U N IT
A New Nation
1781–1850
CHAPTER 5
Shaping a New
Nation
1781–1788
The Living
Constitution
CHAPTER 6
Launching the New
Nation
1789–1816
CHAPTER 7
Balancing
Nationalism and
Sectionalism
1815–1840
CHAPTER 8
Reforming American
Society
1820–1850
UNIT
PROJECT
Constitution
Work with a small group of classmates to create a constitution for
your class or school. Explain how
laws will be passed and changed.
Signing of the Constitution by Howard
Chandler Christy
128
P
CHA T E R
5
Essential Question
What challenges did the new
American republic face, and how
did the U.S. Constitution reflect
those challenges?
What You Will Learn
In this chapter you will examine
domestic challenges faced by the
new nation and understand the
American beliefs reflected in its form
of government.
SECTION 1: Experimenting with
Confederation
Americans adopted the
Articles of Confederation but found
the new government too weak to solve
the nation’s problems.
SECTION 2: Drafting the
Constitution
At the Philadelphia
convention in 1787, delegates
rejected the Articles of Confederation
and created a new constitution.
SECTION 3: Ratifying the
Constitution
During the debate on the
Constitution, the Federalists promised
to add a bill of rights in order to get
the Constitution ratified.
Washington (on the far right) addressing
the Constitutional Congress
1785 New York
state outlaws
slavery.
1781 The Articles of
Confederation, which
John Dickinson helped
write five years earlier, go into effect.
USA
WORLD
1784 Russians found
colony in Alaska.
1784 Spain closes the
Mississippi River to
American commerce.
1782
1781 Joseph II
allows religious
toleration in Austria.
130
1783 The Treaty of
Paris at the end of
the Revolutionary War
recognizes United
States independence.
CHAPTER 5
1782 Rama I
founds a new
dynasty in Siam,
with Bangkok
as the capital.
1785 The Treaty
of Hopewell
concerning
Native American
lands
is signed.
1784
1783 Russia annexes
the Crimean Peninsula.
1783 Ludwig van
Beethoven’s first works
are published.
1785 Jean-Pierre
Blanchard and
John Jeffries
cross the English
Channel in a
balloon.
Shays’s Rebellion
INTERACT
WITH
H ISTO RY
INTERACT
WITH
H ISTO RY
The year is 1787. You have recently helped
your fellow patriots overthrow decades of
oppressive British rule. However, it is easier
to destroy an old system of government than
to create a new one. In a world of kings and
tyrants, your new republic struggles to find
its place.
Explore the Issues
• Which should have more power—the
states or the national government?
• How can the new nation avoid a return to
tyranny?
• How can the rights of all people be
protected?
1786 Daniel Shays leads a rebellion
of farmers in Massachusetts.
1786 The Annapolis Convention is held.
1786 The Virginia legislature
guarantees religious freedom.
1787 The Northwest
Ordinance is passed.
1788 The Constitution,
which James Madison helped
write at the Pennsylvania
State House, is ratified.
1786
1786 Charles Cornwallis
becomes governor-general
of India.
1788
1787 Sierra Leone in Africa becomes
a haven for freed American slaves.
1788 Austria declares
war on Turkey.
1787 War breaks out between
Turkey and Russia.
1788 Bread riots erupt
in France.
Shaping a New Nation
131
C T I ON
1
SE
Experimenting with
Confederation
Americans adopted the
Articles of Confederation but
found the new government
too weak to solve the
nation’s problems.
The reaction to the weak
Articles of Confederation led to
a stronger central government
that has continued to expand
its power.
•republic
•republicanism
•Articles of
Confederation
•confederation
One American's Story
TAKING NOTES
Use the graphic
organizer online to
take notes about
the Articles of
Confederation.
Although John Dickinson had once opposed American
independence, he later worked hard to help create a
government for the new United States. In 1779 John
Dickinson returned to the Continental Congress as a
delegate from Delaware. At that time he explained the
principles that guided his political decisions.
A PERSONAL VOICE JOHN DICKINSON
“ Two rules I have laid down for myself throughout this
contest . . . first, on all occasions where I am called
upon, as a trustee for my countrymen, to deliberate on
questions important to their happiness, disdaining all
personal advantages to be derived from a suppression
of my real sentiments . . . openly to avow [declare]
them; and, secondly, . . . whenever the public resolutions are taken, to regard them though opposite to my
opinion, as sacred . . . and to join in supporting them
as earnestly as if my voice had been given for them. ”
—quoted in The Life and Times of John Dickinson, 1732–1808
Dickinson’s two rules became guiding principles for
the leaders who faced the formidable task of starting a
new nation.
John Dickinson
Americans Debate Republicanism
The task of creating a new government posed a great challenge. Among many
other issues, the relationship between the new states and the national government was difficult to define. The debate over the nature of the new government
of the United States would consume the political energies of the new nation.
132
CHAPTER 5
•Land Ordinance
of 1785
•Northwest
Ordinance of
1787
Developing
Historical
Perspective
A What relics of
the colonial period
survived in the
new system of
government?
Background
In An Inquiry into
the Nature and
Causes of the
Wealth of Nations,
Adam Smith
(1723–1790)
argued that
social order and
progress were
the natural result
of individualism
and self-interest.
COLONIES BECOME STATES British settlers in North
America had founded not one colony but many, each with
its own governor, council, and colonial assembly. This system of distinct, self-governing colonies encouraged people
to think of the colony as the primary political unit. Because
of this, most people’s allegiance was to the colony in which
they lived. The Revolutionary War gave the colonies a common goal, but as these colonies became states, they
remained reluctant to unite under a strong central government. The challenge was to develop a system of government that balanced the interests of the several states
with those of the nation. A
UNITY THROUGH A REPUBLIC Eighteenth-century
Americans believed that a democracy, or government
directly by the people, placed too much power in the hands
of the uneducated masses. Therefore, they favored a
republic—a government in which citizens rule through
their elected representatives. However, republicanism,
the idea that governments should be based on the consent
of the people (which should not be confused with the
Republicanism of the modern-day political party), meant
different things to different Americans.
Some, like John Dickinson, believed that a republic
required a virtuous people. The new government could
only succeed, they argued, if people placed the good of the
nation above their personal interests.
Other Americans, influenced by the writings of the
philosopher and economist Adam Smith, believed that a
republic would benefit from self-interest. They asserted that
if a government allowed independent citizens to pursue
their own economic and political interests, the whole nation
would benefit.
