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Chapter 6 Worksheet answers
6.1 The cultural context of USA and UK
USA
Policy of isolation: the policy of isolation separated USA from the influence and traditions of the
UK and Europe. Isolation is one of the major factors that shaped modern sport in the USA and made
it different in terms of the nature, appearance and ethos to sports in the UK.
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Marginalisation of UK sports: this refers to a sport being put to one side or a rejected by the
mainstream culture. Society in the USA demanded its own brand of sport which was compatible
with a competitive, diverse and dynamic culture associated with the ‘New World’, e.g. baseball
rather than cricket
Promotion of ‘Big Four’ sports: the culture of the ‘New World’ was markedly different from
the UK and Europe. This difference stimulated the adaptation of gridiron football from rugby,
and baseball from cricket. Basketball was invented and ice hockey was adopted from Canada and
later joined the ‘Big Three’ sports. All four sports were to become highly commercial during the
twentieth-century
Frontierism: the frontier was a mythical and transitory boundary which marked the extent of
western expansion into country that was often hostile. The term frontierism refers to the spirit
of toughness, ruggedness and independence in the face of adversity. This spirit has been an
underpinning factor that has shaped the USA society and is evident in sport today, e.g. sport is
termed the last frontier.
UK
Nineteenth-century public schools: the greatest developmental influence on UK sport came from
the reformed English public school system. It was largely through the impact of the public schools
that in the period 1863 to 1888 most sports and national governing bodies were formed. The public
school system instilled the notion of amateurism.
Nineteenth-century notion of amateurism and professionalism: the English ‘gentleman’ amateur
belonged to the upper classes. Amateurs did not compete for extrinsic reward and believed that a
‘win at all cost’ ethos was against the spirit of sportsmanship. Training was therefore, rarely taken
seriously.
Organisation of society: In the late nineteenth-century, a clearly defined class system based on
hereditary privilege existed in UK, the legacy of which exists today. Class determined income,
lifestyle and most significantly, sporting opportunities.
Importance of Empire: the power and prestige emanating from imperial ownership influenced the
traditions and class structure of UK society. Sport helped to establish UK traditions in the Empire
and in turn, the Empire was to influence the development of sport both in the UK and across the
world, for example cricket was played across the entire British Empire. The values of the game
reflected the British class system and the English ideal.
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6.2 Commercialisation of sport in the USA
The order of importance given below is open to discussion. The important issue is that all factors
relate to and influence each other.
The American Dream: The ‘Dream’ is the keystone of American culture. It draws together and
endorses all cultural forces. Ultimately, capitalism makes the ‘Dream’ accessible to all citizens. The
Dream can be attained through sport.
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Capitalism: Capitalism is the economic system that gives wealth and control to the individual. It
enables great financial profit to be made.
Business cartel: Professional sport in the USA is organised as a commercial industry and operates
as a business cartel for the sole purpose of profit making.
The media: The media outlet of television became inextricably linked with sport and commercial
sponsorship. The media pays large sums of money into sports and competes for television rights. In
such a large country the media enables sport to be accessible to all Americans.
Commercial sponsorship: Large businesses sponsor sport and this operation is linked to the media
outlet of television.
Lombardianism: Capitalism generates intense competition between individuals. In sport this
competitive ethic is prominent and is termed Lombardianism.
Be aware that commercialism of sport in the UK is following the lead of USA. Not all factors that
exist in the USA however, apply to the development of UK sport as a business industry.
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6.3 Social values in the UK and USA
USA
USA
Value
Explanation
Equal opportunity, or the chance to achieve,
is available to all. This is associated with the
American Dream.
Pluralism
Describes a group ethos. This group comprises
the vast majority of Americans who believe
that liberty and justice are equally available to
all Americans.
Hegemony
Stacking
Centrality
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Land of opportunity
Describes a group ethos. This is the group who
has the power to influence and dominate USA
society. This group comprises a small minority
of the wealthiest people in the USA.
The organisation of society on the basis of
mainstream culture and ethnicity.
