Society for History Education
The Haitian Revolution and the Forging of America
Author(s): Jim Thomson
Source: The History Teacher, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Nov., 2000), pp. 76-94
Published by: Society for History Education
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Jim Thomson
76
sions about how their topic affected individuals,communities,nations,
or the world.
Students investigating this year's theme may explore a geographical
frontierand how it changed over time or they may focus on the people
who lived there and the significance of frontierlife. A frontiermay be
geographical,an areaon the peripheryof a settled society or between two
societies. Typically, everyday life is cruder,institutionsare simpler,and
contact with outsiders is greater than in the longer-settled core. As
settlement expands, this frontier area develops into a mature society
itself, but often remainssignificantlydifferentfrom the older core society. Another geographicaldefinition of a frontier is the formal border
between two countriesor societies, particularlywhen they are hostile to
each other. Students may examine the role that bordershave played in
specific conflicts between countries or how borders have kept people
apart,willingly or not. Finally, the termfrontiermay signify the limits of
knowledge or achievementin a particularactivity or subject. As in the
first definition, a frontierof this sortchanges over time: what is a frontier
for one generation may be commonplace for succeeding generations.
Student interestmay then turnto exploring the work of individualswho
have thoughtof new ways of organizinghumanlife politically, economically, religiously, or socially and to assessing the impact of these new
ideas. Or, perhaps their attention will be capturedby the athletic or
cultural achievements of individuals who refused to be limited by the
boundariesof convention.
The Haitian Revolution and the Forging of America
Jim Thomson
Breck School, Minneapolis,Minnesota
Junior Division Historical Paper, National HistoryDay Competition
DURING THE NIGHT of August 22, 1791, a wave of fire engulfed the
French West Indies colony of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti), as
hundredsof thousandsof slaves set fire to plantations,torchedcities, and
massacreda terrifiedwhite population.The slave rebellion that started
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The HaitianRevolution and the Forging of America
77
thatnight-the most successful slave rebellionin history-lasted 12 long
years. It culminatedin the founding of the second independentnation in
the Western Hemisphereand its first black-governedrepublic.But more
thanthis,the HaitianRevolutionwas a turningpointin history,the repercussions of whichextendedfarbeyondthe smallislandnation.Perhapsnowhere
was its impactgreaterthanin the UnitedStates,whereHaiti's slave revolt
figureddirectlyin two of themostsignificanteventsin UnitedStateshistory:
the LouisianaPurchaseandthe AmericanCivil War.
In 1789, on the eve of the FrenchRevolution, St. Domingue was the
world's most prosperouscolony. It was "anintegralpartof the economic
life of the age, the greatestcolony in the world, the pride of France,and
the envy of every other imperialist nation."' Its plantationeconomy
produced an abundanceof crops, of which sugar was by far the most
important.At its peak, St. Domingue producedmore sugar than all the
British Caribbean islands put together and was responsible for forty
percent of the overseas tradeof France.2
The entire economic structureof St. Domingue rested on the backs of
a population denied any participationin the colony's prosperity3-the
more than one-half million black slaves who were raided from their
homelands in Africa and broughtin slave ships to the New World to fill
an ever-expanding demand for labor and profits. Black slavery in St.
Domingue, as in the rest of the Western Hemisphere, was brutal and
dehumanizing. The Code Noir enacted by the French government in
1685, ostensibly to ensure humane treatmentfor slaves, was ignored
from the startby the plantationowners in St. Domingue.4The Catholic
Church,althougha political force in the colony, was itself a slaveholding
institution and, accordingly, both unwilling and unable to exercise its
moral authorityon the issue of slavery.5 Therefore,the upperclass, or
grandsblancs, who owned slaves were left to treatthem in any way they
chose.
Two factors-fear and greed-virtually dictatedthe mistreatmentof
the slaves. In St. Domingue, where slaves outnumberedslaveholdersby
fifteen to one,6 slaveholderssought throughunspeakablycruel and punishing conditions to keep the slaves subservientand to deter thoughtsof
rebellion.Purelyeconomic considerationsalso workedagainstthe slaves.
For planters,it was cheaperto work slaves to death and acquirereplacements thanto care for them into old age. Consequently,slave mortalityon
St. Domingue was unusually high.' As sugar prices rose in the years
leading up to the FrenchRevolution, St. Domingue's slaves were driven
harderthan ever.8
Given the brutalityto which St. Domingue's slaves were subjected,it
is not surprising that resentment of the white population smoldered
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Jim Thomson
within the slave population.In 1789, the French Revolution unleashed
demands for sweeping social and governmentalchange which quickly
spreadfrom the mothercountryto the colonies. Plantersand merchants
demanded greater freedom from colonial ministers; free-coloreds and
mulattoesdemandedsocial equality.A virtualcivil war erupted,with all
factions raising troops and fighting for control of the colonial government.9 For two years, St. Domingue's slaves sat on the sidelines of this
fighting. But by 1791 a numberof factors had converged to ignite the
flames of open revolt within this population. During the period from
1788 to 1791 the slave populationburgeoned-growing by more than
100,000-as a resultof soaringdemandfor sugarandthe otherexportsof
St. Domingue. These newly importedAfricans, "insufficientlyacculturated" to ensure docility, would provide the "mass base of the insurrection."10Additionally,"mushroomingprices of colonial productsin revolutionary France" translatedinto increased slave exploitation, further
fanningslave unrest." Finally, the white planters,preoccupiedwith their
own grievances, loosened their grip on the slaves, allowing repressed
hatredfinally to explode, fueled by the cries of liberty and equality that
reverberatedthroughoutthe FrenchRevolution.12
The course of the slave rebellionbegun in fire on the night of August
22, 1791, was long and tortuous.In the process of achieving independence, the slaves fought anddefeated,in turn,the local white plantersand
troops of the Frenchmonarchy,a Spanishinvasion, a Britishexpeditionary force, and, in the end, the supposedly invincible army of Napoleon
Bonaparte. Instrumentalin the Revolution's success was one manToussaint Louverture,a former Creole slave, regardedby some as a
saviorandby othersas a calculatingdictator." In 1793, he took charge of
the poorly-organized slaves and molded them into an efficient, disciplined fighting unit known for its guerrillaattacks. It was Toussaint's
leadershipthat steeredthe revolutionthroughyears of savage fighting in
a three way racialwar between whites, blacks, and mulattos.In 1796, he
became St. Domingue's governorgeneral.Througha shrewdmixtureof
statecraftand diplomacy, he began to rebuildhis battered,war-ravaged
country, eventually negotiating trade alliances with the British and the
United States.
