictions
concerning the expected relations were made a priori. Pearson correlations revealed a
significant and positive relationship between higher order mental toughness scores
(r= .75; p< .001). Correlations between similar mental toughness subscales were
found to be positive and significant but somewhat lower than expected (r= .49-62).
Results suggest instrument subscales with similar labels are not measuring the same
components of mental toughness.
Jackson,et.al., (1998) were examined, 398 athletes (cyclists, triathletes,
swimmers and track and field athletes) completed questionnaire assessments on 2
occasions while competing at an international masters sport competition. The Ss
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completed a questionnaire assessing intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, goal orientation,
trait anxiety, and perceived ability. In addition, a 36-item Trait Flow Scale was
administered based on the 9 dimensions of flow espoused by M. Csikszentmihalyi
(1990). Of the 398 Ss, 213 completed a questionnaire after and in relation to one
event they competed in at the games. This second questionnaire assessed state flow,
as well as perceptions of success, skills, and challenges in a selected sport event.
Correlation and multivariate analyses were conducted to examine psychological
correlates of state and trait flow Patterns of relationships were found between flow
and perceived ability, anxiety, and an intrinsic motivation variable.
Vlachopoulos et al., (2000) was administered to 1231 aerobic dance exercise
participants. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to test three competing
measurement models of the flow construct: a single-factor model, a nine-factor model
and a hierarchical model positing a higher-order flow factor to explain the inter
correlations between the nine first-order factors. The single-factor model showed a
poor fit to the data. The nine-factor model and the hierarchical model did not show an
adequate fit to the data. All subscales of the Flow State Scale displayed acceptable
internal consistency (alpha > 0.70), with the exception of transformation of time
(alpha = 0.65). Collectively, the present results do not provide support for the
tenability of the single-factor, nine-factor or hierarchical measurement models in an
exercise setting.
Mohamad Nizam et al., (2009) to explored the affect of higher score of
mental toughness in the early stage of the league towards winning among Malaysian
football players. The instrument used in this study was the questionnaire of
Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI), Loehr, 1986. The difference between the
mental toughness between the categories of elite and non elite, professional and
amateur players was measured. Other than that, the relationship between the players‟
category, status and achievement with the seven dimension of mental toughness (Self
confident (SC), Negative energy control (NE), Attention control (AT), Visual
imagery control (VI), Motivational (MT), Positive energy control (PE) and Attitude
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control (AC) was evaluated. The results from the descriptive analysis showed that the
mental toughness of Malaysian football players is at an excellence level. T-test had
been conducted and the results whose that there is no significant difference on the
mental toughness from the aspect the players‟ category, (p = 0.136 > 0.05), but there
is a significant difference on the status of the players, (p = 0.02< 0.05). One way
ANOVA and Pos Hoc test show a significant difference between the four dimensions
of mental fitness among the players from various teams of different achievements.
The results obtained are NE [(3,128) = 7.768, P < 0.05], AT [(3,128) = 8.828,
P < 0.05], VI [(3, 128) = 5.789, P < 0.05] and PE [(3,128) = 4.896, P < 0.05]. There is
no significant difference on the dimensions of SC, MT and AC (P > 0.05). Pearson
Correlation analysis shows a low and significant association between the status and
mental fitness of the players (r = -0.262, p = 0.02, < 0.01). The findings who the
dimension of SC (r = -0.270, p = 0.002 < 0.01); NE (r = -0.175, p = 0.045 < 0.05);
AT (r = -0.249, p = 0.004 < 0.01) and VI (r = -0.176, p = 0.043 < 0.05) have a low
correlation and inverse relationship between the dimensions and the status of the
players. Overall, this study shows that the mental toughness of Malaysian football
players is at an excellent level. Status is seen as a factor that gives a lot of impact on
the player especially in motivating them to attain their best achievement and also
affect their mental toughness. This means that the mental toughness of the players
could be enhanced if the players really understand the professionalism of the game
and put it into practice.