Refers to the central role in the major American
sports that is often given to players from the
WASP mainstream culture.
Lombardian ethic
Is the ‘win at all cost’ ethic. It links with
competitiveness and capitalism.
Counter culture ethic
This approach has an anti-competitive focus
and emphasises the intrinsic benefits which can
be derived from participation.
Radical ethic
A winning outcome is important as this is a
mark of achievement. The process of arriving
at achievement is however most important.
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UK
UK
Value
Explanation
The right to freedom. It involves the right of
free speech and express
Teamwork
Working as part of a team has been a traditional
British value since possibly the struggle for
Empire and the incorporation of team games in
the public schools system.
Individuality
Fair play
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Democracy
The value of the individual is important in
the UK and underpins democracy. The mixed
economy of the UK, however, places a greater
emphasis on teamwork than does the USA
capitalist economy.
A sense of fair play is central to the British
sporting ethos and the participation ethic
continues to over ride the ‘win at all cost’ ethic
that is the mainstream prevalence in the USA.
Competitiveness
Winning is of increasing importance since the
advent of commercial sport and the abolition
of traditional friendly fixtures to make way for
structured league competition. The taking part
in sport however remains an important UK
ethic.
Participation
Emphasis is placed on participation rather than
competitive elitism.
Discrimination
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Both countries are cosmopolitan societies and
both are striving to overcome discrimination.
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Status
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Inter-mural sport in the USA
Inter-school sport in the UK
The State High School Athletic Association
(SHSAA), which is a national advisory body,
has branches in each state and controls Intermural athletic competition.
Competitions and leagues are administered
by several agencies, e.g. teachers organizing
‘friendly’ fixtures, local school leagues and
NGB competitions.
Takes place in the evenings to attract
spectators.
Frequently organized as extra–curricular
activities after school.
Played in the High School stadium.
Usually takes place on school fields or
premises.
Alumni donation (financial support from
former pupils) helps to finance teams.
There may be some grants or donations from
former pupils but schools tend not to be
reliant on them.
‘Gate money’ is an important source of
revenue.
Gate money is not taken and is not a source
of income.
Heavy reliance on sponsorship.
Some sponsorship from businesses may be
available but sponsorship is not widespread.
The coach is in charge although they may
operate below the status of the Athletic
Director.
The Physical Education teacher often is in
charge of the organisation and coaching of
teams.
USA High Schools are perceived as Centres
of Sporting Excellence.
Some schools and colleges have developed
academies of sport but these tend to be
associated with professional sports clubs.
Sport has high status and is considered to be
more important than Physical Education.
Physical Education is considered to be of
higher status to sport.
The best players are awarded scholarships
from Colleges (Universities).
Some University scholarships are awarded
but it is not common in UK.
School Sport is a direct reflection of the
professional sports scene.
School sport is not organised to reflect the
professional sports scene.
Considerable media attention.
There is little media attention given to UK
inter-school sport.
Sport is very expensive with media,
sponsorship and large crowds. High School
sport is organised as a business.
Sport in UK schools does not aspire to
become a business.
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Organisation
6.4 School sport in UK and USA
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The Lombardian ‘win at all cost’ ethic
prevails.
Winning is not of overriding importance.
Participation is considered more important
than winning.
The coach is employed on the basis of a
contract that is termed ‘hire and fire’.
The teacher is employed on what is usually a
permanent contract.
Sport tends to be exclusive and elitist.
Sport tends to be inclusive and available to
all children.
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Ethos
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6.5 A comparison of intra school sports in USA and UK
Intra-school sport in the UK is organized on similar lines to USA intra-mural sports.
Intra-school sport is most prominent in secondary schools and operates both in the private and state
funded sectors of education. As with the USA version intra-school sport tends to be recreational,
but has the scope to be very competitive. An example of competitive intra-school sport in the UK is
the traditional athletics sports day held both in primary and secondary schools.