Feared by monarchiesand slaveowners,Toussaintbecame known as
the Black Napoleon. Meanwhile, the real Napoleon had set his sights on
retakingSt. Domingue as partof his re-establishmentof a Frenchempire
in the WesternHemisphere.To defend St. Domingue andthe otherSugar
Islands of the West Indies, Napoleon intendedto create a North American military base located in the vast Louisiana territory,newly re-acquired from Spain. The agriculturaloutput of the Louisiana territory
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The HaitianRevolution and the Forging of America
79
would feed the sugarcolonies-which, while prosperous,hadnever been
self-sufficient-and its wealth in furs and raw materialswould be used to
finance Napoleon's military ventures. Before he could take control of
Louisiana,however, Napoleon needed to regaincontrolof St. Domingue,
which was to serve as a rest stop and supply center for ships headed for
the North Americancontinent.Toussaintwas an obstacle to Napoleon's
ambitions; in particular,to his plan to restore slavery to the French
Caribbean.14Therefore,Napoleondispatcheda massive amphibiousforce
to destroy him and reclaimSt. Domingue. In retrospect,Napoleon would
call this decision the greatestfolly of his life."'
Although the French troops, commandedby Napoleon's brother-inlaw General Charles Leclerc, arrivedunder the guise of protecting St.
Domingue, Toussaint was not fooled. When the French army landed on
St. Domingue, it found a barrenwastelandof charredplantations,slaughteredlivestock,andmutilatedwhitecorpses.Dessalines,one of Toussaint's
commandingofficers, emphasizedthe tactic of destructionemployed by
the rebels: "The whites from France cannot hold out against us in St.
Domingue. They will fight well at first, but soon they will fall sick and
die like flies.... We will harass them and beat them, we will burn the
harvestsand then take to the hills."•6Dessalines was right.Over the next
twenty-twomonths,Napoleon'sarmywas devastatedby guerrillawarfare,
insurrectionsandyellow fever.17 In June 1802, the French,exasperatedand
exhausted,resortedltodeceptionto defeatToussaint,luringhimto a meeting
ostensiblyto discuss peace. Once there,Toussaintwas capturedand transportedto France,wherehe died a prisonerten monthslater.
Toussaint's capture, however, did not end St. Domingue's fight for
freedom;instead, it incited his followers to fight even harder.In October
1802, Leclerc sent a desperate message to Napoleon requesting more
men and advising:"Ifyou cannotsend the troopsI demand... [thecolony]
will be forever lost to France.""'Napoleon responded to this plea by
sending 20,000 additional troops under a new commander in January
1803, but these reinforcements arrived too late to turn the tide. By
November, having lost more than40,000 troopsin battleor from disease,
France surrenderedand was forced to leave the island.19Napoleon's
legendary army had been defeated by former slaves with no formal
militarytraining.
The historical impact of the Haitian Revolution would extend far
beyond the small Caribbeanisland.Withoutcontrolof the crownjewel of
its plannedempire, Francesaw the Louisianaterritoryas a useless drain
on its resources. Needing money for his renewed war with England,
Napoleon sold the vast Louisianaterritoryto the United States on April
30, 1803, for about four cents an acre.20With this abruptact, France
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JimThomson
80
removed itself as a power in the WesternHemisphere.
For the United States, the LouisianaPurchasewas a turningpoint the
historical importanceof which has been ranked"nextto the Declaration
of Independence and the adoption of the Constitution."21 This single
acquisition doubled the nation's size, making it formidableenough to
withstandalmost any outside threat.It gave the countryits heartland,as
well as control of the Mississippi River and the importantport city of
New Orleanson the Gulf of Mexico.
By acquiringNew Orleans,the UnitedStatesremovedthe tradebarrier
which the Frenchhad imposed againstAmericanswishing to ship goods
throughNew Orleans.So importantwas this port to the commerceof the
young UnitedStatesthat,in April 1803, PresidentThomasJeffersonwrote:
Thereis on the globe one spotthe possessorof whichis ournaturaland
habitualenemy.It is New Orleans,throughwhichthe produceof threeeighthsof our territorymustpass to market.The day thatFrancetakes
possessionof New Orleans...wemustmarryourselvesto theBritishfleet
andnation.22
The opening of New Orleans also resolved a deeply divisive political
problem.The Frenchclosing of the Mississippi River to Americantraffic
violated the 1783 Treatyof Paris. Westerners,dependenton the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleansto get their productsto eastern
markets,wonderedwhy they shouldpay taxes to a countrythatwould not
stand up for them, and they threatenedto become French citizens or
secede from the United States unless the governmentinvadedLouisiana.
The LouisianaPurchaseended this threat.23
In a broadersense, the Purchasefundamentallytransformedthe way
Americansthoughtaboutthemselves.The vast open spaces of the Louisiana territorydrew immigrantsfromall over Europe,changingthe character of the nationby increasingits social diversity.24The push to settle this
new territoryshifted the eyes of the countrywestward,25makingfurther
expansion almost inevitableandgiving birth,if not to the term,at least to
the forces behind"manifestdestiny"-the idea thatthe United States had
both a right and a duty to own and settle the entirecontinent.Before the
Louisiana annexation, Americans "in many ways still had a colonial
attitude;they still looked to Englandand to France."26With the acquisition the Louisiana territory,their focus shifted to their own continent.
"[F]or the first time, Americansbecame Americans as we know them,
people with a continentalview."27
The HaitianRevolution initiatedall of this change. But its impactdid
not stop there.The revolt of the Haitianslaves also influencedforces that
helped foment what many have called the defining momentin American
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The HaitianRevolution and the Forging of America
81
history: the Civil War. The push to create new states out of the vast
Louisiana territory led to dissension between North and South over
whetherthe new states would be admittedas slave or free. New England
Federalists threatenedto secede ratherthan permit the delicate balance
that had been worked out between the mercantilestates of the North and
the slave-holdingstates of the agrarianSouthto be upset.28For the South,
the stakes in this debate were raisedby a boom in the demandfor cotton
that coincided with the acquisition of the Louisiana territory.29The
plantation economy, dependent on slave labor, quickly spread to the
southernregions of the Louisiana territory.For these new planters,the
debate over slavery was an economic as well as a philosophical issue.