2.5. STUDIES ON PREDICTION ANALYSIS PERFORMANCE
Terry and Young‟s (1996) Field hockey players (N = 128) completed the
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and the Profile of Mood States about 45 min.
before a British Universities trial. Single-factor multivariate analysis of variance
indicated no significant differences between selected and non selected players for any
pre performance mood or anxiety measure. Discriminant function analysis showed
that 74 participants (57.81%) could be correctly classified as selected or non selected
players on the basis of pre-performance mood scores. This figure rose to 83 participants
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(64.84%) when scores on the anxiety subscales were also included in the discriminant
function analysis. Anxiety scores alone discriminated 71 participants (55.47%). These
results concur with earlier proposals of Terry that psychological state measures
decline in predictive effectiveness in long duration, open skill team sports.
Peinado et al., (2007) compared the physiological characteristics between flat
terrain, all terrain and uphill cyclists and develop a multivariate model that would
allow to discriminate among cyclists according to their specialty. Differences in the
means among groups (FT, AT and UP) were examined using a one way ANOVA.
First, discriminant analysis was applied to 28 variables measured and then, the same
analysis was applied to anthropometric parameters (8 variables). The significance
level was set at
945 ;< 0, 05. There were significant differences between UP and FT
[height, body mass (BM), body fat (BF), free fat body mass (FFM), maximum oxygen
uptake/Kg (VO2 max/Kg)] and between UP and AT (body mass, FFM). The first
discriminant analysis revealed one significant function. This function represented
differences between FT and the other two groups (AT and UP). After validation the
analysis showed that 100 % of the cyclists were correctly classified in their respective
specialty. The second analysis (anthropometric variables) revealed one significant
function and 75 % of the cyclists were correctly classified. Uphill cyclists have been
reported to be significantly shorter and lighter than other specialists (1, 4) and
cyclists‟ performance will be determined by their anthropometric characteristics (1).
Also, UP have a higher VO2 max/Kg (1, 3, 4). In conclusion, our model confirms that
elite cyclists can be classified according to their specialty.
Leon et.al., (2002) in their study of identifying anthropometric and biomotor
variables that discriminated among groups of elite adolescent female athletes aged
14.3 [+ or -] 1.3 years (mean [+ or -] s) from four different sports (tennis, n = 15;
swimming, n = 23; figure skating, n = 46; volleyball, n = 16). The anthropometric
variables included body mass, height, bi-epicondylar breadth of the distal extremity of
the humerus and femur, maximal girth of the calf and biceps and the sum of five
adipose skin folds. The biomotor variables were maximal aerobic power, muscular
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endurance and flexibility of the trunk. Discriminant analysis revealed three significant
functions (P < 0.05). The first discriminant function primarily represented differences
between figure skaters and all other groups of athletes. The other two underlined
anthropometric and biomotor differences between swimmers and volleyball players
and between tennis players and swimmers, respectively. After validation, the analysis
showed that 88% of the athletes were correctly classified in their respective sports.
Our model confirms that elite adolescent female athletes show physical and biomotor
differences that clearly distinguish them according to their particular sport.
Watson (1988) conducted a study on discriminant analysis of the physiques of
schoolboy rugby players, hurlers and non-team members. The subjects were 31
successful schoolboy rugby players and 25 successful schoolboy hurlers; 34 non-team
members acted as controls. Thirty-one anthropometric measurements were taken on
each subject: height, weight, sitting height, five skeletal lengths, six skeletal
diameters, 13 muscle circumferences and four skin folds. The non-players were
significantly smaller than the rugby players and the hurlers in weight, biacromial
diameter, bideltoid, neck, chest, flexed arm, upper and lower thigh and calf
circumferences. The non-players were significantly smaller than the rugby players in
arm length, femur diameter and waist, hip and relaxed arm circumferences. The nonplayers were significantly smaller than the hurlers in femur length, biiliac and ankle
diameters. There were no statistically significant differences between the rugby
players and hurlers. Discriminant analysis produced a function containing terms for
height, weight, fat free weight, humerus diameter and neck, bi deltoid, forearm and
calf circumferences which correctly assigned 83 (92%) of the subjects to 'player' and
'non-player' categories. When the function was applied to the 15 members of the
rugby team of a different school, 14 were placed in the 'player' category and one
subject was given a borderline classification. It is concluded that there were
differences in physique between the team members and non-members and that the
techniques used in the study were effective in quantifying them
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Lorenzo et al., (2010) to identify the game-related statistics which discriminate
between winning and losing teams in under-16 years old male basketball games.
