The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)
IUCN 2008: T41013A45172424
Equus quagga, Plains Zebra
Assessment by: King, S.R.B. & Moehlman, P.D.
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: King, S.R.B. & Moehlman, P.D. 2016. Equus quagga. The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2016: e.T41013A45172424. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20162.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
Copyright: © 2016 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written
permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of this publication for resale, reposting or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written
permission from the copyright holder. For further details see Terms of Use.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species Programme, the IUCN
Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership. The IUCN Red List Partners are: BirdLife
International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International; Conservation International; Microsoft; NatureServe; Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London.
If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown in this document, please provide us with
feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Perissodactyla
Equidae
Taxon Name: Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785
Synonym(s):
• Equus burchelli (Gray, 1824) [orth. error]
• Equus burchellii Schinz, 1845
Infra-specific Taxa Assessed:
• Equus quagga ssp. quagga
Common Name(s):
• English:
Plains Zebra, Burchell's Zebra, Common Zebra, Painted Zebra
Taxonomic Notes:
The Plains Zebra exhibits a morphological and genetic cline from north to south across its range (Groves
and Bell 2004, Lorenzen 2008). Research has now firmly established that the Extinct quagga is a
subspecies of the plains zebra (Rau 1978, Higuchi et al. 1984, George and Ryder 1986, Leonard et al.
2005). However, this view is in opposition to some morphological evidence (e.g., Bennett 1980, Klein
and Cruz-Uribe 1999).
Groves and Bell (2004) recognized six subspecies, based on coat patterns, skull metrics, and the
presence or absence of a mane and of the infundibulum on the lower incisors (intergrades are
observed). A recent genetic study analyzed 17 plains zebra populations, representing five of the six
subspecies recognized by these authors (Lorenzen et al. 2008). The study found very little differentiation
among populations. In fact, populations across the entire species distribution range were less
differentiated than Namibian populations of Hartmann’s mountain zebra. The five sampled plains zebra
subspecies, which included the extinct quagga, could not be distinguished with the genetic markers
used and no genetic structuring was found indicative of distinct taxonomic units. The molecular data
represented a genetic cline and was differentiated along a gradient in agreement with the progressive
increase in body size and reduction in stripes towards the south. This is consistent with the overlapping
morphological parameters and geographical distribution of subspecies reported in literature. Hence, the
subspecies splits based on the morphological cline may be arbitrary, but are useful from a management
perspective.
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria:
Near Threatened ver 3.1
Year Published:
2016
Date Assessed:
June 20, 2016
Justification:
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
1
Plains Zebra is listed as Near Threatened as it is close to qualifying for Vulnerable under A2a+3c+4ac.
Total population across the species’ range is estimated at over 500,000 animals; if 30% to 50% of
animals are mature (based on maturity rates in other zebra species) this gives a population of 150,000
to 250,000 mature individuals. However there has been a population reduction of 24% since 2002, and a
25% decline since 1992 (about 2.5 generations, as generation length is about 10 years). Total numbers
were estimated at about 660,000 in 2002 (Hack et al. 2002), roughly the same as they were in 1992
(671,000 animals; Duncan and Gakahu 1992). It is very likely that 3 generations ago (in 1985) that the
population was similar in size, so it is a fair assumption that the population reduction has occurred
within the last 3 generations. Although it is problematic to compare survey data conducted across time,
there is no reason to think that error has changed drastically as the methods used remain roughly the
same. Should the population reduction increase at the time of the next assessment it is possible that the
species will qualify as VU under Criterion A.
There has been a population reduction in 10 out of the 17 range states since the 1992 and 2002 IUCN
Red List assessments. In many countries Plains Zebra are only found in protected areas, with little or no
individuals outside them. Lack of surveys outside protected areas makes assessing trends and
population sizes difficult across most of the species’ range, but for a species that is considered common
and widespread the observed decline is worrying.
Previously Published Red List Assessments
2008 – Least Concern (LC) – http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T41013A10386901.en
2002 – Least Concern (LC)
1996 – Lower Risk/least concern (LR/lc)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
Plains Zebra range from South Sudan and southern Ethiopia, east of the Nile River, to southern Angola
and northern Namibia and northern South Africa (formerly ranging south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers
to the Cape) (Hack et al. 2002, Klingel 2013). They are now extinct in two countries in which they
formerly occurred: Burundi and Lesotho, and are likely to be extinct in Somalia.