HISTORICAL
S P O TLIG H T
HISTORICAL
S P O TLIG H T
REPUBLICAN MOTHERHOOD
An important issue in the early
years of the nation was the role
that women should play in the
republic. In the years before and
during the Revolutionary War,
many women became politically
active, organizing boycotts of
British goods and helping raise
money for the army. This involvement in public affairs was an
important departure for women,
who had traditionally been confined to the private sphere of
family life.
After the Revolution, as the
nation readjusted to peace, the
new ideal of republican motherhood helped channel women’s
newfound political awareness
and activism back into the home.
Women were expected to raise
the next generation of patriots by
instilling democratic values in their
children.
STATE CONSTITUTIONS As the states created their own
constitutions, they wrestled with how to put republican
ideals into practice. Many state constitutions shared certain
similarities. They limited the powers of government leaders. They guaranteed specific rights for citizens, including
freedom of speech, religion, and the press. In general, state
constitutions emphasized liberty rather than equality and
reflected a fear of centralized authority.
At the same time, state constitutions differed widely
in granting the right to vote. Although the new states were
more democratic than any western nation at this time, it was still only a very limited democracy by modern standards. African Americans were generally not
allowed to vote. Some states granted voting rights to all white males. Other states,
like Maryland, continued to make property ownership a requirement for voting.
Despite the more active political role that women had played during the
Revolution, they were still denied the right to vote in most states. However, New
Jersey gave voting rights to all free property owners but neglected to specify
males. Consequently, some New Jersey women gained the right to vote—at least
until 1807, when this right was revoked.
POLITICAL PRECEDENTS In a world where most nations were still governed
by kings, there were few political systems that could serve as models for the new
republic. The nation’s founders searched history for political precedents for the
Shaping a New Nation
133
Political Precedents
ATHENS AND ROME
In the 18th century, American leaders revered the political
achievements of ancient Athens and Rome. The Greek city
of Athens was acknowledged as the birthplace of democracy, while the early Romans were admired for overthrowing
monarchy and establishing a republic. However, Greek
democracy, like the democracy of the New England town
meeting, was workable only at a local level. It was the
democracy of a city, not of a huge nation. Neither Greek
democracy nor the Roman republic had endured.
Engraving of the ancient Roman Senate
▼
THE ENGLISH COMMONWEALTH
In the mid-17th century the English parliament executed
the king and established a republic, which lasted from
1649 to 1660. This republic, called the Commonwealth
and Protectorate, was controlled first by Oliver Cromwell
and later by his son Richard. The Commonwealth was
continually threatened by anarchy and bad leadership
and did not long survive Cromwell’s death. The failure
of the English Commonwealth must have haunted
American political leaders as they planned the government of their republic.
▼
The execution of King Charles I
new government. In the previous century, the English had established a shortlived republic after the execution of King Charles I. During the Middle Ages,
Italian cities such as Florence, Pisa, Genoa, and Venice had become self-governing
city-states. Swiss communities also had resisted royal control, forming alliances
that developed into the Swiss Confederation. In ancient times, republics and various
democratic systems had existed in Greece and in Rome. However, none of these
models could be adapted easily to the political situation of the new United States,
with its need to balance the concerns of state and national governments.
The Continental Congress Debates
While the states developed their individual constitutions, the Continental Congress
tried to draft one for the states as a whole. However, there was much disagreement over
the role of the national government. The delegates had to answer three basic questions.
REPRESENTATION BY POPULATION OR BY STATE? Although the states were
equal as political entities, they were unequal in size, wealth, and population.
These differences posed a serious dilemma. Should delegates to a new government represent people or states? Should each state elect the same number of
representatives regardless of its population? Or should states with large populations have more representatives than states with small populations?
For the time being, the members of the Continental Congress saw themselves
as representing independent states. As a result, they made the decision that each
state would have one vote regardless of population. B
SUPREME POWER: CAN IT BE DIVIDED? Until this time most people
assumed that a government could not share supreme power with smaller administrative units, such as provinces or states.
134
CHAPTER 5
Analyzing
Issues
B Why did
differences
between the
states cause
problems of
representation
in the new
government?
However, the Congress proposed a new type of government in a set of laws
called the Articles of Confederation—one in which two levels of government
shared fundamental powers. State governments were supreme in some matters,
while the national government was supreme in other matters. The delegates
called this new form of government a confederation, or alliance.
In true Enlightenment fashion, John Dickinson hoped that the new system
of government would reflect the order and harmony found in nature.
A PERSONAL VOICE JOHN DICKINSON
“ Let our government be like that of the solar system. Let the general government
be like the sun and the states the planets, repelled yet attracted, and the whole
moving regularly and harmoniously in their several orbits.”
—from The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787
Summarizing
C What is a
confederation?
The Articles of Confederation gave the new national government power to
declare war, make peace, and sign treaties. It could borrow money, set standards
for coins and for weights and measures, establish a postal service, and deal with
Native American peoples. The Articles, however, created no separate executive
department to carry out and enforce the acts of Congress and no national court
ANOTHER
system to interpret the meaning of laws. C
P E R S P EC T I V E
WESTERN LANDS: WHO GETS THEM? By 1779, 12 states had agreed to accept
the new government, but conflict over western lands delayed final approval for
two more years. Some states had claims to lands west of the Appalachian
Mountains. Maryland, which had no such claims, feared that states with land
claims would expand and overpower smaller states. It refused to approve the
Articles until all states turned over their western lands to the United States.
Consequently, the landed states gave up their western claims, and with Maryland’s
approval, the Articles of Confederation went into effect in March 1781.
GOVERNING THE WESTERN LANDS The Confederation Congress then faced
the question of how to govern the public lands west of the
Appalachians and north of the Ohio River that offered rich
ANOTHER
land for settlers. Congress passed the Land Ordinance of
1785, which established a plan for surveying the land. (See
the Geography Spotlight on page 138.) In the Northwest
JOHN BAPTIST DE COIGNE
Ordinance of 1787, Congress provided a procedure for
John Baptist de Coigne, a
dividing the land into territories. The Northwest Ordinance
Kaskaskia chief, was among a
also set requirements for the admission of new states, which,
group of Indians from the
however, seemed to overlook Native American land claims.
Northwest Territory who met with
There were three basic stages for becoming a state:
leaders of the U.S. government in
P E R S P EC T I V E
Contrasting
D What was the
basic difference
between the Land
Ordinance of
1785 and the
Northwest
Ordinance of
1787?