The sample gathered all 122 games in the 2004 and 2005 Under-16 European
Championships. The game-related statistics analyzed were the free-throws (both
successful and unsuccessful), 2- and 3-points field-goals (both successful and
unsuccessful) offensive and defensive rebounds, blocks, assists, fouls, turnovers and
steals. The winning teams exhibited lower ball possessions per game and better
offensive and defensive efficacy coefficients than the losing teams. Results from
discriminant analysis were statistically significant and allowed to emphasize several
structure coefficients (SC). In close games (final score differences below 9 points), the
discriminant variables were the turnovers (SC = - 0.47) and the assists (SC = 0.33).
In balanced games (final score differences between 10 and 29 points), the variables
that discriminated between the groups were the successful 2-point field goals (SC = -0.34)
and defensive rebounds (SC = -0.36); and in unbalanced games (final score
differences above 30 points) the variables that best discriminated both groups were
the successful 2-point field- goals (SC = 0.37). This result allowed under and that
these players‟ specific characteristics result in a different game-related statistical
profile and helped to point out the importance of the perceptive and decision making
process in practice and in competition as well.
Paulo et.al., (2010) conducted a study to identify sex differences in volleyball
game-related statistics, the game related statistics of several World Championships in
2007 (N = 132) were analyzed using the software VIS from the International
Volleyball Federation. Discriminant analysis was used to identify the game-related
statistics which better discriminated performances by sex. Analysis yielded an
emphasis on fault serves (SC = -.40), shot spikes (SC = .40), and reception digs (SC = .31).
Specific robust numbers represent that considerable variability was evident in the
game-related statistics profile, as men's volleyball games were better associated with
terminal actions (errors of service), and women's volleyball games were characterized
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by continuous actions (in defense and attack). These differences may be related to the
anthropometric and physiological differences between women and men and their
influence on performance profiles.
Klecka (1980) developed a model that would identify the contributions of
anthropometric and performance variables to the discrimination of elite adolescent
athletes according to their particular sport as well as from untrained age-mates. Sixty
one females 14-19yrs participated in the study. Discriminant analysis (Klecka, 1980)
(all variables entered together) was applied to the anthropometric and performance
variables to develop a model capable of predicting which group the subjects
participated in (p<0.05) (SPSS 10.0). Analysis revealed two significant discriminant
functions (DF1 & DF2) (p=0.000). DF1 and DF2 accounted for 79.5% and 20.5% of
the variance, respectively. Standardized coefficients (Table 1) represent an index of
the relative importance of each variable and quantify the potential of each variable to
discriminate among groups. The variables primarily responsible for these dissimilarities
are SK Fsum, CMJ height and age for DF1 and elbow breath and CMJ height for DF2
(Table1). The larger the magnitude of a standardized coefficient (ignoring the sign)
the greater is that variable‟s contribution. Based on these scores, group membership
may be predicted according to the proximity of the respective group centroid values.
As shown in Fig 1, group centroid values in DF1 (J: 1.672, V: 0.963 and C: - 2.682)
describe the differences among C and the two sport groups. The group centroid values
in DF2 (J:-1.087, V: 1.237 and C:-0.212) describe the differences between J and V
(Fig. 1). In Table 2, that summarizes the classification results for the two DF, it shows
that 93.4% of the subjects were correctly classified to their respective group.
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