Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt 291
HISTORICAL WATERWORKS IN TURKEY
Ünal ÖZ
(*) Ay en TÜRKMAN (**) Yalçın ÖZDEM R (*)
(*) Civil Engineering Department
(**) Environmental Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, zmir, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Turkey has been the home of ancient civilizations since the beginning of history.
Hittites, Urartus, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljukides and Ottomans left delicate
remains in Anatolia. Ancient waterworks are distributed all over the country making
Turkey an open-air museum with respect to water history.
The most ancient remains of waterworks in Turkey date back to the II. Millenium BC,
the Hittite period in Central Anatolia, like the Karakuyu dam, the springwater collection
chamber in Bo azkale, and some others. From the first half of the I. Millenium BC, the
Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia, there exist various remains of dams and canals, some
of them still in use like the 56 km long amram canal, the dams at Ke i and Doni lakes.
Remains of Hellenistic and especially Roman and early Byzantine waterworks in
Western and Southern Turkey, from the second half of the I. Millenium BC to the first
half of the I. Millenium AD; are very numerous and new discoveries add to the rich
variety of them. Among the remains of waterworks from the Ottoman period in Turkey,
14. to 20. centuries, those for stanbul and Edirne deserve particular interest. Starting
from 1923, the Turkish Republic has also spent huge effort in water resources
development projects.
Keywords: Historical, , ancient, waterworks, Turkey.
INTRODUCTION
The relationship between water and civilizations is obvious: ancient civilizations have
developed near water resources. There are many examples of engineering structures
remaining from the ancient times. Water-related documents and remains show that the
oldest water works were realized in the Nile basin, in Mesopotamia formed by
Euphrates and Tigris, in Indus and Huang-Ho (Yellow river) basins, during the III. and
II. Millennia BC, primarily for control of rivers and for irrigation.
It is almost obvious, that the flourishing of such civilizations in relatively arid zones, but
close to large rivers, could have only been achieved by the development of waterwork
systems enabling the control and utilization of these rivers. Hence, the earliest powerful
states appeared in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and China; due to the necessity of a
powerful central authority to manage the large water systems in these countries and they
292 Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt
were also called "hydraulic civilizations".
On the other hand, it is quite natural that the need for large waterworks in less arid
zones with suitable climate and lacking such large rivers, like Turkey and many other
Mediterranean countries arises quite later. The first powerful state in Asia Minor, the
Hittites, dates from the II. Millennium BC and those in other Mediterranean regions are
quite later.
Significant variations, in time and space, of precipitation, groundwater and especially
river discharges, led the inhabitants of this planet to construct dams for preventing
damages caused by water and/or for beneficial use of water. Since about 5000 years,
such dams served to control floods, to divert rivers, to supply domestic and irrigation
water, and even to harness the mechanical energy of water through water-mills, long
before the development of modern hydraulic structures and hydroelectric equipment.
Although archeologists, historians and occasionally civil engineers have made limited
number of publications until the second half of the 20. century on ancient waterworks,
they attracted growing interest after 1950’s, especially with increasing contributions of
civil engineers and with special interest towards ancient hydraulic works in Turkey
(Garbrecht [1,2], Grewe [3, 4], Fahlbusch [5], Tölle-Kastenbein [6], Yıldız & Kuzum
[23], Hodge [7], Crouch [8], Schnitter [9], Özi [10-19], Bildirici [20], Büyükyıldırım
[21], D.S. . [22], Viollet [24]).
The first traces of the actual concept of positive sciences and the transition from art to
science in water engineering are observed in the Aegean region of the Anatolian soil,
beginning with the contributions of Thales (624-548 BC), the founder of the Miletusschool and one of the seven wisest men of his time. However, the real emphasis of
positive sciences in the design and construction of waterworks could be achieved after
the 17. century AD.
Hydraulic structures implemented during the last four thousand years on Anatolian soil,
which was the crossroads of civilizations, make Turkey one of the richest and
interesting open-air museums of the world with regard to ancient waterworks. Table 1
gives the summary of ancient waterworks in Turkey. The locations are indicated in
Figure 1.
HITTITE PERIOD IN CENTRAL ANATOLIA
The most ancient remains of waterworks in Turkey date back to the II. Millennium BC,
the Hittite period in Central Anatolia.
These include Karakuyu and some other dams like Eflatunpınar, Köylütolu, Yalburt,
Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt 293
Gölpınar, Güneykale (Emre [25], Özi [18]; Bildirici [26], the springwater collection in
Bo azkale (Neve [27]), and some irrigation works in Central Anatolia (Bildirici &
Bildirici [28]).
Table 1. Summary of ancient waterworks in Turkey.