The six morphologically defined subspecies are distributed as follows (following Groves and Bell 2004):
E. q. crawshaii (Crawshay’s Zebra) occurs in Zambia, east of the Luangwa River, Malawi, south-eastern
Tanzania from Lake Rukwa east to Mahungoi, and Mozambique as far south as the Gorongoza district;
E. q. borensis ranges in north-west Kenya, from Guas ngishu and Lake Baringo, to the Karamoja district
of Uganda and south-east South Sudan, east of the Nile River to the northern limit of the species at
32°N;
E. q. boehmi (Grant’s Zebra or Boehm's Zebra) is found in Zambia, west of the Luangwa River, west to
Kariba, Shaba Province of DR Congo north to Kibanzao Plateau; Tanzania north from Nyangaui and
Kibwezi into south-west Uganda, south-west Kenya as far as Sotik, and east Kenya, east of the Rift Valley,
into southern Ethiopia and perhaps to the Juba River in Somalia.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
2
E. q. chapmani (Chapman's Zebra) ranges from north-east South Africa, from about 24°S, 31°E, north to
Zimbabwe, west into Botswana at about 19°S, 24°E, the Caprivi Strip in Namibia, and southeastern
Angola (east of the Cubango river);
E. q. burchellii (Burchell's Zebra) formerly occurred north of the Vaal/Orange Rivers, extending northwest via southern Botswana to Etosha National Park and the Kaokoveld, south-east to KwaZulu-Natal
and Swaziland, and in southwestern Angola. It is now extinct in the middle of its range. E. b. antiquorum
is now included in this subspecies;
E. q. quagga (Quagga) occurred in the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers and
west of the Drakensberg. Now extinct.
Country Occurrence:
Native: Angola (Angola); Botswana; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Ethiopia; Kenya; Malawi;
Mozambique; Namibia; Rwanda; South Africa; South Sudan; Swaziland; Tanzania, United Republic of;
Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe
Possibly extinct: Somalia
Regionally extinct: Burundi; Lesotho
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
3
Distribution Map
Equus quagga
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
4
Population
Plains Zebra are considered common and widespread across Africa, but there has been a population
decline in 10 out of the 17 range states since the 1992 and 2002 IUCN Red List assessments. In many
countries Plains Zebra are only found in protected areas, with little or no individuals outside them. Lack
of surveys outside protected areas makes assessing trends and population sizes difficult across most of
the species’ range.
Total population across the species’ range is estimated at over 500,000 animals; if 30% to 50% of
animals are mature (based on maturity rates in other zebra species) this gives a population of 150,000
to 250,000 mature individuals. Total numbers were estimated at about 660,000 in 2002 (Hack et al.
2002), roughly the same as they were in 1992 (671,000 animals; Duncan and Gakahu 1992). This
represents a population reduction of 24% since 2002, and a 25% decline since 1992 (about 2.5
generations, as generation length is about 10 years). It is very likely that 3 generations ago (in 1985) that
the population was similar in size to numbers given in 1992, so it is a fair assumption that the population
reduction has occurred within the last 3 generations. The exact number of Plains Zebra is unknown due
to different survey methods applied across their range, and many areas having no recent survey data.
This makes comparison of survey data problematic. In the country specific data below confidence
intervals or other range descriptors are given when available, but most accounts do not provide this
information. However when comparing data over the past few generations any error in calculating total
population size is likely to have remained constant, as intensity and accuracy of surveys are unlikely to
have greatly improved.
Overall, populations in Ethiopia, Malawi, and South Africa appear stable; they are possibly stable in
Angola (they were considered likely extinct here in the 2002 assessment); in Mozambique they are
stable or increasing; in Namibia and Swaziland populations are increasing; but in Botswana, Congo,
Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe populations are declining
(Table 1). Of particular concern is that decline is being seen in Kenya and Tanzania, where the species is
most numerous. However the world's largest single Plains Zebra population in Serengeti National Park
appears stable.
Angola
The Plains Zebra population in Angola has declined drastically since the 1960s and 1970s and has been
extirpated from most of its former range in the country. Plains Zebra has likely been eliminated from
Iona National Park (NP), and is probably extinct elsewhere along the coastal plain and neighboring
regions of southwestern Angola (Pedro Vaz Pinto and Luis Verissimo pers. comm. 2015). Recent
anecdotal reports of the species presence in Bikuar NP need confirmation. Plains Zebra remain extant in
small groups in a trans-boundary population in Luengue-Luiana NP, due to animals moving from
Bwabwata National Park in Namibia and there is a possibility of its presence elsewhere in southeast
Kuando Cubango province (Pedro Vaz Pinto and Luis Verissimo pers. comm. 2015). Population size in the
country is unknown.