Competitions are usually arranged between school ‘Houses’ and although traditional sports such as
football and netball continue to be dominant most schools offer a wide range of activities.
In the UK intra-school sport associates with a participation ethic. Intra- mural sports in the USA
have a similar philosophy which is termed the radical ethic.
Matches are often arranged during timetabled Physical Education and sport lessons but also take
place during lunch periods and after school. In keeping with the organisation in USA intra-school/
college sports leagues in the UK may be organised by teachers or pupils. Teams are formed on the
basis of friendship groups and games take place again at lunchtimes.
In the 16-18 Further Education section intra-school sports may be the basis of an Enrichment
Programme.
6.6 Physical Education and sport in USA High Schools
The ‘curriculum crisis’ in Physical Education
School Boards are eliminating Physical Education from the timetable not only because it is
uneconomic, but also because it is unpopular with students and it is taking up time that could be
spent on academic subjects.
Title IX
Title IX was passed as law in 1972 and is an example of central federal legislation. It addressed the
issue of gender inequality in all areas of education.
Adaptive Physical Education
Physical Education for disabled people. Federal law states that Physical Education must be provided
for students with special needs and disabilities.
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Outdoor education
The term outdoor education implies a formal process of conveying educational values. This takes
the form of teaching physical skills and facilitating personal and social development in the outdoor
natural environment
High School inter-mural sport
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Inter-mural High School sport involves schools playing against other schools in organised sports
competitions. High School sport has high status.
High School intra-mural sport
Intra-mural sports are recreational sports that take place within the High School. At this level
activities may involve leagues and are open to all students who form their own teams.
Physical Education for Progress (PEP) strategy
The PEP programme aims to improve the quality and quantity of Physical Education from
kindergarten through to grade 12 (equivalent to year 13 in the UK).
6.7 The organisations and strategies that promote mass participation
and ensure lifelong involvement and healthy lifestyles both in the UK
and the USA
UK
Strategy or organisation
Explanation
Local initiatives
This initiative is also an important community sport provider, for
example in the Greater Manchester area Sport For All Centres
organises basketball, netball badminton and 5-a- side football for
all abilities and age groups.
Sportsmatch
This scheme involves the club or community facility organizations
providing initial investment. The sum raised is then doubled by a
grant.
National Governing Bodies
These agencies receive central funding to encourage young people
to take up sport. The Rugby Football Union, for example, employs
local and regional development officers to promote participation.
Special interest groups
Groups that tend not to participate in sport are targeted by Sport
England.
Sport England
This organisation, along with other Home Country sports
councils such as The Sports Council for Wales, promotes mass
participation.
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USA
Explanation
Intra-mural sports
Involves recreational sports that take place within the High School.
At this level activities may involve leagues and are open to all
students who form their own teams.
Midnight Leagues
The organisation of sports on inner city asphalt playgrounds
during what may be described as unsociable hours. Basketball is
the major game.
Little Leagues
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Strategy/organisation
They take responsibility for the organisation of junior sports that
take place in the community.
The Amateur Athletic
Union
They take responsibility for the organisation of sports leagues and
competitions. They also administer the National Youth Fitness
Programme as a part of the Presidents Challenge.
Inter-mural sports
School sport that involves schools playing against other schools in
organised sports competitions. High School sport has high status.
6.8 Competitive sport for young people in the USA
A possible answer could be:
Little League sports cater for ages 7-16. Teams are coached and managed by volunteers who in
the main tend to be parents. Examples of Little League sports include Pop Warner Little League
for American gridiron football, Biddy Basketball organises Little League basketball and Pee Wee
baseball administers Little League baseball
There is a strong, moral philosophy within Little League sport and a great emphasis on safety. The
win ethic is however, strongly evident even in the youngest age groups. This is partly because the
parents involved often come from a competitive sports background and are frequently considered to
be living out their own sporting ambitions through their children.
The teams play in structured competitions and the format reflects the professional game. Mini
‘Superbowl’ finals inspire competition and little league attracts both commercial and media
attention. The saying ‘Little League to Superbowl’ highlights the importance of junior sport as a
preparation for professionalism.