Civilization
Period
Hitite
2nd millennium BC
Urartu
1st millennium (first
half) BC
Hellenistic,
Roman,
Byzantine
1st millennium
(second half) - 1st
millennium AD
Seljukide
10th -13th century
Ottoman
13th -20th century
Republic of
Turkey
1923-present
Waterworks
-Dams
-Springwater
collection chambers
-Conduits
-Canals
-Dams
-Galleries
-Conveyance systems
-Cisterns
-Tunnels
-Dams
-Conveyance systems
-Irrigation canals
-Conveyance systems
-Dams
- All types
Location
Central Anatolia
Eastern Anatolia
Western and
Southern Anatolia
Different parts of
Turkey
Different parts of
Turkey
Different parts of
Turkey
URARTU PERIOD IN EASTERN ANATOLIA
From the first half of the I. Millenium BC, the Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia, there
exist various remains of dams and canals (Ö ün [29], Garbrecht [30], Belli [31], Özi
[18], Bildirici [26]). Some of them are still in use like the 56 km long amram canal, the
dams at Ke i , Doni and Süphan lakes. Still in use are also certain qanats in Van, with
additional examples from the Seljukide period, and carefully maintained in the Ottoman
period.
HELLENISTIC, ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS IN WESTERN
AND SOUTHERN ANATOLIA
1. Long distance water conveyance to cities
Remains of Hellenistic and especially Roman and early Byzantine waterworks in
Western and Southern Turkey, from the second half of the I. Millenium BC to the first
half of the I. Millenium AD, are very numerous and new discoveries add to the rich
variety of them.
Cities like:
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- stanbul (Dalman [32], Çeçen [33], Özi [18]);
- Pergamon (Garbrecht [34, 35], Fahlbusch [36])
- Ephesus (Forchheimer [37], Atalay, Özi et al. [38, 39, 40], Ortloff&Crouch [41],
Wiplinger [42] (Figure 2);
- zmir (Weber [43], Özi , Özdemir; et al. [44] (Figure 3);
- Perge (Büyükyıldırım [21];
were supplied by several water conveyance systems.
With regard to the length, the most important conveyances are:
- 240 km long water conveyance system to stanbul along the southern slopes of
Istranca-mountains in Thrace (Çeçen [33]);
- almost 100 km long water conveyance from Muradiye springs to Phocea (Özi [10, 11,
12]);
- 65 km long water conveyance from Soma to Pergamon (Garbrecht [39, 35], Fahlbusch
[36]);
- 43 km long water conveyance from Ku adası to Ephesus (Atalay, Özi et al. [38, 39,
40]) (Figure 2).
The water conveyance sytems to: Side (Grewe [45]); Aspendos (Büyükyıldırım [21],
Kessener & Piras [46], Kessener [47], Piras [48], Alabanda (Özi [49]) (Figure 4);
Diocaisereia, Olba, Elaiussa (Arısoy, Özi et al. [50]) (Figure 5); Oenoanda and other
Cibyratis cities (Coulton [51]); Patara (Büyükyıldırım [21]); Antiochia of Pisidia (Burdy
and Ta lıalan [52]); Selge (Büyükyıldırım [21]); Xanthos (Büyükyıldırım [21]; Burdy &
Lebouteiller [53]); Amaseia (D.S. . [22]); Magnesia (Baykan, Tanrıöver et al. [54]);
Miletus (Tuttahs [55]); Samosata ( zmirligil [56]); Hierapolis; Laodiceia; Iassos;
Antiochia of Orontes; Nicomedia; Ankara; as well as Aphrodisias, Nysa, Metropolis,
Tripolis, Alinda, Tralleis (Weber [57]; Coulton [51], Özi [10, 12, 13, 19]); deserve also
particular interest with regard to hydraulics technology.
The antique water conveyance systems in Turkey encompass aqueducts up to 40 m
height; tunnels of over 2 m height; inverted siphons up to 190 m pressure for lead and
155 m for stone pipese; lead-, stone-, clay-pipes of various sizes; rock-cut and masonry
canals; springwater collection chambers; city reservoirs; water distribution and
sewerage networks.
Along the water conveyance systems, the aqueducts of stanbul, Pergamon, Side, Ephesus,
Elaiussa, zmir, Alinda, Phaselis; the lead-pipe inverted siphon of Pergamon; the stonepipe inverted siphons of zmir, Gerga, Laodikeia, Oenoanda, Ankara; the siphon
substructures and stone-pipe siphons of Aspendos and Patara; tunnels of Side,
Diokaisereia, Olba; springwater colection chambers of Alabanda; city reservoirs of
Hierapolis and Alabanda; deserve special mention. The water distribution and wastewater
collection nets of Priene are exceptional examples of antique urban hydraulics technology
(Crouch [8]), Özi [10, 13].