The tensions over the treatmentof the slavery question in the states
carved out of the Louisiana territorywould ultimately trigger guerrilla
warfare in Bleeding Kansas, which in turn was a factor leading to the
Civil War.30
The impact of the Haitian Revolution on the United States was not
confined, however, to the slave-versus-free-statedebate. In the antebellum South, "No issue having to do with slavery and the role of blacks
in Americansociety was discussed at so manydifferenttimes, in so many
differentways, for so many differentreasonsas the lessons of the Haitian
Revolution."31Reports of the fury vented by the Haitianslaves on their
white oppressors reached the United States, transmittedby refugees
fleeing St. Domingue. One eyewitness reportedseeing "young children
transfixedupon the points of bayonets"32Othersdescribedslaves dragging white plantersfrom their homes and tearingoff their limbs one by
one or strapping them to wooden racks and sawing them in half.33
"Whiteshad always been awareof slaves as 'troublesomeproperty,'but
only after St. Domingue did they react to the threatas a real one and not
just a potentialone."34 Alarmed,they worriedthatonce slaves "get a taste
for freedom...they will not easily be made to abandonthe enterprise."35
Southern fears were not entirely unfounded. Slave uprisings in the
United States greatly increased after 1791, and evidence of a direct
connection between this growing slave unrest and the Haitian revolt
exists. In the case of one majorslave revolt, the DenmarkVesey plot in
1802 to burn Charleston,South Carolina,for example, evidence established that Vesey had communicatedwith Haitian blacks and even expected a Haitian invasion to supporthis rebellion in South Carolina.36
Reacting to the HaitianRevolution, southernslaveholdersincreasedthe
repression of their own slaves to prevent a similar revolt.37 Repressive
measures were also directed at the large numberof freed blacks, feared
by whites as a potential source of insurrection.Laws were passed "to
make it harderfor mastersto free their slaves, regulationafterregulation
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Jim Thomson
attemptedto controlthe movementsof Blacks and to prohibitthe assembly of, or indeed any contactbetween, free Blacks and slaves."38
This repressionimpassionedthe northernAbolitionistmovement and
furtherpolarized the North and South in the years preceding the Civil
War. The increased brutality directed toward the slaves by fearful
slaveholdersbecame a centralfocus of the Abolitionists' crusadeto end
slavery. They seized upon the example of Toussaintas proof that blacks
were not inferiorto whites but were insteadquite capable of freedom.39
Moreover, measuresundertakenin the South to discourage slave uprisings, including the employment of the Army for slave control activities
and attacks on the right of assembly and petition, produced a counterreactionin the North, helping to broadenthe anti-slaverystruggle"intoa
battle for the security of the democraticrights of white people."40 This
developmenthas been called "probablythe most importantforce strengthening the entireAbolitionistmovement."41 In 1861, the tensions between
North and South--exacerbated by events thathappeneddirectly or indirectly because of Haiti-finally exploded into the Civil War.
For the former slaves of St. Domingue, the freedom for which they
fought would prove ephemeral,largely erased by a succession of dictators. But the impact of the HaitianRevolution would be indelible in the
United States, where a slave revolt on foreign soil must, today, be
recognized as a majorturningpoint in Americanhistory.
Appendix
EXAMPLES OF LAWS AND REGULATIONS
ENACTED IN SUBSTANTIAL PART IN REACTION TO
THE HAITIAN SLAVE REVOLT
In 1794 and 1800, the federalgovernmentpassed anti-slavetradelaws to prevent
the possible spread of the Haitian slave revolt to the U.S. The first prohibitedcitizens
from equipping ships engaged in slave trade commerce, and the second prohibited
Americans from serving aboardsuch ships or from having any interestin their voyages.
(Aptheker,45).
* Beginning in 1792, southern states, including South Carolina,Kentucky, North
Carolina, Georgia, and Maryland, passed laws restricting slave trade as a means of
preventingthe possible infection of the U.S. by the Haitianrebellion. South Carolina's
statute prohibited the importationby any one person of more than two slaves, and
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The HaitianRevolution and the Forging of America
83
requiredthat the slaves importedbe for personal use only. This law was subsequently
modified to retain a total ban only with respect to slaves from the West Indies or South
America. However, all importedslaves had to be accompaniedby a statementsigned by
two magistrates attesting that the slaves had not been involved in any insurrectionor
revolt. (Ibid., 73-74).
* In 1797, Baltimore, Marylandpassed an ordinancedeclaring all slaves imported
from the West Indies between 1792 and 1797 to be "dangerousto the peace andwelfare of
the city" and orderingtheir mastersto banish them. (Ibid., 74).
* Many southern states enacted measures restrictingthe civil liberties of blacks,
including laws forbiddingmeetings of slaves withoutthe presenceof whites, prohibiting
the assembly of blacks on city streetsafterdark,requiringslaves to have passes when off
plantation, forbidding slaves to possess weapons, and providing severe penalties for
sedition. (Ibid., 73-74).
* A South Carolinaregulationmade it necessary for a magistrateand five freeholders to approve a document of manumission, freeing slaves from bondage. One of the
statedreasons for this regulationwas a concernthatslaveholderswould release slaves "of
bad or depravedcharacter"who might incite rebelliononce freed. (Ibid. 75)
* Freedblacks were restrictedin theirrightto hold certainjobs or learncertaintrades
that might make it easier for them to organize a rebellion. They were also restrictedin
their freedom of movement from state to state or county to county. (Ibid., 77-78).
* In some states, blacks were prevented from testifying in court against white
persons; this restrictionhad the effect of preventingblacks from defending themselves
against charges that they were partof a slave conspiracy.(Aptheker,77).
* Shortly after the Vesey Plot to burn Charlestonwas aborted, white Carolinians
took measures to ensure that free blacks were given even less freedom. As part of this
effort, in December 1832, the South Carolina legislature enacted the Free-Colored
Seamen's Act, requiringthatall free blacks employed on incoming vessels be detainedin
jail while their ship was in port. (Hunt, 120).
AnnotatedBibliography
PRIMARY SOURCES
A Particular Account of the Commencementand Progress of the Insurrection of the
Negroes in St. Domingo. London:J. Sewell, 1792.
This is a translation of a speech made to the French National Assembly by the
Deputies from the GeneralAssembly of St. Domingueexplaining the origins of the slave
revolt. The viewpoint presented is that of the white planters.The speech describes in
graphicdetail the horrorsof the slave insurrectionand the gruesome murderof the white
populationat the handsof the slaves. The Deputies suggest thattherewould not have been
an insurrectionexcept for the activities of the Amis de Noirs (literally "Friendsof the
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Blacks") which fomenteddiscontentamong the black population.This speech is interesting because it is a first person accountand helpful in explainingthe position of the white
planters.
An Inquiryinto the Causes of the Insurrectionof theNegroes in the IslandofSt. Domingo.
Philadelphia:Crukshank,1792.