If Little Leagues are criticised for the promotion of the win ethic, the counter argument is that it
prepares children for the competitive nature of American life.
Note: 14 facts about Little League are underlined and 3 examples of Little League sports are given.
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6.9 Sport and the pursuit of excellence in the USA
College Scholarship: The College (University) will offer a scholarship to the outstanding High
School sports player. The scholarship amounts to an unpaid contract to play for the College team,
e.g. gridiron football in return for a ‘free’ education to degree level.
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Special Admit Programmes: If the talented High School player does not have the academic ability
to pursue a subject to degree level, but the College wish to enrol the student in order to strengthen
the team, a less rigorous course of study is provided.
Pro-Draft System: At the end of their term of study the best College players are offered contracts
by professional sports clubs
WASP domination: The most influential group who tend to make most of the decisions in the USA
are the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants.
Tokenism: In the early 1950’s, when professional sport was dominated by white players a limited
number of vacancies was made available to African American players. This was a token gesture
toward equality. A non–discriminatory policy could therefore be claimed by the USA sporting
society.
Stacking: Stacking refers to the selection of players belonging to ethnic minority groups and
playing them in peripheral positions. These positions often require considerable athleticism but
minimal strategic influence.
Centrality: Centrality refers to positions with decision-making responsibilities in the centre of the
field, e.g. the pitcher in baseball and the quarter back in gridiron football
The Glass Ceiling: Glass ceiling indicates a division between two layers of society. The people
beneath the glass can see their ambition and the position which they wish to occupy. The glass
symbolises a barrier which can be broken.
White Flight: White players have withdrawn from basketball. The game is increasingly perceived
as belonging to African Americans.
Opportunity (as it relates to ethnic minorities): Ethnic minority groups have been given the
chance to take part in sport and to excel without prejudice in their chosen areas.
Provision (as it relates to ethnic minorities): Ethnic minority groups now share the same quality
of facilities and conditions that were formerly exclusive to the white mainstream culture.
Esteem (as it relates to ethnic minorities): This relates to the respect, admiration, value and
appreciation that society chooses to bestow on an individual or group. The cultural esteem of ethnic
groups has deservedly risen because of success. Esteem refers to confidence and the belief that
achievement is possible
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6.10 Origins and nature of USA sports
1 Adaptation
Adoption
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Explanation: Adaptations are modifications that have been made to sports already in existence,
e.g. American Football (gridiron) is an adaptation of rugby and was developed in the Ivy
League Universities. Baseball was developed from games played by children, e.g. goal-ball
and rounders. Baseball caused cricket to be marginalised in the USA and although played in the
Universities it developed in the inner cities as a working class game.
Explanation: Adoptions are games taken directly from other cultures or countries and placed
directly into the USA context, e.g. ice hockey has its origins in Canada. Although ice hockey has
an origin connected with the military it remains popular with the universities.
Invention
Explanation: Sports, such as basketball and volleyball, were invented in the USA. The former is
particularly well suited to the culture of the New World. Both sports were invented in American
universities. Basketball has developed into a highly commercialised business in the USA
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Name of sport
Words or phrases that describe the nature of the sport
Basketball
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sensational
high scoring
intensive
end to end action
a winner emerges
a media commodity
Lombardian ethos
a business cartel
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sensational
intensive
(potentially) violent
a winner emerges
a media commodity
Lombardian ethos
a business cartel
American gridiron football
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sensational
intensive
collision sport
violent
dehumanising equipment
gladiatorial aura
high scoring
a winner emerges
a media commodity
Lombardian ethos
a business cartel
Ice Hockey
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sensational
intensive
collision sport
violent
dehumanising equipment
gladiatorial aura
end to end action
a winner emerges
a media commodity
Lombardian ethos
a business cartel
Baseball
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Chapter 6 Student Book task answers
Task 1 (page 102)
Despite indigenous origins lacrosse is not a Big Four sport because:
commercial potential and support is low
media profile is well below Big Four exposure
entertainment factor is lacking
playing area dimensions made it difficult to televise initially
contact and aggressiveness are not part of the game
historically it did not fulfil the ‘cult of manliness’
it was not compatible with the ideal of the ‘young’ USA culture.