Botswana
Nationwide total is about 99,500 Plains Zebra from a stratified sample count in 2012 (Botswana DWNP
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
5
unpublished data). While the population is increasing significantly in Ngamiland and Central Botswana,
there is a non-significant decreasing trend in Chobe, with no information on trends for the smaller
populations in Ghanzi and the north-east and southern parts of the country. Countrywide the species
was considered stable (or increasing non-significantly) in 2012, and has increased from about 35,000 in
2002 (Hack et al. 2002).
Democratic Republic of Congo
A 2008 survey recorded 62 Plains Zebra in Upemba NP, but none in Kunedelungu NP (Vanleeuwe 2009).
This indicates a decline in the Congo population as <1,000 were reported in 2002 (Hack et al. 2002).
Ethiopia
The 2014 nationwide population was about 7,500 zebra (F. Kebede, EWCA, unpublished data). This
population overall appears stable since 2002. The population in Omo NP-Mago NP-Tama WR was
estimated as 1,630 from a 1997 aerial survey (F. Kebede pers. comm.), decreasing to 1,000 in a 2014
informed estimate. The Nechisar NP population remains stable at about 3,000 animals in both 1995 and
2014 (C. Zewdie and G. Wondimu, EWCO, unpublished data), and the Yabello WS (now Borena NP)
population increased from 2,840 in a 1995 aerial survey (Thouless 1995) to an informed estimate of
3,500 in 2014 (F. Kebede unpublished data).
Kenya
While Plains Zebra remain numerous in Kenya the population appears to be declining. In 1995 the
population was estimated as 152,490 from aerial surveys (Hack et al. 2002); in surveys from 2008-2015
the population is estimated at only 98,820 animals (Kenya Wildlife Service 2015 unpublished data). This
represents a decline of 35% in 20 years. Plains Zebra have been extirpated (or nearly so) from some
protected areas (e.g. Kora NP and Sibilo NP; Thomas Butynski pers. comm. 2015), while in other areas
densities remain high. Only about 10% of Plains Zebra are on protected lands in Kenya (Grunblatt et al.
1995), meaning that protection for zebras outside these areas is vital.
Plains Zebra populations have declined in Maasai Mara Nature Reserve (MMNR) and nearby ranches
from wet season numbers as high as 60,764 ± 18201 in 1978 to 38,560 ± 10,935 in 2007 (Ogutu et al.
2011), although 2014 Kenya Wildlife Service aerial survey data indicated a population of 42,126. This
represents the largest population in Kenya. Zebra tended not to be resident in MMNR during the wet
season (December to May) although they remained in surrounding ranches. Fewer zebra now migrate in
to the Mara region during the dry season, despite few changes in the source population in the Serengeti
(Ogutu et al. 2011).
In 1995 the Laikipia Plains Zebra population was considered to be increasing (Hack et al. 2002). Surveys
conducted in 2001 and 2012 found a 9.6% reduction from 27,544 to 24,887±5,853 indicating that the
population is roughly stable (Kinnaird et al. 2012). Plains Zebra are the most abundant wildlife species in
this area, yet like all wildlife are experiencing a decline since the 1980s.
Malawi
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
6
Aerial surveys from 2012 to 2015 report about 748 zebra in protected areas in Malawi. The largest
population in Majete WR increased from 262 in 2012 to 571 in 2015 (D. Macpherson pers. comm. 2015).
The second largest population in Nyika NP declined from 279 in 2013 to 153 in 2015 (Macpherson 2013
and pers. comm.). Vwaza Marsh WR, Kasungu NP and Liwonde NP each have less than 20 (D.
Macpherson pers. comm. 2015). There are also small populations of Plains Zebra at three or four game
ranches in Malawi.
Mozambique
Plains Zebra were likely eradicated from south-western Mozambique during 22 years of war (1964-1974;
1980-1992). Between 2002 and 2008, 1361 zebra were (re-)introduced to the western section of the
newly created Limpopo National Park (LNP), from the adjoining Kruger National Park (KNP) in South
Africa. Subsequent aerial surveys (2010, 2013) indicate a sharp reduction in zebra abundances in LNP
and restriction of zebra distribution to the western boundary. Recent ground surveys (2014)
documented natural range expansion of zebra into central LNP. Illegal hunting is widespread in LNP and
may explain reduced zebra abundances. Zebra were not detected in Banhine National Park during 2004,
2007, 2009 and 2014 surveys.