Like the preceding entry, this too is a translationof remarksmade to the French
NationalAssembly looking into the causes of the slave revolt in St. Domingue.Unlike the
previousentry,however, these remarksrejectthe argumentsof the white plantersas to the
origins of the revolutionand insteadlay the blame at theirfeet. This reportsuggests that
the unwillingness of the white plantersto extend equal rights to the mulattos was the
source of the discontentwhich eventually spreadto the slave population.
Aptheker, Herbert.American Negro Slave Revolts. [1943] 5th ed. New York: International Publishers,1987.
This book could be consideredboth a primaryanda secondarysource.It is a complete
and very well documentedaccount of the history of resistanceto slavery in the United
States. The author's analysis is insightful and was very helpful to me in preparingmy
paper. However, what was even more helpful was the primarysource materialwhich
helped documentjust how big an impactthe HaitianRevolutionhadon the United States
in the pre-Civil War period.This book is one of the best sources I found.
Howard, Thomas Phipps. The Haitian Journal of LieutenantHoward, YorkHussiers,
1796-1798. Knoxville: Universityof Tennessee Press, 1986.
This is a first-hand account of the Haitian Revolution written by a lieutenant in a
regiment of the British expeditionary force sent to St. Domingue. As was true of the
French forces, the British forces were repelled and soundly defeated by the Haitian
armyled by ToussaintL'Ouverture.Thisjournal vividly describes LieutenantHoward's
experiences during the final two years of Britain's occupation of St. Domingue. The
editor of this book notes that it is probably"the only reliable firsthandmilitaryaccount
in English" of the slave uprising. The journal is interestingbecause of what it tells us
about the slave rebellion and the militaryhistory of a doomed expedition. In the process,
it provides insight into the military leadership of Toussaint from someone who fought
against him.
Lassat, Pierre-Clementde. Louisiana, Napoleon, and the UnitedStates. Lamham:University Press of America, 1989.
This book, written by the man who was designated by Napoleon to become the
governorof FrenchLouisiana,is an excellent primarysourceof informationpertainingto
the events leading up to the sale of Louisiana to the United States. The book contains
particularlyinterestinginsightsinto Napoleon's thoughtprocessin deciding precipitously
to sell Louisiana.
Marbois,M. Barbe. The History of Louisiana. Baton Rouge: LouisianaState University
Press, 1977.
This primarysource,writtenby the then-FrenchMinisterof the Treasury,providesnot
only a masterlywrittenand very informativeaccountof the historyof Louisianabut also
first person insight into the thoughts of Napoleon at the time he decided to sell the
Louisiana territoryto the United States.The authorwas the Frenchrepresentativeto the
negotiations which led to the sale of Louisiana.
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The HaitianRevolution and the Forging of America
85
Mullin, Michael, et. AmericanNegro Slavery:A DocumentaryHistory. Columbia:University of South CarolinaPress, 1976.
This book traces the history of black slaves in America through original primary
source materials, including diaries, public records, newspaper accounts, and personal
correspondence.These documentshelp you understandwhat it was like to be a slave in
America, as well as how the slaves were perceivedby white society. For purposesof my
paper, the book was useful because it contained a series of accounts pertaining to
Denmark Vesey, the leader of one of the largest planned slave insurrectionsin U.S.
history, and a man who clearly drew inspirationfrom the Haitianslave revolt. Vesey was
bornin Africa and was broughtto the Caribbean,and specifically to St. Domingue,by his
master.He had an opportunityto observe first hand the Haitianrevolt. Vesey eventually
purchasedhis freedomwith a lotteryticket, afterwhich he moved to the United States and
settled in Charleston,South Carolina,a city which had a long historyof contact with the
West Indies. There he carefully planneda slave revolt involving thousandsof slaves. His
plans were to take the entire city and, eventually, to escape to Haiti. His plot was foiled,
however, and Vesey and thirty-fiveothers were tried and hanged. One of the excerpts in
this book reportson the Vesey trial,in which Vesey took the standand defendedhimself.
Ott, Thomas O. TheHaitian Revolution.Knoxville: Universityof Tennessee Press, 1973.
This book could be listed as both a primaryand a secondary source. Although it is
writtenby a contemporaryauthor,it contains much primarysource material.The book is
a history of the HaitianRevolution told in large partthroughfirst hand accounts. It has a
particularlygood discussion of the consequencesof the Revolutionfor the United States.
This source providedme with first handexplanationsof the events thatwere takingplace
in Haiti at the time of the rebellion. This book does a particularlynice job of telling,
throughfirst hand accounts, of the impactof the HaitianRevolution on the South.
Parham,Althia de Puech, ed. My Odyssey: Experiences of a YoungRefugeefrom Two
Revolutions by a Creole of Saint Domingue. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University
Press, 1959.
This is the first person accountof the Frenchand HaitianRevolutions told by a young
FrenchCreole author(16 years old at the time of the events describedin the book) whose
family fled the terrorsof the FrenchRevolutionin 1791 and moved back to Haiti seeking
asylum. Unfortunately,they returnedto St. Dominguejust in time to be caughtup in the
slave revolt. The family stayed in St. Domingue about two years, duringwhich time the
young author fought on the side of the French planters in many uprisings. After the
horriblemassacreand burningof Cap Francais,a majorcity in St. Domingue, the family
once again fled, this time to the United States.
Although I wasn't able to use this book very much in my paper, due to page
constraints,it is a fascinatingaccountof the HaitianRevolutionfromthe perspectiveof an
actual participant.According to the editor, who is a distantrelative of the author,this is
the only first person account availablewhich is told from the side of the Frenchplanters.
This book provides a fascinatingaccount of the situationin St. Domingue immediately
priorto the slave revolt, the events that actuallytook place duringthe author'stwo visits
to the embattled island (the second coming in 1794 when the author returnedto St.
Domingue from the United States to fight on the side of the Frenchagainst the rebels.
Rus, Martin.Night of Fire: The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti. New York:
SarpedonPublishers,Inc., 1994.
Although this book could be considered a secondary source, I have treated as a
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primarysource because of its many primarysourcequotes.The book tracesthe historyof
the Haitian Revolution from the pre-Revolutionbrutality leveled by white plantation
owners at the slaves to the uprisingitself.
Ryan, Mary C., ed. The Louisiana Purchase. Washington,D.C.: National Archives and
Records Administration,1987.
This book contains copies of documents pertainingto the purchase by the United
States of the Louisianaterritory,includingthe actualpurchaseagreement.It also contains
a good discussion of the consequences for the United States of the purchase of the
Louisiana territory.
Stephen, James. The Crisis of the Sugar Colonies; or An EnquiryInto The Objects and
Probable Effects of the French Expeditionto WestIndies. London:J. Hatchard,1802.