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Be aware that a modified game of lacrosse is now receiving coverage on Sky Television
Task 2 (page 102)
The discussion on Rugby Union and American gridiron football may take the following lines:
Nature
UK Rugby Union
American gridiron football
Rules reduce extreme physical contact, e.g.
restriction in tackling and scrimmaging.
Rules encourage extreme physical contact, e.g.
tackling off the ball and ‘down’ restarts during
play.
Forward pass is not allowed and this tends to
reduce sensationalism.
Forward pass is part of the game and this
promotes sensationalism.
Scope for improvised and creative play.
Play tends to be tactically driven and
stereotyped.
Appearance
UK Rugby Union
American gridiron football
Limited padding for player protection.
Heavy padding to encourage physical contact.
Headguards are now common place but are
designed to limit the possibility of head injury.
The helmet is designed to encourage physical
confrontation.
The headguard does not distort the image of
the player.
The helmet masks identity and the appearance
of the player becomes increasingly threatening.
Increasing commercialism but limited side
show entertainment.
High profile commercialism and side show
entertainment is an integral part of the gridiron
scene.
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Commitment to professionalism in the late
twentieth-century has changed the appearance
of the game to appeal to a wider audience.
Professional status was adopted in the late
nineteenth-century and the game adjusted to
appeal to a wider audience.
Restrictions on tactical substitutions.
Whole teams, e.g. offence and defensive line
ups can be changed.
There is a half-time break.
‘Time out’ break periods can be called.
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Ethos
UK Rugby Union
A participation ethos traditionally prevails.
American gridiron football
A Lombardian ethos traditionally prevails.
Task 3 (page 104)
The examples below are taken from case studies to show how traditional sports from the UK
became marginalised:
Cricket
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Slow nature of the game.
Five day matches do not provide instant entertainment.
A drawn game is often perceived as a positive result.
Necessary breaks for lunch and tea.
Rugby
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Lacked the capacity to provide instant and sensational entertainment.
The laws limited physical confrontation.
Stoppages and the breakdown of play were too frequent and seen as negative.
The nature of the game appeared to lack order.
Drawn matches could occur and were at times seen as positive results.
Association football
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The game was low scoring.
Physical contact was strictly limited.
Play appeared to lack order.
Drawn games were frequent.
All the examples of UK sports given above have origins in English public Schools and were
therefore initially bound to the hierarchical class structure of the UK. The new culture of the USA
elected to pursue a policy of isolation from the old culture.
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Task 4 (page 104)
The reasons given why basketball is suited to American culture may follow the list below:
Basketball is high scoring.
The action moves quickly from one end to the other.
It is a game in which all plays are ended sensationally.
Basketball is action packed and intense because of ‘rolling substitutions’.
The game is broken down by ‘time outs’ which tend to generate excitement.
Entertainment and sensation action is a central feature.
The stopping of the clock brings about exciting climaxes to games.
There are no draws.
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Task 5 (page 111)
You will discover many fitness initiatives that ultimately involve profit making ventures. Many
initiatives disappear quickly, e.g. ‘Hook a Kid on Golf’ and ‘Time Out for Better sport for Kids’.
Other schemes involve government support e.g. ‘The Presidents challenge’.
Task 6 (page 112)
Sporting agencies in the UK that receive lottery funding include Port England and UKSport. For
more information refer to pages 111-112 in the Student Book.
Task 7 (page 116)
A discussion on the abolition of promotion and relegation may follow the points give below:
Advantages
• Competition may well be intensified.
• Teams in lower leagues may become feeder clubs and provide high class players for top league
clubs.
• An even spread of talent amongst the top could result.
• Standards of play may well increase.