The country-wide total is about 3,400 zebras in Mozambique. The population estimate from aerial
surveys in Limpopo NP has declined from 494 in 2010 to 183 in 2013 due to illegal hunting (Kristoffer
Everatt pers. comm. 2015). The population in Niassa Reserve is stable, with numbers remaining around
3,000 between the aerial survey in 1998 which estimated 2,854 zebras (1852-3855) and in 2014 which
estimated 3,197 (2400-3994), although an anomalous survey in 2009 recorded 6,229 (5033-4672)
possibly due to better observers that year (Colleen Begg pers. comm. 2015). Plains Zebras are present in
Magoe in Tete province, but no longer present in Banhina NP (2004-2014). Fourteen Plains Zebra were
reintroduced to Gorongosa NP in 2012, but only one foal had been produced by 2015 (Marcelino Denja
pers. comm. 2015).
Namibia
There are about 40,000 Plains Zebras in Namibia, with an estimated increasing trend due to populations
on private/freehold land. Legislative changes during the 1960s-1970s in Namibia giving landowners user
rights to wildlife has led to an increase in the populations of Hartmann’s mountain zebra, and has
benefitted Plains Zebra as well. An aerial survey of Etosha NP in 2012 estimated 16,174 Plains Zebra,
with an aerial survey of the north-east (Kavango East and Zambezi) estimating 1,421 Plains Zebras
(Kenneth Uiseb, Namibia MET, unpublished data). In 2014, aerial surveys of the Zambezi Region
(including Bwabwata, Mudumu and Nkasa Lupara national parks and communal conservancies) and
Mangetti NP estimated 5,435 and 140 zebras respectively (Kenneth Uiseb, Namibia MET, unpublished
data). It should be noted that the 950-2037 zebras in Bwabwata NP are the same population that has
some animals moving in to Angola. The total number of Plains Zebra on private land is unknown, but is
between 19,000 and 25,000 (Lindsey et al. 2013).
Rwanda
The only data on Plains Zebra from Rwanda are from a 2013 aerial survey that estimated 999 Plains
Zebra in Akagera National Park (African Parks website). It is unlikely that there are many Plains Zebra
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
7
outside this protected area.
South Africa
The Plains Zebra was assessed as Least Concern in the South African National Red List as the species
remains widespread, common, and there are no major threats resulting in a range-wide population
decline (Stears et al. 2015). The population is stable, consisting of at least 46,000 animals; in 2002 there
were over 55,000 Plains Zebras estimated in the country (Hack et al. 2002). Kruger National Park has
around 70% of the free-roaming population in South Africa with 29,000-43,450 individuals in 2012. This
is the only South African population that is migratory. Plains Zebras are also present in the northern
KwaZulu-Natal, and in Limpopo, North West, Free State and Northern Cape provinces, with large
numbers on private land (9,411 individuals and 3,232 individuals on private land in the North West and
Free State provinces respectively).
South Sudan
In 1980 there were 24,078 in the wet season and 29,460 in the dry season in Boma NP, and 3,889 in the
wet season and 4,533 in the dry season in Jonglei National Park (Fay et al. 2007). A 2007 aerial survey
saw a small group of Plains Zebra in Boma, and none in Jonglei (Fay et al. 2007). In 2007, 2008 and 2009
a few small group of Plains Zebra were seen during aerial surveys, and in 2013 there was an
unconfirmed report of Plains Zebra from a charter plane pilot, but otherwise no Plains Zebras have been
seen in South Sudan in recent years (Paul Elkan pers. comm. 2015).
Swaziland
There are about 2,900 Plains Zebras in Swaziland (Mickey Reilly unpublished data 2015). In the Kingdom
of Swaziland’s Big Game Parks there are about 1,250: 320 recorded from an aerial count in Mkhaya in
2014, 850 estimated in Hlane, and about 80 estimated in Milwane. In Government parks there are about
185, and up to 800 on private land (although this is likely an over-estimate; Mickey Reilly unpublished
data 2015). This represents an increase compared to 1000 Plains Zebra reported in Swaziland in 2002
(Hack et al. 2002).
Tanzania
Plains Zebras are still widespread and common in Tanzania with a population of over 260,000 (±20-30%)
animals, however all but three populations appear to be declining (TAWIRI/NCAA unpublished data
2015), and the species is restricted to protected areas. The populations in the Serengeti Ecosystem and
the Ngorongoro Crater appear stable, with 207,166 ±37,638 in a 2010 aerial survey of the Serengeti, and
4,942 in a total count of Ngorongoro Crater (Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority Ecological
Monitoring Program, NEMP). The Serengeti population is the largest within the species’ range, and
contains 42% of all wild Plains Zebras. The West Kilimanjaro population is possibly stable, with 1,632 in a
2013 total count. All other populations are declining or have an unknown trend. The Tarangire Manyara
ecosystem population dropped from 33,330 ± 1,254 in 2004 to 15,662 ± 5,118 in 2011 (CIMU
unpublished data), with other populations having a similar level of decline.