1. Congress would appoint a territorial governor and
judges.
2. When a territory had 5,000 voting residents, the settlers
could write a temporary constitution and elect their
own government.
3. When the total population of a territory reached 60,000
free inhabitants, the settlers could write a state constitution, which had to be approved by Congress before it
granted statehood.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest
Ordinance of 1787 became the Confederation’s greatest
achievements. These laws established a blueprint for future
growth of the nation. D
1793. He expressed the Native
American view of the westward
expansion of white settlers during
the previous ten years:
“Order your people to be just.
They are always trying to get
our lands. They come on our
lands, they hunt on them; kill
our game and kill us. Keep
them on one side of the line,
and us on the other. Listen,
my father, to what we say,
and protect the nations of the
Wabash and the Mississippi
in their lands.”
Shaping a New Nation
135
The Confederation Encounters Problems
After its success in dealing with the Northwest Territory, the Confederation
encountered overwhelming problems in dealing with more immediate issues.
These problems ranged from economic issues, such as taxation and the national
debt, to political issues, such as the nature of Congressional representation. In
addition to these domestic issues, there were also many foreign-relations problems that the Confederation was powerless to solve.
POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS The most serious problem was that
the country under the Confederation lacked national unity. Each state functioned
independently by pursuing its own interests rather than those of the nation as a
whole. In addition, the Confederation didn’t recognize the differences in population among the states. Each state, regardless of its population, had only one vote
in Congress. Thus, the political power of Georgia, with a population of 23,375
in 1770, was equal to that of Massachusetts, with a population of 235,308.
Furthermore, the Articles could not be amended without the consent of every
state; a single state could stall the amendment process. Therefore, changes in government were difficult to achieve.
The most serious economic problem was the huge debt that the Congress had
amassed during the Revolutionary War. The war had cost the nation $190 million—a huge amount of money in those days. The Continental Congress had borrowed from foreign countries and had printed its own paper money. After the war,
Continental currency became worthless.
Lacking the power to tax, the Congress requested the states’ approval to
impose a tariff, or tax on imported goods. It planned to use the revenue to repay
foreign loans. However, one state, Rhode Island, rejected the proposed tax, so it
was not adopted. Unable to impose taxes, the Confederation Congress also had
no control over interstate or foreign trade. E
▼
BORROwERS vERSuS LENDERS Another problem
caused by the debt from the Revolution was the struggle
between creditors (lenders of money) and debtors (borrowers of money). After the war, wealthy people who
had lent money to the states favored high taxes so that
the states would be able to pay them back. However,
high taxes sent many farmers into debt. When a creditor sued a farmer in court for repayment and won the
case, the government seized the farmer’s land and animals and sold them at auction.
Debtors and creditors also disagreed over the usefulness of paper money. Debtors wanted to increase
the supply of money to lessen its value and enable
them to pay off their debts with cheap currency.
Creditors, in contrast, wanted to keep the supply of
money low so that it would keep its full value. Both
groups had much to lose.
Currency, such
as this early
example from
Connecticut,
was issued by
the colonies and
the states.
136
Chapter 5
FOREIGN-RELATIONS PROBLEMS The lack of support from states for national
concerns led to foreign-relations problems for the Congress. First, since the
United States could not repay its debts to British merchants and would not compensate Loyalists for property losses suffered during the Revolutionary War,
Britain refused to evacuate its military forts on the Great Lakes. Furthermore,
Spain’s presence on the borders of the United States posed another threat to
westward expansion. In 1784, Spain closed the Mississippi River to American navigation. This action deprived Western farmers of a means of shipping their crops
Identifying
Problems
E What weak­
ness in the
Confederation was
highlighted by the
actions of Rhode
Island?
• Congress could not enact and collect
taxes.
• Congress could not regulate interstate
or foreign trade.
• Regardless of population, each state
had only one vote in Congress.
• Two-thirds majority—9 out of 13 states
needed to agree to pass any law.
• Articles could be amended only if all
states approved.
• There was no executive branch to
enforce the laws of Congress.
• There was no national court system to
settle legal disputes.
• There were 13 separate states that
lacked national unity.
How many states’ votes were needed to approve changes in the Articles of
Confederation?
Why did the listed weaknesses lead to an ineffective government?
to Eastern markets through New Orleans. Though Northerners were willing to
give up navigation rights on the Mississippi in exchange for more profitable trade
concessions, Westerners and Southerners insisted on access to the Mississippi.
However, Congress was too weak to resolve either of these challenges by Spain
and Britain.
The problems the Congress encountered in dealing with foreign nations
revealed the basic weaknesses of the Confederation government. Americans’ fear
of giving the national government too much power had resulted in a government
that lacked sufficient power to deal with the nation’s problems. The forthcoming
Constitutional Convention would change all of this.
1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
•republic
•republicanism
•Articles of Confederation
•confederation
•Land Ordinance of 1785
MAIN IDEA
CRITICAL THINKING
2. TAKING NOTES
In a diagram like the one below,
describe the powers given to the
national government by the Articles
of Confederation.
3. ANALYZING ISSUES
Why were the states afraid of
centralized authority and a strong
national government?
Articles of Confederation
National Government
war and
defense
financial
matters
Native
Americans
4. IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS
What was the main problem with the
system of representation by state
(rather than by population) that was
adopted by the Confederation?
•Northwest Ordinance of
1787
5. HYPOTHESIZING
Do you think that the United States
would have become a world power if
the Articles of Confederation had
remained the basis of government?
Explain the reasons for your opinion.
Think About:
• the power that the Articles gave
the states
• foreign affairs and the
Confederation Congress
• the Confederation Congress’s
taxation powers
What were the weaknesses of the
Articles of Confederation?
Shaping a New Nation
137
G
RAP
G
O
E
HY
SPOTLIG H
T
The Land Ordinance
of 1785
Aerial photograph showing how
the Land Ordinance transformed the landscape into a
patchwork of farms.
▼
▼
When states ceded, or gave up, their western lands to the United States, the new
nation became “land rich” even though it was “money poor.” Government leaders
searched for a way to use the land to fund such services as public education.
The fastest and easiest way to raise money would have been to sell the land in
huge parcels. However, only the rich would have been able to purchase land. The
Land Ordinance of 1785 made the parcels small and affordable.