Disadvantages
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Ambitious teams will be denied access to the top leagues.
Lower league teams may not wish to be feeder clubs to an elite league.
The excitement of striving for promotion/avoiding relegation is taken away.
Standards of play may well decease in lower leagues.
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Task 8 (page 116)
The discussion about the changes made to UK sports to make them more commercially viable may
follow the guidelines below. Examples have been taken from UK case studies.
Cricket
Advent of limited over cricket as a major feature of the season.
The emergence of Twenty20 cricket in the domestic season.
Introduction of team colours and names.
Modification of rules, e.g. Power Plays and Duckworth Lewis.
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Association Football
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Advent of the Premiership.
Importation of foreign star players.
Changes to the rules, e.g. passing back to the goalkeeper.
All seated stadiums.
Selling of club merchandise.
Physical contact minimised to facilitate skill.
Rugby League
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Advent of Super League.
Change to Summer fixtures.
Establishment of team in non traditional areas.
Relocation of one round of fixtures to an international venue, e.g. Murrayfield Scotland.
Rolling substitutions introduced.
Abolition of relegation from Super League.
Rugby Union
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Advent of professionalism.
Fundamental rule changes to speed up the game.
Elite clubs focus on team squads rather than in support a club framework of teams.
Introduction of cup matches and league fixtures.
Task 9 (page 121)
Refer to page 285 of OCR for PE.
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Task 10 (page 121)
1 The variations between UK cricket and USA baseball are outline below.
USA Baseball
• T
he ball is delivered to the batter by way
of a bowling technique.
• Potential for static or quiet periods of
play.
• Tradition of white clothing without
numbers.
• Wicketkeeper is the only player to wear
gloves.
• The playing surface is well prepare and is
an important feature of the game.
• T
he ball is delivered to the batter by way
of a pitching or throwing technique.
• Potential for sensationalism.
• Tradition of coloured uniforms with
numbers.
• All players wear a catching mitt on one
hand.
• The playing surface does not directly
impact on play.
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UK Cricket
2The cultural determinants that have caused UK to adopt cricket and the USA to adopt baseball
are outlined below:
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UK Cricket
USA Baseball
Empire influence.
The structure of the class hierarchy.
Tradition of amateur playing ethic.
Participation ethos.
Empire expansion policy and civilising
mission partly help by the cricket ethos.
• Frontier influence.
• The order of society is largely determined
by a money meritocracy.
• Tradition of profession playing ethic.
• Lombardian ethos.
• Frontier expansion and isolation policy
endorse by the baseball ethos.
Task 11 (page 122)
The factors that contribute to a sedentary lifestyle in the UK are outlined below:
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Television and a variety of media outlets.
Computer entertainment.
Availability and accessibility of cars.
Household convenience and labour saving appliances.
The fast food culture.
An affluent society.
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Task 12 (page 122)
Research into the following is recommended:
Sport England
Sportsmatch
Special interest groups
Sport For All centres
Amateur club provision
National Governing Body initiatives
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Task 13 (page 124)
The nine strands associated with PESSYP are:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Sports Colleges
School Sport partnerships (SSPs)
Professional Development
Step into Sport
Club Links
Gifted and Talented
Sporting Playgrounds
Swimming
High Quality Physical Education and Sport in Schools
Task 14 (page 129)
Comparisons between the High School Sport scene in USA with those in the UK should include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
the size of crowd/audience
specialist stadiums
status of coach or teacher
contracts for coach or teacher
ethos of sport
media involvement
organisation of fixtures
commercial involvement.
Task 15 (page 130)
You will discover many fitness initiatives that ultimately involve profit making ventures. Many
initiatives disappear quickly, e.g. ‘Hook a Kid on Golf’ and ‘Time Out for Better sport for Kids’.
Other schemes involve government support e.g. ‘The Presidents challenge’ and ‘Physical Education
for Progress’ (PEP).