Uganda
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
8
There are 425 ± 636 Plains Zebras in Uganda, almost all in the Kidepo landscape (Wanyama et al. 2014).
Of these zebras, 154 are in Kidepo National Park, representing a decline from 651 in 1971 (Wanyama et
al. 2014). Some Plains Zebras are also present in Lake Mburo National Park. It is unlikely that there are
any Plains Zebras outside the protected areas (Julian Fennessy pers. comm. 2015). Plains Zebras are now
locally extinct in Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve, from over 2,000 in 1968 (Zwick et al. 1998). No Plains Zebras
were seen in Murchison Falls or Queen Elizabeth National Parks in a 2014 survey (Wanyama et al. 2014).
This represents a severe decline in this country from over 3,000 in 2002 (Hack et al. 2002).
Zambia
There are between 8,000 and 16,000 Plains Zebra in Zambia, with populations declining in most
protected areas (Peter Lindsay pers. comm. 2015). These zebras consist of about 9,400 in the protected
area network, and over 2,000 on game ranches (Lindsay et al. 2013, 2014). There may have been a
decline from over 18,000 Plains Zebra in 2002 (Hack et al. 2002).
Zimbabwe
There are over 4,000 Plains Zebras in Zimbabwe. In Hwange 2,155 were reported in 1999, and 1,685 ±
26 in Gonarezhou National Park in 2013 (Dunham et al. 2013). This latter population is thought to be
increasing. Plains Zebra also occur in other protected areas and outside these areas in Zimbabwe, but
we do not have the survey data to assess how many.
For further information about this species, see Supplementary Material.
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)
Plains Zebra live in all habitats in Africa from sea level to 4,300 m on Mount Kenya, with the exception of
rain forests, deserts, dune forests, and Cape Sclerophyllous vegetation (Duncan 1992).
Plains Zebra live in family groups of a stallion with mares and their juvenile offspring. While each of
these groups have a home range, the groups join together and move as herds in some or all parts of the
year (Klingel 1969, Rubenstein 2010). The home range of Plains Zebras varies across the continent, being
determined by seasonal vegetation changes and habitat quality (Smuts 1975). In East Africa, home
ranges in Ngorongoro were 80-250 km² in different parts of the crater (Klingel 1969), whereas they were
larger in the Serengeti: 3-400 km² in the wet season and 4-600 km² in the dry season (Klingel 1969).
Combined with a migration route of 100 to 150 km in each direction, Serengeti zebras cover at least
1000 km² in a year. This can be compared with annual home ranges of 49-566 km² in Kruger National
Park (Smuts 1975). In some areas the herds form discrete subpopulations, separated by natural barriers
or marginal habitats (Smuts 1974). These subpopulations cover areas from 28-136 km² in Zululand
(Brooks 1982) to 1530-1560 km² in Kruger National Park (Smuts 1974). In areas where resources are
scarce or patchily distributed, zebras daily cover a lot of ground. In the dry season zebras moved up to
34.5 km to forage in Botswana (Brooks and Harris 2008), whereas in Ngorongoro they moved about 6
km (Klingel 1969); in Kruger National Park they tended to move less than 2 km in a day across the year
(Owen-Smith 2013). Studies of zebras have shown how their spatial awareness allows them to orient
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
9
movements towards preferred forage patches or the nearest water source, and thus move efficiently
across large distances (Brooks and Harris 2008).
A central feature of Plains Zebra ecology is their migration, tracking resource abundance across the
seasons (Young et al. 2005). One of the biggest ungulate migrations in the world occurs in the Serengeti.
At a large scale zebras follow the long grass that grows after the rains (Bell 1971), at a finer scale they
move to maximize intake of food of sufficient quality, while minimizing time spent in habitats where
they may encounter predators (Hopcraft et al. 2010). Not all zebra herds migrate (e.g., Stelfox et al.
1986, Georgiadis et al. 2003), with different herds reacting differently to changing conditions (OwenSmith 2013): in the Okavango Delta of Botswana only about 55% of zebras make the 588 km round trip
(Bartlam-Brooks et al. 2011). Migration allows zebras to optimize their nutrition by moving to prime
grasslands during the wet season (Bartlam-Brooks et al. 2013), selecting higher quality resources rather
than absolute abundance of grass (Bartlam-Brooks et al. 2011). The start and pace of migration is
controlled by the environment: it is initiated by cumulative precipitation, with daily movement being a
function of precipitation rate and NDVI (Bartlam-Brooks et al. 2013). Zebras have the flexibility to alter
their migration patterns to avoid adverse conditions or to find new resources (Bartlam-Brooks et al.