2. Cisterns
Cisterns have almost during all periods of the history played a certain part in Turkey
(Özi [58]). Covered and open cisterns in stanbul, from the 4th to 8th centuries, with
side lengths in the order of 150 to 250 m, are extraordinary examples of antique cisterns
(Forchheimer & Strzygowski [59]).
Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt 295
3. Dams
Dams like the 10 m high Çavdarhisar, 16 m high Örükaya and Böget in central Anatolia,
Ildır near Çe me date back to the Roman period; the three Dara-dams, with the first
being one of the oldest arch dams, as well as Lö tü ün, Sihke, Sultan dams to the early
Byzantine period; some of the dams around Van in eastern Anatolia might date to the
middle-ages (Schnitter [60, 9], Garbrecht & Vogel [6], Özi [10, 13, 18], Bildirici [26]).
Figure 1. Location map of ancient hydraulic works in Turkey (prepared by Arısoy for
a book by Özi & Benzeden (eds) to be published).
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Figure 2. Long-distance water conveyance systems to Ephesus
(Özi , Atalay, et al. [39])
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Figure 3. Long-distance water conveyance systems to zmir
(Özi , Özdemir et al. [44])
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Figure 4. Long-distance water conveyance systems to Alabanda (Özi [9])
The Faruk-dam near Van, half of it having collapsed in 1988, is difficult to be dated; the
anticipated origin might go back to the Urartu-period, whereas other opinions put them
to the 10th-14th centuries, as contemporary of some dams in Iran (Schnitter [60],
Garbrecht [62], Özi [10, 18]).
4. Tunnels and tunnel-like superstructures on creeks
The diversion system of the creek flowing through in Seleuceia Pieria, to prevent the
siltation of the port, began to be constructed in the 1.century AD and was completed in
the 2.century AD. The system has a total length of 875 m; encompass a 15 m high dam
(Garbrecht [63], Özi [18]); two tunnel stretches of horse-shoe and trapezoidal crosssections with 6-7 m side lengths; three rock-cut canal stretches (Alkan & Özi [64],
Grewe [4]); and forms a unique example of its kind (Figure 6).
The tunnel-like twin-superstructures on Pergamon-creek, each with almost 200 m
length, were constructed during the roman period; they have simple horse-shoe crosssections, with 9 m width and 7.5 m height, forming the largest of its kind in the world;
the superstructure on Nysa-creek has a width of 7 m at the entrance and 5.5 to 6 m
heights (Özi , Harmancıo lu, et al. [65], Grewe, Özi , et al. [66]).
Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt 299
SELJUKIDE PERIOD IN ANATOLIA
There are certain remains from the Seljukide period in Central and Eastern Anatolia,
from 10. to 13. centuries. These include the water conveyance canal to a water-mill in
Çermik (Özi [11, 12]); qanats and other water conduits in anlıurfa; the Sahip Ata
irrigation canals in Konya, the irrigation systems in Ere li and some others in central
Anatolia (Bildirici [20]; Bildirici & Bildirici [28]).
The Great Seljukides have constructed several dams in Iran and Turkmenistan, outside
the actual territory of Turkey, where the existence of only two dam sites, impounded by
the reservoirs of modern Altinapa and Sille dams near Konya, are reported according to
ancient documents (Çeçen [67]). The book by El Cezeri (1196) is a masterpiece on
hydromechanical devices, dating from the same period.
OTTOMAN PERIOD IN ANATOLIA & THRACE
1. Water conveyance systems to stanbul and Edirne
Among the remains of waterworks from the Ottoman period in Turkey, 14. to 20.
centuries, those for stanbul (Özi [68, 13], Çeçen [69]) and Edirne (Özi , Arısoy [70,
71] deserve particular interest. The Halkalı conveyance systems to stanbul constructed
in the period of 1450'
s to 1750'
s, consist of 16 systems with a total length of 130.
The most important among the Halkalı systems, is the 50 km long Süleymaniye water
conveyance, constructed by Sinan the Architect in 1550'
s (Çeçen [69]). The 50 km long
Ta lımüsellim system to Edirne, is also considered as a work of Sinan, dating from
1530'
s (Özi & Arısoy [70, 71]) (Figure 7).
300 Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt
Figure 5. Long-distance water conveyance systems to Diocaisereia, Olba, Elaiussa in
Lamas (Limonlu) basin (Arısoy, Özi , Kaya [50]).