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Task 16 (page 135)
An example of a mini case study of a UK sports club is outlined below. (The name of the club is
fictitious)
Pennington Cricket Club
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1 Multi-sport provision that includes cricket, tennis, and lawn bowls. There is a small golf section.
2 1850.
3A local business man inherited a plot of land ‘let’ for a ‘peppercorn’ rent to the club. A clause in
the agreement was that cricket had to be played on the land.
4 Four senior and three junior cricket teams are represented. There are adult and junior teams in
tennis. Bowling teams comprise men and women.
5 Gender ability and age determine selection.
6 The club has its own facilities. The golfing section, however, hires various courses for
tournament play.
7 The Liverpool competition.
Task 17 (page 138)
You will discover many fitness initiatives that ultimately involve profit making ventures. Many
initiatives disappear quickly, e.g. ‘Hook a Kid on Golf’ and ‘Time Out for Better sport for Kids’.
Other schemes involve government support, e.g. ‘The Presidents challenge’. Look closely at
Midnight Leagues.
Task 18 (page 139)
The advantages and disadvantages of a College Sports scholarship in USA are outlined below.
The advantages of a College Sports scholarship in USA include:
•
•
•
•
a free/subsidised education leading to a degree
high quality coaching
popular sports, e.g. gridiron football attract large crowds and media attention
possibility of the pro-draft.
The disadvantages of a College Sports scholarship in USA include:
•
•
•
•
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the value of the degree may be questionable
a sports scholarship is an unpaid contract
commitment to sport may be in the region of 50 hours per week
injury results in the withdrawal of the scholarship.
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Task 19 (page 141)
• Althea Gibson was a black female tennis player in the 1950’s.
• At this time people/players in this social category were at a considerable disadvantage.
• The Wimbledon Tournament at that time was the preserve of the white middle classes which
conformed stringently to the traditional amateur ethos of England’s class structure.
• Althea Graham’s achievements were therefore remarkable.
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Task 20 (page 142)
• Research will indicate that the College system is the basis on which excellence is developed.
• Limited government funding is given for the production of potential Olympic champions
• Sponsorship and commercial enterprise is the basis of all sports funding.
Task 21 (page 145)
Capitalism
The economic system that gives wealth and
control to the individual.
Capitalism is the system which organises
society in the USA and makes the
American Dream possible.
Freedom
The USA is the land
of liberty. Capitalism
allows any individual
with a competitive
ethic the freedom to
choose their destiny
and to prosper.
Competitive ethic
Capitalism generates
intense competition
between individuals.
In sport this competitive
ethic is prominent
and is termed
Lombardianism
(see page 119).
Opportunity
The USA is the land of
opportunity. Capitalism
gives opportunity to
individuals to achieve the
‘Dream’ providing they
are competitive and
have a strong work ethic.
Frontier Spirit
The frontier spirit is reflected in the competitiveness found in high-level sport.
The challenges of the frontier generated the spirit of survival,
toughness and individual enterprise that embraced the developing ‘New World’.
The legacy of the frontier spirit has helped to instil love of liberty and opportunity.
The competitive ethic of the frontier spirit has influenced the promotion of capitalism.
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American gridiron football:
pitomises the frontier spirit by highlighting toughness, individuality and the spirit of survival.
E
Has a competitive ethic where Lombardianism is foremost.
Lombardianism has its roots in frontierism but is stimulated by capitalism.
All people are free to compete and proper in USA society (in this case through the vehicle of
gridiron football).
• All people have the opportunity to achieve the American Dream (in this case through the vehicle
of Grid Iron Football).
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•
•
•
•
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Chapter 6 Revise as you go! answers
1Isolation policy: this policy endorsed the desire of the USA for separation from the UK and
Europe. USA was determined to stand alone and sever connections with their colonial history.
UK pursued a policy of Empire building. The Empire influenced sport and the countries that
were part of the British Empire were in turn influenced by the British sporting ethic.