This document consists of a series of four letters writtenby a James Stephen to the
British Prime Ministeroffering advice concerningthe situationin St. Domingue following the slave uprisingand on the eve of Napoleon's ill-fated attack.It is unclearwho Mr.
Stephenis and whetherhis lettersare an official reportsolicited by the PrimeMinisteror
simply voluntarycomments. The letters are interestingfor a numberof reasons. In the
first letter discussing conditions in the West Indies that led to the slave insurrection,Mr.
Stephen provides an excellent descriptionof the harsh conditions under which the St.
Domingue slaves were forced to work.The other partof these letterswhich I found to be
of particularinterestwere the Britishpredictionsas to whatNapoleonwas intendingwhen
he sent troops toward St. Domingue. The authorof these letters guessed correctly that
Napoleon wantedmorethansimply to persuadeToussaintandhis bandof rebels to swear
allegiance to the French.Instead,the authorpredictsthat Napoleon is bent on restoring
slavery. The author suggests that, at the outset, Napoleon should have little trouble
subduing the rebels. However, once the former-slavesbecome aware of Frenchintent to
reinstateslavery, this authorpredictsthatthe mass of blacks will rise up again, placing in
jeopardy the Frenchinvasion.
Toussad, Louis de. Justificationof Lewis TousadAddressedto the National Convention
of France. Philadelphia:Daniel Humphrirs,1793.
This is a ratherpathetic plea from a man who led French forces during the slave
rebellion written from prison, professing his innocence to charges that he conspired
with the black insurgents against the citizens of St. Domingue. Although the events
which gave rise to Mr. Tousad's imprisonmentare not entirely clear, this report was
interestingbecause it revealsjust how many factions were in conflict duringthe Haitian
Revolution.
Tyson, George F., ed. ToussaintLouverture.Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall, Inc., 1973.
This book is an excellent source of commentaryon ToussaintLouverture,the Haitian
Revolution, andits aftermath,told largelythroughthe firstpersonaccountsof people who
lived duringthis periodin history.It gave me a good perspectiveon the fact thatToussaint
was a highly controversialfigure, fearedby some people and very much loved by others.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Barry,James P. TheLouisiana Purchase. New York:FranklinWatts, Inc., 1973.
This book is a good general source of informationon the history of the Louisiana
Purchase.I used it as an overview and also as a springboardto furtherresearch.
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Beard, John R. The Life of ToussaintL'Ouverture,The Negro Patriot of Hayti. London:
Ingram,Cooke, and Co., 1853.
This book is essentially a biography of Toussaint L'Ouverture.It is one of many
biographies written in the mid-1800s that portraysToussaint in glowing terms to have
been a patriotand hero.
Blumberg, Rhoda. What's the Deal? Jefferson, Napoleon and the Louisiana Purchase.
Washington,D.C.: National GeographicSociety, 1998.
This rathershort book provides an informativeoverview of the events leading up to
the Louisiana Purchasefrom the perspectiveof both the Americans and the French. Of
particularinterestwere the quotationsfrom George Washington,Thomas Jefferson, and
John Adams concerning Toussaint Louverture.From the beginning, Americans both
admired Toussaint and feared the impact the Haitian slave revolt might have on this
country.
Bryan, Patrick E. The Haitian Revolution and After. University of Minnesota Thesis,
1983.
This college thesis provides a good overview of life in Haiti before the Haitian
Revolution, includinga good discussion of the complicatedsocial structureexisting in the
colony priorto the Revolution.
Clarke, John Henrik.African People in WorldHistory. Baltimore:Black Classic Press,
1993.
This is a fascinating little book that focuses on the history of Africans in the
Americas and in the CaribbeanIslands in the contest of the entire African past. The
book covers a lot of territoryin very few pages. For purposes of my paper, the most
relevant section of the book was its discussion of the Atlantic slave trade.With respect
to the plantation system in both the Caribbeanand the United States, Clarke explains
that it was a "naturalincubatorfor slave revolts." Slaves were broughtin large numbers
and generally kept together.The slave owners thoughtthat by keeping groups of slaves
together the Africans "would communicate with each other and more could be accomplished." Clarke notes, however, that this communicationalso served to facilitate slave
revolts. Another interesting discussion in this book is the discussion of the American
colonization movement or the back-to-Africamovement, This movement, spearheaded
by the American Colonization Society, and strongly influenced by events in Haiti,
sought to returnfree blacks to Africa as a means of eliminatingthe threatof insurrection
which the large number of free blacks was believed to pose to whites in the United
States.
Davis, David Brion. The Slave Power Conspiracyand the Paranoid Style. Baton Rouge:
Louisiana State University Press, 1969.
This authortheorizesthatAmericanpolitics in generalis markedby manyexamples of
situationsin which conflicts are made worse by the projectionof conspiracytheoriesonto
opponents. The belief in a conspiracy-which often does not exist at all-has been
responsiblefor creatingtensions greaterthanare warrantedby the reality.With respectto
the events leading up to the Civil War, this author suggests that both southernersand
northernerswere prone to paranoia.Southernersinheritedthe paranoiaof Frenchconservatives who attributedthe St. Domingue slave revolt to the "undercoveragents and
inflammatorypropagandaof the Amis des Noirs, who were seen in Franceas saboteurs
employed by Britain,much as British abolitionists were chargedwith being the tools of
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French Jacobinism.The myth that abolitionistswere directly responsiblefor the bloodbath of Santo Domingo became an entrenchedpart of master class ideology, in Latin
America as well as the United States."In turn,northernersviewed southernslave owners
through a paranoidlens, fearing that this relative minority intended to take over the
federal government.Accordingto the author,the paranoiaamong northernersmeantthat
even those who were not particularlysympatheticto the plight of the slaves nonetheless
supported emancipation as a means of defeating the perceived threat from the slave
owners.
DeConde, Alexander. This Affair of Louisiana. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,
1976.
As its name suggests, this book providedme with an informativebackgroundon the
dealings that led to the sale of the Louisianaterritoryto the United States.
DeVoto, Bernard.The Course of Empire. [1952]. Boston: HoughtonMifflin Company,
1998.
This book contains an excellent, concise summaryof the driving forces behind the
Haitian Revolution and the French invasion of Haiti. The book also sets forth the
conflicting views of the United States about Haiti. On the one hand, Americansparticularlythe Abolitionists-focused on ToussaintLouvertureas a hero in that he had
led the successful Haitian Revolution, Americans also wanted to maintain Haiti as a
tradingpartner,and thereforesoughtto had an interestin maintaininggood relationswith
the new nation. At the same time, however, as the authorexplains, from the beginning,
AmericanleadersincludingWashington,Jefferson,andAdams fearedthe spreadof slave
unrestto this countryfrom Haiti.