The Land Ordinance established a plan for dividing the land. The government
would first survey the land, dividing it into townships of 36 square miles, as shown
on the map below. Then each township would be divided into 36 sections of 1
square mile, or about 640 acres, each. An individual or a family could purchase a section and divide it into farms or smaller units. A typical farm of the period was equal
to one-quarter section, or 160 acres. The minimum price per acre was one dollar.
Government leaders hoped the buyers would develop farms and establish communities. In this way settlements would spread across the western territories in an
orderly way. Government surveyors repeated the process thousands of times, imposing frontier geometry on the land.
In 1787, the Congress further provided for the orderly development of the
Northwest Territory by passing the Northwest Ordinance, which established how
states would be created out of the territory.
The map below shows how an eastern section of Ohio has been subdivided
into townships and sections, according to the Land Ordinance of 1785.
Superio
Lake
r
BRITISH TERRITORY
WISCONSIN
(1848)
i
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i ss
i
E
River
W
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u ro
eH
ak
iss
Lake Michi
gan
L
M
VT.
N.H.
NEW YORK
MICHIGAN
(1837)
S
L ak
e
PENN.
OHIO
(1803)
INDIANA
(1816)
O h io
NEW JERSEY
MD.
Riv
er
ILLINOIS
(1818)
CONN. R.I.
ie
Er
NORTHWEST TERRITORY
SPANISH
TERRITORY
U.S. territory
0
100
100
200 miles
200 kilometers
N.C.
TENNESSEE
(1796)
GEORGIA
138
CHAPTER 5
36 30 24 18 12
6
35 29 23 17
11
5
34 28 22 16 10
4
33 27 21 15
9
3
32 26 20 14
8
2
31 25 19 13
7
1
DELAWARE
VIRGINIA
Established state
0
MASS.
0
0
S.C.
MapQuest.Com, Inc.
ATLANTIC
McDougal-Littell, The Americas
OCEANProgram
18
36 kilometers
Book
R/Unit 1/Chapter 2 - arpe-0102gs-15-e
The Land Ordinance of 1785-inset2
Trim size (per page): 7p9 wide X 6p3 deep
1st proof date: 5/20/01
18
36 miles
MapQuest.Com, Inc.
McDougal-Littell, The Americas Program
6
miles
▼
This map shows how a township,
now in Meigs County, Ohio, was
divided in 1787 into parcels of
full square-mile sections and
smaller, more affordable plots.
The names of the original buyers
are written on the full sections.
RELIGION To encourage
the growth of religion within
the township, the surveyors
set aside a full section of
land. Most of the land within the section was sold to
provide funds for a church
and a minister’s salary.
This practice was dropped
after a few years because
of concern about the separation of church and state.
EDUCATION The ordinance encouraged public
education by setting aside
section 16 of every township for school buildings.
Local people used the
money raised by the sale of
land within this section to
build a school and hire a
teacher. This section was
centrally located so that
students could reach it without traveling too far.
REVENUE Congress
reserved two or three sections of each township for
sale at a later date. Congress
planned to sell the sections
then at a tidy profit. The government soon abandoned
this practice because of criticism that it
should not be involved in land speculation.
WATER Rivers and streams were very
important to early settlers, who used them for
transportation. Of most interest, however, was
a meandering stream, which indicated flat bottomland that was highly prized for its fertility.
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Analyzing Distributions How did the Land Ordinance
of 1785 provide for the orderly development of the
Northwest Territory? How did it make land affordable?
2. Creating a Chart Create a table that organizes and
summarizes the information in the map above. To help
you organize your thoughts, pose questions that the
map suggests and that a table could help answer.
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R30.
RESEARCH WEB LINKS
Shaping a New Nation
139
C T I ON
2
SE
Drafting the
Constitution
The Constitution remains the
basis of our government.
One American's Story
TAKING NOTES
Use the graphic
organizer online to
take notes about
issues debated at
the Constitutional
Convention.
•Shays’s Rebellion
•James Madison
•Roger Sherman
•Great
Compromise
•Three-Fifths
Compromise
Daniel Shays was angry. A veteran of the
Revolutionary War battles at Bunker Hill
and Saratoga, he had returned to his farm
in western Massachusetts. Because of the
heavy debt that he carried, however, he
faced debtors’ prison. Shays felt that he
was the victim of too much taxation.
During the summer and fall of 1786,
farmers like Shays kept demanding that the
courts be closed so they would not lose their
farms to creditors. Their discontent boiled
over into mob action in September of 1786
when Daniel Shays led an army of farmers
to close the courts. In 1787, Shays’s army,
1,200 strong, marched through the snow
toward the arsenal at Springfield.
State officials hurriedly called out the militia. Four of the rebels were killed
and the rest were scattered. Clearly, though, if so many farmers were rebelling,
there was something seriously wrong.
Nationalists Strengthen the Government
Shays’s Rebellion, as the farmers’ protest came to be called, caused panic and
dismay throughout the nation. Every state had debt-ridden farmers. Would rebellion spread from Massachusetts elsewhere? Not only was private property in danger, but so was the new nation’s reputation. As George Washington himself
exclaimed, “What a triumph for our enemies . . . to find that we are incapable of
governing ourselves.”
It was clearly time to talk about a stronger national government. In order to
prevent abuse of power, the states had placed such severe limits on the government that the government was too weak.
140
CHAPTER 5
•federalism
•legislative branch
•executive branch
•judicial branch
•checks and
balances
•electoral college
▼
At the Philadelphia convention
in 1787, delegates rejected
the Articles of Confederation
and created a new
constitution.
Shays’s Rebellion
in 1786–1787 not
only resulted in
the death of four
rebels but also
unsettled some of
the nation’s
leaders.
Fearing that the new nation was about to disintegrate, George Washington
addressed this issue.
A PERSONAL VOICE GEORGE WASHINGTON
“ The consequences of . . . [an] inefficient government are too obvious to be
dwelt upon. Thirteen sovereignties pulling against each other, and all tugging at
the federal head will soon bring ruin on the whole. . . . Let us have [government]
by which our lives, liberty, and property will be secured or let us know the worst
at once.”
CALL FOR CONVENTION One of the nation’s biggest problems was trade
between the states, which led to quarrels over the taxes that states imposed on
one another’s goods and disagreements over navigation rights. In September
1786, leaders such as James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton called
a meeting of state delegates
to discuss issues of interstate
trade. Only five states sent representatives to the convention,
held in Annapolis, Maryland.
Delegates decided to call for
another meeting the following
year in Philadelphia to deal
with trade and other problems.