Figure 6. Layout of the diversion tunnel in Seleucia Pieria
(Çevlik) (Alkan & Özi [64])
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The 55 km long Kırkçe me system to stanbul from 1560'
s, is one of the masterworks of
Sinan, with four major aqueducts (Uzun, E ri, Ma lova, Güzelce) up to 35 m height and
700 m length (Çeçen [69], Özi & Arısoy [70, 71], Schnitter [72]). The Taksim water
conveyance to stanbul from 1730'
s and the Üsküdar systems east of Bosphorus from
16. to 19. centuries are also noteworthy. In spite of all these water conveyance systems,
stanbul experienced water scarcity from time to time.
2. Dams
In the period of 1620 to 1839, the Kırkçe me system is supported by four, the Taksim
system by three dams, with heights up to 17 m and crest lengths up to 104 m (Özi [73,
74, 10, 12, 13, 18], Çeçen [67, 69], Bildirici [26]) (Figure 8).
All these dams, Kırkçe me and Taksim systems as well as the Ta lımüsellim-Edirne
system are for the large part still in operation. The Elmalı I dam, constructed in 1893 on
the asian side of stanbul, is also still in operation; amlar in stanbul, Maden near
Adapazarı, Semalı near Amasya are other interesting dams of the Ottoman period
(Çeçen [67], Özi [18]).
3. Other waterworks
Sinan planned towards the end of the 16.th century, in order to accomplish an attempt
going back to the 6.th century, the connection of Marmara and Black Sea through
Sapanca lake and Sakarya river; this latter plan remained also unrealised. The water
works of anlıurfa were extended during the ottoman period; qanats in the regions of
Van and anlıurfa were carefully maintained.
The diversion of Gediz river to prevent the closure of the zmir bay in late 19. century
(Özi [10]); Bey ehir-Çumra irrigation south of Konya in early 20. century (Bildirici
[20], Özi [10]); the generation of the first electricity in Turkey in 1902 at the Tarsus
hydroelectric scheme (Özi [10]) are other interesting achievements at the down of the
Ottoman Empire.
CONCLUSIONS
Various dams, dating from the Hittite period in Central Anatolia, from the Urartu period
in Eastern Anatolia, from the Hellenistic-Roman-Byzantine periods as well as from the
Seljukide and Ottoman periods in different parts of Turkey, with some of them still in
use after so many centuries, even millennia, make Turkey one of the most outstanding
open-air museums of the world in this respect.
Large variations in time and space made necessary the regulation of watercourses
through reservoirs created by dams and use long-distance conveyances. The basic dam
construction technology was earth dams with stone paved slopes by the Hittites, earth
core between two masonry walls made of stone blocks by the Urartus, opus-
302 Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt
caementitium core between two masonry walls made of rectangular stone blocks by the
Romans, rubble masonry core with mortar between vertical upstream and inclined
downstream facing of regular stone blocks by the Ottomans.
Figure 7. Long-distance water conveyance system from Ta lımüsellim
to Edirne (Özi & Arısoy [70])
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Figure 8. Location of ancient ottoman dams in stanbul and the alignment of
Kırkçe me and Taksim long-distance water
conveyance systems (Özi , [74])
Turkey'
s water resources are in the order of 185 billion m3/year surface and 8 billion
3
m /year groundwater potential. Although this appears as a large potential in absolute
terms, when compared to most of her neighbors in the Middle-East and Eastern
Mediterranean, the water potential per capita is actually about 3000 m3/year/person,
being quite less than the world'
s average.
All these ancient dams and other hydraulic works have developed only a very small
fraction of the total potential. Therefore, based on a four-millennia-long tradition of
hydraulics technology and dam construction, the modern Republic of Turkey, founded
in 1923 by the great Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, began in 1930'
s to attempt the
development of the country'
s water resources on a larger scale. Turkey is intensely
involved in constructing large-scale water works, to supply billions of m3 water for
urban and industrial needs, to irrigate 8.5 million hectares of land and to generate 125
billion kWh/year, by means of over 700 large dams and 600 hydroelectric power plants.
Turkey, being an open-air museum with regard to historical waterworks from Karakuyu
(black well) dam of the II. Millenium BC to Karakaya (black rock) dam of 20. Century,
304 Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt
should develop its water resources up to 2023, by making use of this 4000 years of
experience in order to provide food and light to its own citizens and to support
neighboring countries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This manuscript is based on various papers by the senior author and his collaborators,
cited in the list of references. He greatly appreciates their contributions. He also
appreciates the support of various institutions in his activities on historical hydraulic
works, primarily of D.S. . (Devlet Su leri = State Hydraulic Works), as well as of the
Armed Forces of Turkey, Municipalities of stanbul and Edirne, and last but not the
least, of Ege and Dokuz Eylül Universities in zmir. He further acknowledges the
support of the late Ord.Prof.Dr. Ekrem Akurgal and other personalities from the field of
archeology and art history, of the late Prof.Dr. Kazım Çeçen and other personalities
from the field of civil engineering.
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