The book also contains an interestingdiscussion of the considerationsthat went into
Napoleon's decision to sell Louisiana. Among the most interestingfacts noted in this
book is Napoleon's predictionof the consequencesof the sale for France.Barbe-Marbois,
the minister of finance who conductedthe negotiations for France,quotes Napoleon as
having said: "This accession of territoryconsolidates the power of the United States
forever, and I have given Englanda maritimerival who sooner or later will humble her
pride."As DeVoto notes, "Theunifierof Europeand the remakerof the world, who had
also ended foreverthe dreamof a NorthAmericanFrance,was here looking down a long
arc of time with great clarity."
Ferrell, Robert and RichardNatkiel. Atlas of AmericanHistory. Greenwich:Brompton
Books, 1993.
This book is an atlas which covers many of the majorevents in U.S. history. For my
purposes, however, the book was primarilyuseful for its discussion of the process of
expansionbegunby the LouisianaPurchaseandthe discussionof the events leading up to
the Civil Warand how those events were affected by expansion.This book makes a good
argumentthat not only did expansionfurtherpolarizethe Northand South over the issue
of slavery, but that the expansion begun with Louisianaalso resultedin a linking of the
agricultureof the Middle West with the industrialismof the Northeast,ultimatelyaccentuating the regionalism that lay at the heartof the Civil War. With respect to the Civil
War, this book says categorically that, although historians in the past have pointed
"variouslyto a difference in economic systems, disagreementon constitutionallaw, or a
failure of leadershipin both [Northand South]"to explain the Civil War, "thesetheories
ignored the root cause of it all: slavery." And the Louisiana expansion did much to
heighten tensions over slavery.
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89
Fick, Carolyn E. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolutionfrom Below.
Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1990.
This book is a very interestingaccountof the HaitianRevolution.It is unlike the other
books I readin its majorthesis. This authorarguesthat it was not Toussaintor any of the
leaders of the Revolution who were the dominantfigures in the revolt; ratherit was the
uneducated slaves who were the principal architectsof their own freedom. This book
devotes particularattentionto the role played by the fugitive slaves (called maroons) in
orchestratingthe fight for independence.
Geracimos, Ann. "A Mystery in Miniature,"SmithsonianMagazine. Washington,D.C.:
January,2000, Vol. 30: pages. 20-21.
This article,althoughbrief, was very helpfulin explainingU.S. reactionto the Haitian
Revolution at the time it occurred.The authorpoints out thatPresidentAdams, who was
from the North, wanted to increase trade with Haiti and, therefore, thought it was
importantfor the Revolution to succeed. By contrast,Thomas Jefferson took a different
view. Reflecting his southern roots, he was concerned that if the Haitian rebellion
succeeded, there was a good chance that it might spreadto the U.S.
Hunt,Alfred W. Haiti's Influenceon AntebellumAmerica.BatonRouge: LouisianaState
University Press, 1988.
This book was easily the best book I read concerning the impact of the Haitian
Revolution on the United States. Not only is the book clear and well-written,but is also
provides a host of primarysource materialreflecting the views of people living in the
South in the pre-CivilWarera which reflectsjust how deeply the HaitianRevolution and
the fears it spawned impactedthe attitudeof the South towardslavery. It was this book
thatfirst made clear to me just how greatan impactthe HaitianRevolutionhadin creating
the sharppolaritybetween NorthandSouthover the issue of slavery, which contributedto
the Civil War.AlthoughI used this book principallyas a sourcefor connectingthe Haitian
Revolution with the AmericanCivil War, the scope of the impactof the HaitianRevolution on this countrywas far broaderthanits contributionto the AmericanCivil War. Hunt
shows in this book just how profoundlyHaitianemigrantsaffected America,particularly
Louisiana, where Haitian influence is seen in everything from language to politics,
religion, culture,architecture,and cuisine.
James, C.L.R. The Black Jacobins: ToussaintLouvertureand the San Domingo Revolution. [1938] 3d ed. London:Allison & Busby, 1980.
This book is a passionate, perhapsless-than-objectivelook at the HaitianRevolution
by an authorwho clearly views Toussaintas a hero.Despite the clear philosophicalbias of
the book, it is a useful (and often cited by otherhistorians)discussion of the slave revolt.
The book does an excellent job of discussing the plight of the black slaves in Haiti and
explaining the emotional underpinningsof the Revolution.
Johnson,Paul. A History of the AmericanPeople. New York: HarperPerennial, 1998.
This book contains an excellent analysis of the LouisianaPurchase,its history and its
consequences for the United States. The authorasserts that the "most importantinducement to immigrationof 1800s was cheap land.... In the entirehistoryof the United States,
the land purchasesystem was the single most benevolent act of government."Although
the policy by which the government sold land to settlers for $2 an acre pre-datedthe
Louisiana Purchase,the acquisitionof that vast territorygreatly expanded the program.
According to this source, the occupationof the Mississippi Valley involving an area the
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size of westernEurope,"markedthe point at which the United Statesceased to be a small
strugglingex-colony and turneditself into a majornation."
This book is also an excellent source for the backgroundof the Civil War, including
the pressurescreatedby the rapidexpansion of cotton plantationsinto the new territory
encompassed within the Louisiana Purchase.According to the author,it was the huge
growthof the cotton industry,fosteredby Europeandemandfor cotton andmade possible
by Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin, that created "the South" as a "special
phenomenon,a culture,a cast of mind...." In the Deep South,carvedout of the Louisiana
territory,cotton was king and plantationowners were deeply indebtedto slavery. "With
so much money invested in slavery it was not surprising that the South ceased to
apologize for slavery and began to defend it." This defense of slavery increasedthe rift
with the North that would lead to the Civil War.
Knight,FranklinW. "AHRForum-The HaitianRevolution."Amer.Hist. Rev. Vol. 105,
No. 1 (February2000): 109-115.
This very recent article is directly on point for my paper because it discusses the
importanceof the HaitianRevolutionin history.This articledoes a greatjob of underscoring the interrelationshipof events in otherpartsof the world and the HaitianRevolution.
This authoralso describes how the HaitianRevolution impactedthe world in ways that
went beyond the United States (and, thus, beyond the scope of this paper).
Knight, FranklinW. The African Dimension in Latin American Societies. New York:
MacmillanPublishingCo., Inc., 1974.