2013). As fences constrain many populations (Shem et al. 2013), this allows them to re-establish
migrations once barriers are removed (Bartlam-Brooks et al. 2011).
Plains Zebras tend to be found in mid-productive grasslands in areas where there is the highest green
standing crop (McNaughton 1985), selecting areas of the highest grass biomass regardless of quality
(Groom and Harris 2010). Across studies Plains Zebras were found in open savanna with an abundance
of grass and the presence of some trees or open woodland. The Plains Zebra diet consists almost
entirely of grasses (Bodenstein et al. 2000), with occasional browse to maintain protein levels (Berry and
Louw 1982). Compared to ruminants, zebras are generalist and bulk feeders, spending more time
foraging (Seydack et al. 2012, Owen-Smith and Goodall 2014), and having a diet that is of lower quality
(McNaughton 1985, Ben-Shahar 1991) and higher fiber (30-36% of dry matter, Macandza et al. 2013)
than sympatric bovids of a similar size.
Systems: Terrestrial
Use and Trade
There is trade in skins of this species. Meat is rarely used, but there is some hunting for bushmeat.
Poaching occurs in some areas, and some by-catch in snares has been reported.
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)
The quagga was driven to extinction in the late 19th century by overhunting and competition with
livestock.
While equid meat is often not a preferred choice, Plains Zebra are threatened by hunting through much
of their range, especially when they move out of protected areas. Hunting for their skins occurs,
particularly in East Africa as these subspecies do not have the shadow stripe present in southern African
subspecies (Foley et al. 2014). Fencing areas can block migration corridors (Foley et al. 2014), although
Plains Zebras have been shown to re-establish migration routes if barriers are removed, even if they are
blocked for over 30 years (Bartlam-Brooks et al. 2011).
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
10
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)
Plains Zebra occur in numerous protected areas across their range, including the Serengeti National Park
(Tanzania), Tsavo and Masaai Mara (Kenya), Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe), Etosha National Park
(Namibia), and Kruger National Park (South Africa).
Hack et al. (2002) proposed the following conservation actions for the species: 1) Improve coverage and
frequency of monitoring; 2) Improve risk assessment; 3) Quantify and manage genetic diversity both
globally and locally; 4) Increase the understanding of the species' basic biology'; and 5) Investigate the
economics of alternative utilization strategies.
In Malawi several conservation measures for the species are ongoing: Majete Wildlife Reserve, Liwonde
National Park and Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve are now being managed by the African Parks Network,
an anti-poaching project (funded by IFAW) is now running in Kasungu National Park that has transfrontier capacity in interest to include Likusuzi and Luambe NP's in Zambia, and there is a Nyika TransFrontier Project which covers Nyika NP, Vwaza Marsh WR in Malawi and Musalangu Game Management
Area plus the Mitenge and Lundazi Forest Reserves in Zambia (funded by KWF and run by the Malawi
Department of National Parks and Wildlife).
Credits
Assessor(s):
King, S.R.B. & Moehlman, P.D.
Reviewer(s):
Hoffmann, M. & Mallon, D.
Contributor(s):
Bradley, J., Hack, M., Everatt, K., Kinnaird, M., Begg, C., Fennessy, J., Plumptre, A.,
Cotts, M., Macpherson, D., Parker, A., Denja, M., Lindsay, P., Verissimo, L., Vaz
Pinto, P., Uiseb, K., Elkan, P., Foley, C. & Lorenzen, E.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
11
Bibliography
Bartlam-Brooks, H.L.A., Beck, P.S.A., Bohrer, G. and Harris, S. 2013. In search of greener pastures: Using
satellite images to predict the effects of environmental change on zebra migration. Journal of
Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences 118: 1427-1437.
Bartlam-Brooks, H.L.A., Bonyongo, M.C. and Harris, S. 2011. Will reconnecting ecosystems allow longdistance mammal migrations to resume? A case study of a zebra Equus burchelli migration in Botswana.
Oryx 45: 210-216.
Bell, R. 1971. A grazing ecosystem in the Serengeti. Scientific American 225: 86-93.
Bennett, D.K. 1980. Stripes do not a zebra make. A cladistic analysis of Equus. Systematic Zoology 29:
272-287.
Ben-Shahar, R. and Coe, M.J. 1992. The relationships between soil factors, grass nutrients and the
foraging behaviour of wildebeest and zebra. Oecologia 90: 422-428.
Berry, H.H. and Louw, G.N. 1982. Nutritional balance between grassland productivity and large herbivore
demand in the Etosha National Park. Madoqua 13: 141-150.