Meanwhile, the disturbing
news of Shays’s Rebellion in
Massachusetts spread throughout the states. The incident
convinced 12 states to send
delegates to the Philadelphia
convention. A
KEY PLAYERS
Analyzing
Motives
A Why do you
think news of
Shays’s Rebellion
made states
decide to
participate in the
Philadelphia
convention?
KEY PLAYERS
CONVENTION HIGHLIGHTS
In May 1787, delegates from all
the states except Rhode Island
gathered at the Philadelphia
State House—in the same room
in which the Declaration of
Independence had been signed
11 years earlier. In spite of the
sweltering heat, the windows
were tightly closed to prevent
outsiders from eavesdropping
on the discussions.
Most of the 55 delegates
were lawyers, merchants, or
planters. Most were rich, welleducated men in their thirties
or forties. They included some
of the most outstanding leaders of the time, such as
Benjamin Franklin, Alexander
Hamilton,
and
George
Washington. Washington was
elected presiding officer by a
unanimous vote.
JAMES MADISON
1751–1836
ROGER SHERMAN
1721–1793
The oldest of 12 children,
James Madison grew up in
Virginia. He was a sickly child
who suffered all his life from
physical ailments. Because of
a weak voice, he decided not
to become a minister and
thus entered politics.
Madison’s Virginia Plan
resulted from extensive
research on political systems
that he had done before the
convention. He asked Edmund
Randolph, a fellow delegate
from Virginia, to present the
plan because his own voice
was too weak to be heard
throughout the assembly.
Besides providing brilliant
political leadership, Madison
kept a record of the debates
that took place at the convention. Because of his plan and
his leadership, Madison is
known as the “Father of the
Constitution.”
Born in Massachusetts,
Roger Sherman spoke a New
England dialect that some
people found laughable. As a
young man, he became a successful merchant. Sherman
also studied law and became
so active in politics that he
had to quit his business.
Sherman helped draft the
Declaration of Independence.
When he returned to Philadelphia in 1787 for the
Constitutional Convention, he
was 66 years old. He introduced a plan—later called
the Great Compromise—that
resolved the issue of state
representation in the national
legislature. Roger Sherman
was the only man to sign the
Continental Association of
1774, the Declaration of
Independence, the Articles of
Confederation, and the
Constitution.
Shaping a New Nation
141
Conflict Leads to Compromise
Most of the delegates recognized the need to strengthen the central government.
Within the first five days of the meeting, they gave up the idea of revising the
Articles of Confederation and decided to form a new government.
BIG STATES VERSUS SMALL STATES One big issue the delegates faced was
giving fair representation to both large and small states. Madison’s Virginia Plan
proposed a bicameral, or two-house, legislature, with membership based on each
state’s population. The voters would elect members of the lower house, who
would then elect members of the upper house.
Delegates from the small states vigorously objected to the Virginia Plan
because it gave more power to states with large populations. Small states supported William Paterson’s New Jersey Plan, which proposed a single-house congress in which each state had an equal vote.
Proponents of the plans became deadlocked. Finally, Roger Sherman, a
political leader from Connecticut, suggested the Great Compromise, which
offered a two-house Congress to satisfy both small and big states. Each state
would have equal representation in the Senate, or upper house. The size of the
population of each state would determine its representation in the House of
Representatives, or lower house. Voters of each state would choose members of
the House. The state legislatures would choose members of the Senate.
Sherman’s plan pleased those who favored government by the people insofar
as it allowed voters to choose representatives. It also pleased those who defended
states’ rights insofar as it preserved the power of state legislatures. B
SLAVERY-RELATED ISSUES Representation based on population raised the
question of whether slaves should be counted as people. Southern delegates,
whose states had many slaves, wanted slaves included in the population count
that determined the number of representatives in the House. Northern delegates,
whose states had few slaves, disagreed. Not counting Southern slaves would give the
Northern states more representatives than the Southern states in the House of Representatives. The delegates eventually agreed to the Three-Fifths Compromise,
which called for three-fifths of a state’s slaves to be counted as population.
The Three-Fifths Compromise settled the political issue but not
the economic issue of slavery. Slaveholders, especially in the South, worried that
if Congress were given power to regulate foreign trade, it might do away with the
Key Conflicts in the Constitutional Convention
STRONG CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
VS .
• Slaves should not be counted when
deciding the number of delegates.
• Slaves should be counted when
levying taxes.
142
CHAPTER 5
SMALL STATES
• A congress of one house should
be preserved.
• Each state should have one vote.
• Congress should be composed of
two houses.
• Delegates should be assigned according to population.
NORTH
STRONG STATES
• Authority derives from the states.
• The states should remain stronger than
the central government.
• Authority derives from the people.
• The central government should be
stronger than the states.
LARGE STATES
VS .
VS .
SOUTH
• Slaves should be counted when determining congressional representation.
• Slaves should not be counted when
levying taxes.
Analyzing
Issues
B Why was
Sherman’s
compromise a
success?
slave trade. To resolve this issue, the convention gave Congress the power to reg­
ulate trade but prevented it from interfering with the slave trade for at least 20
years. Although the proposal passed, not all the delegates agreed with it. James
Madison predicted, “Twenty years will produce all the mischief that can be appre­
hended from the liberty to import slaves. So long a term will be more dishonorable
to the national character than to say nothing about it in the Constitution.”
Creating a New Government
After reaching agreement on questions of slavery and representation, the delegates
dealt with other issues. They divided power between the states and the national
government and separated the national government’s power into three branches.
Summarizing
C Which powers
were granted
to the national
government and to
the state govern­
ments?
DIVISION OF POWERS The new system of government was a form of federalism
that divided power between the national government and the state governments.
The powers granted to the national government by the Constitution are known as
delegated powers, or enumerated powers. These include such powers as control of
foreign affairs, providing national defense, regulating trade between the states, and
coining money. Powers kept by the states are called reserved powers. These include
powers such as providing and supervising education, establishing marriage laws,
and regulating trade within a state. C
Both levels of government share such important powers as the right to tax, to
borrow money, and to pay debts. They also share the power to establish courts.
SEPARATION OF POWERS The delegates protected the rights of the states, but
they also granted some powers exclusively to the national government. At the
same time, they limited the authority of the government. First, they created three
branches of government—a legislative branch to make laws, an executive
branch to carry out laws, and a judicial branch to interpret the law.