This shortbook providesa good overview of the slave tradeandits effect on the entire
New World (including the United States). I found particularlyinterestingthe author's
discussion of how the practiceof slavery variedfrom countryto countryand how various
circumstances and institutions impacted the conditions to which the slaves were subjected. For example, the authornotes that in some partsof the Caribbeanduringthe time
preceding the HaitianRevolution-although not in Haiti itself-"the Churchspoke out
not against slavery but in favor of ameliorationof the conditions of slave labor."The
authornotes, however, thatthe Church"atno time opposed slavery. It actively supported
the status quo, it owned slaves, and it vigorously participatedin the slave economy. The
Jesuits gained a reputationfor benevolence and humanitarianismtoward their African
slaves, yet even they did not oppose the institutionof slavery at any time." In the colony
of Haiti, the Churchturneda deaf ear towardthe cries of the slaves.
Lacy, Dan. TheAbolitionists.St. Louis: McGraw-HillBook Company, 1978.
This book, which is about the history of the Abolitionist movement in the United
States, has a good discussion of why the NorthernAbolitionists were so angeredby the
introductionof slaves into the new Louisianaterritory.
"Louisiana Purchase 1803," http://galenet.gale.com/a/acp/netacg...&u=/a/acp/db/dtou/
index.html&r=1&f=g.Online. WorldWide Web. 2/2/00.
Although short, this article provided me with a concise summaryof why Napoleon
wantedLouisianaand why he ended up selling it. It also identifiedthreeconsequencesof
the LouisianaPurchaseof which I was not aware.
Lyon, Wilson E. Louisiana in French Diplomacy. Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 1974.
This book contains an excellent discussion of why Napoleon wanted Louisiana, and
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The HaitianRevolution and the Forging of America
91
why it was so importantfor the United States to own it. Also, the book contains a good
discussion of the consequences for the United States of the acquisitionof the Louisiana
territory.
McPherson,James M. TheStrugglefor Equality:Abolitionistsand the Negro in the Civil
Warand Reconstruction.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress, 1964.
The author of this book is a noted scholar on the American Civil War. This book
focuses, as the title indicates, on the struggle of the Negro for equality both during and
after the Civil War. While the primaryfocus of the book is on events that are beyond the
scope of my paper,this book has an excellent discussion of how Abolitionists countered
the argumentthat blacks were innately inferior to whites by reference to the Haitian
Revolution and Toussaint L'Ouverture.McPherson notes that the advocates of racial
equality, looking for "authenticblack heroes" focused on Toussaint who was "[b]y all
odds, the greatestof these."WendellPhillips, one of the leading abolitionists,gave as one
of his "most powerful and compelling lectures"a biographyof Toussaintas a means of
dramatizingthe fitness of blacks for freedom. In an excerpt from that speech, Phillips
arguedthat "Hayti,from the ruinsof her colonial dependence,is become a civilized state,
the seventh nationin the catalogueof commerce with this country,inferiorin morals and
education to none of the West Indian isles. Toussaint made her what she is. Courage,
purpose,endurance-they are the tests."
Meinig, D.W. ContinentalAmerica, 1800-1867. Hampton:Vail-BallouPress, 1993, Vol. 2.
Although this book covers a large period of time in American history, it was a very
good source because it has an extensive section on the importanceof Louisianato the
United States and, also, a small section on how the rebellionof the slaves in Haiti forced
U.S. slaveowners to be even harsherto its own slaves out of fear that what happenedin
Haiti would be repeatedin the United States.
Merk, Frederick.History of the WestwardMovement.New York:Alfred A. Knopf, 1978.
As its name suggests, this book is a comprehensive history of the westward movements in the United States and its impact on the course of history. This book provided
supportfor a numberof my theses about the importanceof the Louisiana territoryas a
turning point in American history. Specifically, it both confirms the importanceof the
Louisianaterritoryin shapingthe country,by opening vistas to the west and encouraging
immigration, for example. It also, however, underscores the fact that the expansion
startedby Louisianaintensifiedsectionalproblems,includingthatof the spreadof slavery
which led to the Civil War.
Merk,Frederick.ManifestDestiny and Mission in AmericanHistory:A Reinterpretation.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963.
This book is a study of public opinion regardingexpansionist drives in the United
States in the nineteenthcentury. The book explores the push for expansion that began
with the LouisianaPurchaseand grew into the cry of manifestdestiny. This book, which
is an in-depthlook at all the forces shapingmanifestdestiny, went farbeyond the scope of
my paper.However, it was useful in underscoringfor me just how importantthe idea of
expansion has been historicallyin the developmentof the Americancharacter.
Rogozinski, Jan.A Brief History of the Caribbean.New York:The PenguinGroup, 1992.
This book is a concise, well written history of the entire Caribbeanregion. It was
helpful to me because it placed the HaitianRevolution in the context of a much larger
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history.It does a particularlygood job of describingthe life of a Haitianslave, noting, for
example, that the natureof sugar cane as a crop made the work of a slave on the sugar
plantations more back-breakingthan was true of the work of slaves on, for example,
cotton plantations..
Scott, Juliua Sherrard,III. The CommonWind:Currentsof Afro-AmericanCommunication in the Era of the Haitian Revolution.PhD Diss. Duke University, 1986. Durham:
University Press, 1986.
This PhD disssertationwas called to my attentionby one of thejudges of my paperat
the regionallevel. It is a tremendoussourceof informationon my topic. This dissertation
discusses how the ideas underlyingthe HaitianRevolutionwere connectedto the French
Revolution and how they were subsequentlycommunicatedto many partsof the world,
including the United States. The dissertationcontains an excellent discussion of the
origins of the Haitian Revolution. For purposesof my paper, however, the dissertation
was probablymost helpful in the supportit providedfor my thesis-that events in Haiti
were communicatedto the United States where they greatly impactedthe course of our
history. The authorexplains how the communicationoccurred,noting, for example, that
U.S. vessels involved in trade were a prime source of communication.The authoralso
discusses how importantHaitibecame to Afro Americansin this countryas a battlecry of
freedom. The authornotes that nineteenthcenturyAfro-NorthAmerican historianslike
ex-slave William Wells Brown characterizedthe HaitianRevolutionas "thepivotal event
in the historyof Afro-Americans."The authorof this dissertationarguesthat "[u]pto the
presentday, Toussaint and the HaitianRevolution continue to occupy a centralplace in
the culturalmemory of blacks in NorthAmerica."
Wexler, Alan. Atlas of WesternExpansion.New York:Facts on File, Inc., 1995.
As this book's name suggests, it is a very good source of informationon how the
Louisiana Purchasestarteda series of expansions, in the process setting a precedenton
how the United States would acquireterritoryin the future.