Bodenstein, V., Meissner, H.H. and van Hoven, W. 2000. Food selection by Burchell's zebra and blue
wildebeest in the Timbavati area of the Northern Province Lowveld. South African Journal of Wildlife
Research 30: 63-72.
Brooks, C. J. and Harris, S. 2008. Directed movement and orientation across a large natural landscape by
zebras, Equus burchelli antiquorum. Animal Behaviour 76: 277-285.
Brooks, P.M. 1982. Zebra, wildebeest and buffalo sub-population areas in the Hluhluwe-CorridorUmfolozi Complex, Zululand, and their application in management. South African Journal of Wildlife
Research 12: 140-146.
Duncan, P. 1992. Zebras, Asses and Horses: an Action Plan for the Conservation of Wild Equids. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
Duncan, P. and Gakahu, C. 1992. Plains Zebras (Equus burchelli Gray). In: Duncan, P. (ed.), Zebras, Asses,
and Horses. An Action Plan for the Conservation of Wild Equids, pp. 12-15. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist
Group, Gland, Switzerland.
Dunham, K.M., van der Westhuizen, E., van der Westhuizen., H.F. and Ndaimani, H. 2013. Aerial survey
of elephants and other large herbivores in Gonarezhou National Park (Zimbabwe) and surrounding
areas. Frankfurt Zoological Society unpublished report.
East, R. 1997. Current status of Burchell's Zebra in Africa, with additional information on Grevy’s Zebra
and Cape Mountain Zebra. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group.
Fay, M.,Elkan, P., Marjan, M. and Grossman, F. 2007. Aerial surveys of wildlife, livestock, and human
activity in and around existing and proposed protected areas of southern Sudan, dry season 2007. WCS Southern Sudan Technical Report.
Foley, C. and Foley, L. 2014. Migratory Corridors and Wildlife Trends in the Tarangire Ecosystem. Wildlife
Conservation Society, Tanzania program.
Foley, C., Foley, L., Lobora, A., De Luca, D., Msuha, M., Davenport, T.R.B. and Durant, S. 2014. A Field
Guide to the Larger Mammals of Tanzania. Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
12
George, M. and Ryder, O. A. 1986. Mitochondrial DNA evolution in the genus Equus. Molecular Biology
and Evolution 3: 535-546.
Georgiadis, N. J., Hack, M.A. and Turpin, K. 2003. The influence of rainfall on zebra population dynamics:
implications for management. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 125-136.
Grogan, P. J. P. 1973. Some Aspects of Nutrient Utilization by Burchell ’s zebra (Equus burchelli bohmi
MATSCHIE) in the Serengeti-Mara region, East Africa. M.Sc. Thesis, Texas A&M University, College
Station.
Groom, R. and Harris, S. 2010. Factors affecting the distribution patterns of zebra and wildebeest in a
resource-stressed environment. African Journal of Ecology 48: 159-168.
Groves, C.P. and Bell, C.H. 2004. New investigations on the taxonomy of the zebras genus Equus,
subgenus Hippotigris. Mammalian Biology 69: 182-196.
Grubb, P. 2005. Order Perissodactyla. In: D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder (eds), Mammal Species of the
World, pp. 629-636. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Grunblatt, J., Said, M., Njuguna, E. and Ojwang, J. 1995. SRSRS protected and adjacent areas analysis.
Ministry of Planning and National Development, Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing,
Nairobi, Kenya.
Hack, A. M., East, R. and Rubenstein, D. I. 2002. Status and Action Plan for the Plains Zebra. In: P. D.
Moehlman (ed.), Equids: Zebras, Asses and Horses. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, pp. 4360. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Higuchi, A., Bowman, B., Freiberger, M., Fyder, O. A. and Wilson, A. C. 1984. DNA sequences from the
quagga, an extinct member of the horse family. Nature 312: 282-284.
Hopcraft, J.G.C., Morales, J.M., Beyer, H.L., Haydon, D.T., Borner, M., Sinclair, A.R.E. and Olff, H. 2010.
Serengeti wildebeest and zebra migrations are affected differently by food resources and predation risks.
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen.
IUCN. 2016. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2016-2. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org.
(Accessed: 04 September 2016).
Jones, K.E., Bielby, J., Cardillo, M., Fritz, S.A., O'Dell, J., Orme, C.D.L., Safi, K., Sechrest, W., Boakes, E.H.,
Carbone, C., Connolly, C., Cutts, M.J., Foster, J.K., Grenyer, R., Habib, M., Plaster, C.A., Price, S.A., Rigby,
E.A., Rist, J., Teacher, A., Bininda-Emonds, O.R.P., Gittleman, J.L., Mace, G.M. and Purvis, A. 2009.