Then the delegates established a system of checks and balances to prevent one
branch from dominating the others. (See the chart below.) For example, the president
has considerable power, but the Senate has to approve some of the president’s deci­
sions. The president can veto acts of Congress, but Congress can override a veto by a
The Checks and Balances of the Federal System
Checks on the Executive Branch
can override a presidential veto
approves funding for presidential programs
■ Congress can impeach and remove the president or
other high officials
■ Senate confirms or rejects federal appointments
Checks on the Judicial Branch
■ Congress
■ Congress
■ Congress
■ Senate
establishes lower federal courts
confirms or rejects appointments of judges
■ Congress can impeach and remove federal judges
LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
EXECUTIVE BRANCH
Checks on the
Legislative Branch
veto bills of Congress
call special sessions
of Congress
■ Can influence public opinion
■ Can propose legislation
Checks on the
Judicial Branch
■ Can
■ Appoints
■ Can
■ Can
federal judges
pardon or reprieve people
convicted of federal crimes
JUDICIAL BRANCH
Checks on the
Executive Branch
■ Appointed
Checks on the
Legislative Branch
for life, federal
judges are free from
presidential control
■ Can declare presidential
actions unconstitutional
■ Can
decide the meaning
of laws
■ Can declare acts of
Congress unconstitutional
Shaping a New Nation
143
N OW
THEN
N OW
THEN
two-thirds vote. The Supreme Court assumes the power to
interpret the Constitution, but the president appoints the justices, and Congress can bring them to trial for abuses of power.
The procedure for electing the president reflected two
main concerns. Because there were no national political parties and because travel and communication were limited,
there was a fear that the popular vote would be divided
among many regional candidates. Also, many among the
upper classes distrusted and feared the lower classes. Some
did not trust the common people to vote wisely; others
trusted them to vote the upper class out of power. So the delegates came up with a new system of electing the president.
Instead of voters choosing the president directly, each state
would choose a number of electors equal to the number of
senators and representatives the state had in Congress. The
group of electors chosen by the states, known as the electoral college, would cast ballots for the candidates.
THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE
Distrust of popular sovereignty
led the framers of the Constitution
to devise a complicated system
of electing the president. The
creation of an electoral college
ensured that a college of electors,
or representatives, would have
the last say in the vote.
In the 2000 presidential election, the electoral college played a
decisive role in choosing the president. Even though Al Gore won the
popular vote by a margin of
almost 540,000, the electors
gave George W. Bush 271 electoral votes—one vote more than
the 270 votes needed to win the
presidency.
CREATING THE CONSTITUTION Finally, the delegates
provided a means of changing the Constitution through the
amendment process. After nearly four months of debate and
compromise, the delegates succeeded in creating a constitution that was flexible enough to last through the centuries
to come. Yet when George Washington adjourned the convention on September 17, 1787, he was somewhat uncertain about the future of the new plan of government.
Washington remarked to a fellow delegate, “I do not expect
the Constitution to last for more than 20 years.”
The convention’s work was over, but the new government could not become a reality until the voters agreed. So
the Constitution of the United States of America was sent to
the Congress, which submitted it to the states for approval.
1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
•Shays’s Rebellion
•James Madison
•Roger Sherman
•Great Compromise
•Three-Fifths Compromise
•federalism
•legislative branch
•executive branch
•judicial branch
MAIN IDEA
CRITICAL THINKING
2. TAKING NOTES
Re-create the web below on your
paper, and fill it in with specific
issues that were debated.
3. ANALYZING ISSUES
In what ways did the new system of
government fulfill the nation’s need
for a stronger central government
and at the same time allay its fear
of a government having too much
power?
Issues Debated at the
Constitutional Convention
Choose one issue and explain how
the delegates resolved that issue.
144
CHAPTER 5
4. SUMMARIZING
What was the Great Compromise
and how did it reconcile the
interests of the small states with
the interests of the more populous
states?
•checks and balances
•electoral college
5. EVALUATING DECISIONS
Do you agree or disagree with the
creation of a system of checks and
balances? Explain your answer.
Think About:
• the main task of each branch
• how the branches function
• the efficiency of governmental
operations
C T I ON
3
SE
Ratifying the
Constitution
During the debate on the
Constitution, the Federalists
promised to add a bill of
rights in order to get the
Constitution ratified.
The Bill of Rights continues to
protect ordinary citizens.
•ratification
•Federalists
•Antifederalists
•The Federalist
•Bill of Rights
One American's Story
TAKING NOTES
Use the graphic
organizer online to
take notes about the
Federalists and the
Antifederalists.
When John Jay was in college, he refused to reveal the identity of a student who had broken school property. As he was
being interrogated, Jay pointed out that the college rules did
not require one student to inform on another.
Years later, Jay argued for ratification of the newly written
constitution. He warned how other nations would view the
United States if it did not unify itself.
A PERSONAL VOICE JOHN JAY
“ What a poor pitiful figure will America make in their eyes!
How liable would she become not only to their contempt, but to
their outrage; and how soon would dear-bought experience proclaim that when a people or family so divide, it never fails to be
against themselves.”
—The Federalist, Number 4
Whether Jay was defending his peers or his country’s
Constitution, his strong principles and commitment to unity
gave his arguments tremendous force. Men like John Jay
played a key role in ratifying the Constitution.
John Jay
Federalists and Antifederalists
The delegates to the Philadelphia convention had spent four months drafting the
Constitution. When newspapers printed the full text of the new Constitution,
many Americans were shocked by the radical changes it proposed. They had
expected the convention to merely amend the Articles of Confederation. Supporters and opponents battled over controversies that threatened to shatter the
framers’ hope of uniting the states.
Shaping a New Nation
145
“ They . . . divided the
powers, that each
[branch of the legislature] might be a check
upon the other . . . and
I presume that every
reasonable man will
agree to it.”
ALEXANDER
HAMILTON
“
CONTROVERSIES OVER THE CONSTITUTION The framers
set up a procedure for ratification that called for each state to
hold a special convention. The voters would elect the delegates
to the convention, who would then vote to accept or reject the
Constitution. Ratification—official approval—required the
agreement of at least nine states. This system largely bypassed
the state legislatures, whose members were likely to oppose the
Constitution, since it reduced the power of the states. It also
gave the framers an opportunity to campaign for delegates in
their states who would support ratification.
Supporters of the Constitution called themselves
Federalists, because they favored the new Constitution’s bal­
ance of power between the states and the national government.