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2The frontier was the transitory boundary which marked the extent of western expansion into
country that was often hostile. Frontierism refers to the spirit of toughness, ruggedness and
independence in the face of adversity. As there is no frontier in the UK a clearly defined class
system based on hereditary privilege existed. The legacy of this system exists today. Class
determines income, lifestyle and most significantly, sporting opportunities.
3 C
ommercialism in sport concerns the process of promoting sport as a profit making business.
Sport, like any the product of any business or industry is advertised and sold to the consumer as
a commodity.
4 T
he attitude towards Physical Education in the UK is very positive. Physical Education has
core curriculum status and is underpinned by major educational values. Schemes are in place
to enhance the delivery of Physical Education. The Physical Education School Sport and Club
Links strategy (PESSCLS) is a government strategy to promote Physical education and School
sport in the UK and was launched in 2002. Physical Education in the USA is facing a crisis. The
daily programme is being voted off the curriculum by the School Boards on the grounds that it is
both unpopular and uneconomical. Strategies are in place to improve this position, e.g. Physical
Education for Progress (PEP).
5From:
USA inter-mural sport:
• D
irectly reflect the professional scene.
• Matches are frequently played in front of large crowds, e.g. Mission Eagles High School
attract 15,000 spectators.
• Games are played in schools stadiums.
• The coach is directly in charge of the team.
• A Lombardian ethos prevails during inter-mural matches.
UK inter-school sport:
• Sports are reflective of the education process.
• Matches may be played in front of a crowd comprising the school but rarely is the crowd
large.
• Matches are played on the fields of the school.
• The teacher of Physical Education tends to organize the team.
• Winning is important but a participation ethic over rides the winning motive.
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6Mass participation rates in the UK are in relative terms higher than those in USA. It appears
that in both countries activities undertaken on an individual basis, e.g. swimming, keep fit,
yoga, cycling and weight training, show higher participation rates than team games. On the
whole more men than women participate in the UK and this mirrors the trend in the USA. It is
significant to indicate that swimming and fitness activities tend to be more popular with women.
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7 I n the USA private amateur sports clubs enable some participants to enjoy recreational sports
provision. This tends to be exclusive provision because sport in America operates from the
investment of private sponsorship as opposed to public funding. Private sports clubs therefore,
tend to be very expensive to join and are usually sport specific, e.g. golf, tennis and sailing
clubs. Amateur sports clubs in the USA do not exist on the same grounds as is the tradition in
the UK. The UK an amateur club may have a long tradition, have its own facilities and organize
several teams on the basis of age, ability and gender. The club will be sport specific but also
organises other sports as sections of the club, e.g. some cricket clubs organize tennis or crown
green bowling teams as subsidiary activities.
8The conventional pathway into professional sport in USA is through the education system, e.g.
the High School player earns a scholarship to College; the outstanding College player enters
professional sport through the Pro draft system.
UK Sport is the organization with the overall responsibility for producing sporting excellence
in the UK and is responsible for the strategic direction of the home country institutes. The UK
has alternative pathways into elite sport that do not include the Sports Institutions, for example
non-Olympic sports like cricket have their own governing body pathways leading towards
professional status.
9Opportunity relates the chance that people have to participate. Some people may often have better
chances to participate than others. Provision refers to the availability of facilities and esteem
reflects the self confidence which would determine whether a person chooses to participate.
10 The ‘Big Four’ sports were promoted because:
• They were fast, intensive, entertaining and masculine.
• They fulfilled the ‘cult of manliness’.
• The ‘frontier spirit’ was represented and could be reproduced through engagement in these
sports as the ‘win at all cost’ ethic.
• The policy of isolation was indirectly endorsed by the promotion of America’s own sports.
• By engaging, as either a participant or spectator in the sports most popular in the New World,
new settlers in the USA quickly became Americanised.
• From the beginning these sports best facilitated commercial opportunity.
The traditional UK sports did not fit with the ‘New World’ culture and were perceived as being
dull in comparison with the new American sports. In addition, UK sports frequently produced
drawn matches. Americans could not appreciate the value of a drawn game as life in USA is
preoccupied with producing a winner.
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