Zinn, Howard.A People's History of the UnitedStates 1492-Present.New York:Harper
Perennial, 1995.
This book is a broadhistoryof the United States.For my purposes,it was interesting
for two reasons.It containsa good descriptionof a sad chapterin America'shistorywhich
is integrallyboundup in U.S. expansion-the adoptionof a policy of "IndianRemoval."
The Louisiana territoryprovided a way for the young U.S. to deal with its "Indian
problem"without having to go to war. Jefferson,in fact, proposedto Congress afterthe
acquisitionof Louisianathat Indiansshould be encouragedto settle down on small tracts
and do farmingwithin the new territory.The reasonfor the IndianRemoval policy andits
impact can be seen, in part,throughstatistics.In 1790, therewere 3,900,000 Americans,
most of them living within 50 miles of the AtlanticOcean.By 1830, therewere 13 million
Americans and by 1840, 4,500,000 of them had crossed into the Mississippi Valley. To
make room for white settlers,the Indianshadto be moved. In 1820, 120,000 Indianslived
east of the Mississippi River. However, by 1844, all but 30,000 had been forced to
migrate west. The Louisiana territorymade this forced migration possible and, in the
process, sparedthe U.S. a potentiallycostly militaryconfrontation.
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Notes
1.
C.L.R. James, TheBlack Jacobins: ToussaintLouvertureand the San Domingo
Revolution]1928] 3d ed. (London:Allison & Busby, 1980), vii.
2.
PatrickE. Bryan, The Haitian Revolutionand After (University of Minnesota
Thesis, 1983) 6; see also James, vii (claiming that St. Domingue was responsiblefor an
even higher percent-two-thirds--of France's overseas trade).
3.
See generallyCarolynFick, TheMakingof Haiti: TheSaint DomingueRevolutionfrom Below (Knoxville:The Universityof Tennessee Press, 1990), 15-17 (discussing
the economic structureof St. Domingue and the caste society of the colony in the preRevolution days).
4.
George F. Tyson, ed., Toussaint Louverture Great Lives Observed Series
(Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall, Inc., 1971) 6.
5.
Ibid; FranklinW. Knight, TheAfrican Dimension in LatinAmericanSocieties
(New York: MacmillanPublishingCo., Inc., 1974) 64.
6.
Ibid; Bryan, 19 (noting that, in 1767, on the larger plantations,there were on
averageonly threewhites to every threeor four hundredAfricans.On smallerplantations,
the ratio was even more disadvantageousfor the whites--one or two whites to three
hundredor four hundredblacks).
7.
Tyson, 6; Jan Rogozinski, A Brief History of the Caribbean(New York: The
Penguin Group, 1992) 138-39.
8.
Ibid; see also James, 5-6 (describingcrueltyto which slaves were subjected).
9.
Rogozinski, 164-65; Julius Scott III, The Common Wind: Currentsof Afro
AmericanCommunicationin the Era of the HaitianRevolutionPhD dissertation.(Durham:
Duke University, 1986) 1.
10. Tyson, 10.
11. Ibid.
12. Knight,42.
13. See BernardDeVoto, The Courseof Empire[1952] (Boston: HoughtonMifflin
Company, 1998) 388.
14. Fick, 206.
15. DeVoto, 388.
16. Fick, 313.
17. DeVoto, 589.
18. Ibid. Shortlythereafter,Leclerc himself died of yellow fever.
19. Rogozinski, 172.
20. Blumberg, 116.
21. James P. Barry, The Louisiana Purchase (New York: FranklinWatts, Inc.,
1973) 80 (quoting noted AmericanhistorianHenry Adams).
22. Blumberg,77.
23. Ibid,32.
24. Paul Johnson,A Historyof theAmericanPeople (New York:HarperPerennial,
1998) 290 (calling successful settlement of the Mississippi Valley "one of the decisive
events in history. By means of it, America became truly dynamic, emerging from the
eastern seaboard...into the great river valleys beyond.").
25. The vast Louisiana territoryalso enabled the young United States to avoid a
potentially disastrous military confrontation over the removal of Indians from land
coveted by white settlers by providing a territory into which the Indians could be
"relocated"as settlers moved into the Mississippi Valley. See HowardZinn, A People's
History of the United States 1492 - Present (New York:HarperPerennial,1995) 124-25.
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26. Barry,81.
27. Ibid.
28. Johnson,317-19.
29. Robert Ferrell and Richard Natkiel, Atlas of American History (Greenwich:
BromptonBooks, 1993) 47; Johnson,310.
30. Ferrell, 44 (the process of expansion begun by the Louisiana Purchase led
directly to the American Civil War. "This war came from rapid expansion and the
creation of new states."); D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America, A Geographical
Perspective of 500 Years of History, ContinentalAmerica, 1800-1867 Vol. 2 (New
Haven:Yale UniversityPress, 1993) 457 (discussingBleeding Kansasand events leading
up to it).
31. Alfred W. Hunt, Haiti's Influence on AntebellumAmerica. (Baton Rouge:
LouisianaState UniversityPress, 1988) 190. See also HerbertAptheker,AmericanNegro
Slave Revolts [1943] 5th ed. (New York:InternationalPublishers,1987) 368 ("Thereare
few phases of ante-bellumSouthernlife andhistorythatwere not in some way influenced
by the fear of, or the actualoutbreakof, militantconcertedslave action.").
32. Althia de Puech Parham,ed., My Odyssey, Experiences of a YoungRefugee
from Two RevolutionsBy a Creole of Saint Domingue (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press, 1959) 28.
33. MartinRus, Night of Fire: The Black Napoleon and the Battlefor Haiti (New
York: SarpedonPublishers,Inc., 1994) 5-6. See also A ParticularAccount of the Commencementand Progress of the Insurrectionof the Negroes in St. Domingo (London:J.
Sewell, 1792) 5-9 (describingbrutalslaughterof whites).
34. Hunt, 115.
35. Thomas O. Ott, The Haitian Revolution(Knoxville: University of Tennessee
Press, 1973) 195.
36. Ott, 196. See also Zinn, 169 (noting that the Vesey trial record itself "was
ordereddestroyedsoon afterpublication,as too dangerousfor slaves to see."); Hunt, 181
(noting that John Brown's raid on the arsenal at Harper'sFerry may also have been
inspired,at least in part,by the HaitianRevolt. Brown, who hadhoped thathis raidwould
ignite a general slave uprising,admittedat his trialto having readwidely aboutToussaint
Louverture).
37. See generallyOtt, 196; Hunt, 107-47.
38. Meining, 22; see also Appendix.
39. Ott, 195.
40. Aptheker,373.
41. Ibid.
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