Their opponents became known as Antifederalists because
they opposed having such a strong central government and
thus were against the Constitution.
The Federalists insisted that the division of powers and the
system of checks and balances would protect Americans from
the tyranny of centralized authority. Antifederalists countered
with a long list of possible abuses of power by a strong central
government. These included a fear that the government would
serve the interests of the privileged minority and ignore the
rights of the majority. Antifederalists also raised doubts that a
single government could manage the affairs of a large country.
Their leading argument, however, centered on the
Constitution’s lack of protection for individual rights. A
THE OPPOSING FORCES Leading Federalists included framers
of the Constitution such as George Washington, James Madison,
and Alexander Hamilton. They used their experience and powers
of persuasion to win support for the document they had drafted.
They received heavy support from urban centers, where mer­
chants, skilled workers, and laborers saw the benefit of a nation­
al government that could regulate trade. Small states and those
with weak economies also favored a strong central government
that could protect their interests.
You are not to inquire
Leading Antifederalists included revolutionary heroes and
how your trade may be leaders such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry
increased, nor how you Lee. They received support from rural areas, where people feared
a strong government that might add to their tax burden. Large
are to become a great
states and those with strong economies, such as New York,
and powerful people,
but how your liberties which had greater freedom under the Articles of Confederation,
also were unsupportive of the Constitution at first.
can be secured. . . .”
Both sides waged a war of words in the public debate over
PATRICK HENRY
ratification. The Federalist, a series of 85 essays defending the
Constitution, appeared in New York newspapers between 1787 and 1788. They
were published under the pseudonym Publius, but were written by Federalist lead­
ers Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. The Federalist provided an
analysis and an explanation of Constitutional provisions, such as the separation
of powers and the limits on the power of majorities, that remain important today.
Letters from the Federal Farmer, most likely written by Richard Henry Lee, was
the most widely read Antifederalist publication. Lee listed the rights the
Antifederalists believed should be protected, such as freedom of the press and of
religion, guarantees against unreasonable searches of people and their homes, and
the right to a trial by jury.
146
Chapter 5
Analyzing
Issues
A What were the
Antifederalists’
major arguments
against the
Constitution?
The Bill of Rights Leads to Ratification
The proposed U.S. Constitution contained no guarantee that the government
would protect the rights of the people or of the states. Some supporters of the
Constitution, such as Thomas Jefferson, viewed the Constitution’s lack of a bill of
rights—a formal summary of citizens’ rights and freedoms, as a serious drawback
to ratification.
A PersonAl Voice THOMAS JEFFERSON
“ I like much the general idea of framing a government, which should go on
of itself, peaceably, without needing continual recurrence to the State
legislatures. . . . I will now tell you what I do not like. First, the omission of
a bill of rights. . . . Let me add, that a bill of rights is what the people are
entitled to against every government on earth, general or particular; and what
no just government should refuse. . . .”
—letter to James Madison from Paris, December 20, 1787
Summarizing
B What were the
arguments made
by Antifederalists
and Federalists
over adding a bill
of rights to the
Constitution?
PEOPLE DEMAND A BILL OF RIGHTS Antifederalists argued that since the
Constitution weakened the states, the people needed a national bill of rights.
They wanted written guarantees that the people would have freedom of speech,
of the press, and of religion. They demanded assurance of the right to trial by jury
and the right to bear arms.
Federalists insisted that the Constitution granted only limited powers to the
national government so that it could not violate the rights of the states or of the
people. They also pointed out that the Constitution gave the people the power to
protect their rights through the election of trustworthy leaders. In the end,
though, the Federalists yielded to people’s overwhelming desire and promised to
add a bill of rights if the states would ratify the Constitution. B
RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION Delaware led the country in ratifying
the Constitution in December 1787. In June 1788, New Hampshire fulfilled the
requirement for ratification by becoming the ninth state to approve the
Constitution. Nevertheless, Virginia and New York had not voted, and the new
government needed these very large and influential states.
Powerful adversaries squared off in Virginia. Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee,
and James Monroe led the opposition. Richard Henry Lee, a prominent political
A parade in New
York in 1788
celebrates the
new Constitution
and features the
“Ship of State”
float. Alexander
Hamilton’s name
emphasizes the
key role he played
in launching the
new government.
▼
figure of his time, claimed that those in favor of the Constitution were voluntarily placing themselves under the power of an absolute ruler.
A PERSONAL VOICE RICHARD HENRY LEE
“ ’Tis really astonishing that the same people, who have just emerged from a long
and cruel war in defense of liberty, should now agree to fix an elective despotism
[absolute power] upon themselves and their posterity.”
The struggle for New York pitted John Jay and Alexander Hamilton against a
strong Antifederalist majority. Jay, Hamilton, and Madison launched an effective
public campaign through The Federalist. News of ratification by New Hampshire
and Virginia strengthened the Federalists’ cause. On July 26, 1788, New York ratified by a vote of 30 to 27. Although Rhode Island did not accept the Constitution
until 1790, the new government became a reality in 1789.
THEN
THEN
N OW
N OW
SOUTH AFRICA CREATES A
BILL OF RIGHTS
On May 8, 1996, South African
lawmakers danced in the aisles of
South Africa’s Parliament. They
had just approved a landmark
constitution guaranteeing equal
rights for blacks and whites in the
new South Africa. Included in this
Pretoria
constitution was a bill of rights
Soweto
modeled in part on the United
ATLANTIC
INDIAN
States Bill of Rights, though with
OCEAN
OCEAN
SOUTH
AFRICA
significant differences.
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within the country, which was often
denied blacks under apartheid. In
addition, the bill of rights guarantees a range of social and economic rights—including the right to
adequate housing, food, water,
education, and health care—which
were often denied blacks under
apartheid.
▼
People outside the polling station
in the black township of Soweto
waiting to vote in South Africa’s
first multiracial election.
148
CHAPTER 5
Nelson Mandela, the first black president of
South Africa, greets a crowd celebrating the
new constitution May 8, 1996. ▼
ADOPTION OF A BILL OF RIGHTS In several states,
ratification had hinged on the Federalists’ pledge to add
a bill of rights. In September 1789, Congress submitted 12 amendments to the state legislatures for ratification. By December 1791, the required three-fourths
of the states had ratified ten of the amendments,
which became known as the Bill of Rights.
The first eight amendments spell out the personal
liberties the states had requested. The Ninth and Tenth
Amendments impose general limits on the powers of
the federal government.
• The First Amendment—guarantees citizens’ rights to
freedom of religion, speech, the press, and political
activity.
The Bill of Rights
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Religious and political freedom
Right to bear arms
Freedom from quartering troops
Freedom against unreasonable search
and seizure
Rights of accused persons
Right to a speedy, public trial
Right to a trial by jury
Limits on fines and punishments
Rights of the people
Powers of states and the people
• The Second and Third Amendments—grant citizens the right to bear arms as
members of a militia of citizen-soldiers and prevent the government from
housing troops in private homes in peacetime.
• The Fourth through Eighth Amendments—guarantee fair treatment for individuals suspected or accused of crimes.
• The Ninth Amendment—makes it clear that people’s rights are not restricted to
just those specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
• The Tenth Amendment—clarifies that the people and the states have all the
powers that the Constitution does not specifically give to the national government or deny to the states.
The protection of rights and freedoms did not apply to all Americans at the
time the Bill of Rights was adopted. Native Americans and slaves were excluded.
Women were not mentioned in the Constitution. Although some northern states
permitted free blacks to vote, the Bill of Rights offered them no protection against
whites’ discrimination and hostility. The expansion of democracy came from later
amendments. Nevertheless, the flexibility of the U.S. Constitution made it a
model for governments around the world.
.
1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
•ratification
•Federalists
•Antifederalists
•The Federalist
MAIN IDEA
CRITICAL THINKING
2. TAKING NOTES
Use a chart like the one below to
show which groups and public figures
supported the Federalists and which
supported the Antifederalists.
3. EVALUATING
Do you think the Federalists or the
Antifederalists had the more valid
arguments? Support your opinion
with examples from the text.
Think About:
• whom each group represented
Public
Figures
Groups
Federalists
Antifederalists
• Americans’ experience with the
Articles of Confederation
•Bill of Rights
4. ANALYZING MOTIVES
Why did the Antifederalists demand
the Bill of Rights?
5. HYPOTHESIZING
How might the course of American
history have changed if the Bill of
Rights had forbidden discrimination
of all kinds and had protected the
rights of minorities?
• Americans’ experience with
British rule
Which group would you have
supported? Explain why.
Shaping a New Nation
149
CHAPTER
ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES
VISUAL SUMMARY
A
SHAPING
NEW NATION
For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its
significance for the United States in the 1780s.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
republic
Articles of Confederation
Land Ordinance of 1785
Shays’s Rebellion
James Madison
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
checks and balances
electoral college
Federalist
Antifederalist
Bill of Rights
MAIN IDEAS
The Articles of Confederation
were too weak to provide a basis
for government.
Use your notes and the information in the chapter to answer
the following questions.
Experimenting with Confederation (pages 132–137)
1. Why did the new states prefer a republic rather than a
democracy for their government?
2. Why did the states fear a strong central government?
3. In what ways was the confederation too weak to handle
the nation’s problems?
Drafting the Constitution (pages 140–144)
The Articles were replaced by a
new system of government that
divided power between
4. What issues and events led to the Constitutional
Convention?
5. In what ways did compromise play a critical role in the
drafting of the Constitution?
6. Why was the slave trade an issue at the Constitutional
the
NATIONAL
government
AND
the
STATE
governments.
Convention?
7. Briefly explain the separation of powers established by
the Constitution.
Ratifying the Constitution (pages 145–149)
8. What were the arguments for and against ratifying the
Constitution?
9. What was The Federalist and what effect did this publication
have on ratification?
10. Why did the states ratify the Constitution once a bill of rights
was promised?
CRITICAL THINKING
1. USING YOUR NOTES In a chart like the one below, list the
beliefs and goals of the Federalists and Antifederalists.
Federalists
Antifederalists
Beliefs
the
the
The new The new
Bill of Bill of
Constitution
Constitution
whenwhenwhen Rights Rights
was
was
was
was
ratified ratified
accepted.accepted.
Goals
2. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE How might the
United States have developed if the Articles of Confederation
had continued to provide the basis for government?
3. MAKING INFERENCES In what ways was the land of the
Northwest Territory distributed democratically?
150
CHAPTER 5
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
Use the quotation below and your knowledge of
United States history to answer questions 1 and 2.
“ Among the numerous advantages promised by
a well-constructed Union, none deserves to be
more accurately developed than its tendency to
break and control the violence of faction. . . .
By a faction, I understand a number of citizens,
whether amounting to a majority or a minority
of the whole, who are united and actuated by
some common impulse of passion, or of interest,
adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to
the permanent and aggregate interests of the
community. . . . A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed
interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of
necessity in civilized nations, and divide them
into different classes, actuated by different
sentiments and views.”
—James Madison, The Federalist, Number 10
2. Madison believed that factions were —
F
G
H
J
necessary to the working of government.
characteristic of British government only.
extremely destructive and divisive.
outdated and insignificant.
3. The Constitution was finally ratified because —
A the Federalists agreed to grant additional
powers to the states.
B the Federalists agreed to add a Bill of Rights.
C the electoral college voted for ratification.
D the Antifederalists agreed to additional
restrictions on the power of the states.
4. Why was it so difficult to devise a system of
government for the United States?
F The new nation was too big.
G No one wanted a national government.
H Many feared that a national government would
infringe upon the power of the states.
J Some states did not want to rejoin Britain.
1. As used by Madison, the term faction means —
A
B
C
D
any interest group.
a religious cult.
either of the two political parties.
anyone who does not own property.
INTERACT WITH HISTORY
Think about the issues you explored at the beginning
of the chapter. Imagine you are living in the 1780s.
Write an article for either The Federalist or Letters
from the Federal Farmer, arguing either for or against
giving the national government more power.
FOCUS ON WRITING
You are a representative of one of the former
colonies and you have just returned from the
Constitutional Convention. Write a letter explaining
how the U.S. Constitution is an improvement upon
the Articles of Confederation. Support your explanation with reasoning and examples from the chapter.
For additional test practice, go online for:
• Diagnostic tests
• Tutorials
COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Organize into pairs and choose an issue
debated at the Constitutional Convention. Read
the section of the Constitution that contains the final
compromise as well as documents that show the
various sides of the issue before a compromise was
reached. Then prepare a debate of the issue to present to the class. Each partner should draft a threeminute speech defending one side of the issue. The
opposing partner should give a short rebuttal after
each point of view is presented. Have the class evaluate the two sides of the argument before you remind
your classmates how the issue was resolved.
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