PanTHERIA: a species-level database of life history, ecology and geography of extant and recently extinct
mammals. Ecology 90: 2648.
Kinnaird, M, O’Brien, T. and Ojwang, G. 2012. Sample count aerial surveys as a monitoring tool for
wildlife and livestock: a case study from Laikipia County. Unpublished report to the Laikipia Wildlife
Forum.
Klein, R. G. and Cruz-Uribe, K. 1999. Craniometry of the genus Equus and the taxonomic affinities of the
extinct South African quagga. South African Journal of Science 95: 81-86.
Klingel, H. 1967. Soziale Organisation und Verhalten freilebender Steppenzebras. Zeitschrift für
Tierpsychologie 24: 580-624.
Klingel, H. 1969. The social organisation and population ecology of the plains zebra (Equus quagga).
Zoologica Africana 4: 249-263.
Klingel, H. 2013. Equus quagga. In: J. S. Kingdon and M. Hoffmann (eds), The Mammals of Africa,
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
13
Academic Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Leonard, J. A., Rohland, N., Glaberman, S., Fleischer, R. C., Caccone, A. and Hofreiter, M. 2005. A rapid
loss of stripes: the evolutionary history of the extinct quagga. Biology Letters 1: 291-295.
Lindsey, P.A., Barnes, J., Nyirenda, V., Pumfrett, B., Tambling, C.J., Taylor, W.A. and t'SasRolfes, M. 2013.
The Zambian wildlife ranching industry: scale, associated benefits, and limitations affecting its
development. PLoS ONE 8: e81761.
Lindsey, P. A., Havemann, C. P., Lines, R. M., Price, A. E., Retief, T. A., Rhebergen, T., Van der Waal, C. and
Romanach, S.S. 2013. Benefits of wildlife-based land uses on private lands in Namibia and limitations
affecting their development. Oryx 47: 41-53.
Lindsey, P.A., Nyirenda, V.R., Barnes, J.I., Becker, M.S., McRobb, R., Tambling, C.J., Taylor, W.A., Watson,
F.G. and t’Sas-Rolfes, M. 2014. Underperformance of African protected area networks and the case for
new conservation models: insights from Zambia. PLoS ONE 9(5): e94109.
Lorenzen, E. D., Arctander, P. and Siegismund, H. R. 2008. High variation and very low differentiation in
wide ranging plains zebra (Equus quagga): insights from mtDNA and microsatellites. Molecular Ecology
17(12): 2812-2824.
Macandza, V., Owen‐Smith, N. and Roux, E. 2013. Faecal nutritional indicators in relation to the
comparative population performance of sable antelope and other grazers. African Journal of Ecology 52:
300-307.
Macpherson, D. 2013. Report on an Aerial Census of Akagera National Park, Rwanda - August 2013.
Cluny.
McNaughton, S.J. 1985. Ecology of a grazing ecosystem: the Serengeti. Ecological Monographs 55: 259.
Ogutu, J.O., Owen‐Smith, N., Piepho, H.P. and Said, M.Y. 2011. Continuing wildlife population declines
and range contraction in the Mara region of Kenya during 1977–2009. Journal of Zoology 285: 99-109.
Owen-Smith, N. and Goodall, V. 2014. Coping with savanna seasonality: comparative daily activity
patterns of African ungulates as revealed by GPS- telemetry. Journal of Zoology 293: 181-191.
Owen-Smith, N., le Roux, E. and Macandza, V. 2013. Are relatively rare antelope narrowly selective
feeders? A sable antelope and zebra comparison. Jouranl of Zoology 291: 163-170.
Rau, R. E. 1978. Additions to the revised list of observed material of the extinct Cape Colony quagga and
notes on the relationship and distribution of southern plains zebras. Annals of the South African
Museum 77: 27-45.
Rubenstein, D. I. 1986. Life history and social organization in arid adapted ungulates. In: D. I. Rubenstein
and R. W. Wrangham (eds), Ecological Aspects of social evolution, pp. 282-302. Princeton University
Press, Princeton.
Rubenstein, D.I. 2010. Ecology, social behavior, and conservation in zebras. In: R. Macedo (ed.),
Advances in the Study Behavior: Behavioral Ecology of Tropical Animals, pp. 231-258. Elsevier Press,
Oxford, UK.
Seydack, A.H., Grant, C.C., Smit, I.P., Vermeulen, W.J., Baard, J. and Zambatis, N. 2012. Climate and
vegetation in a semi-arid savanna: Development of a climate–vegetation response model linking plant
metabolic performance to climate and the effects on forage availability for large herbivores. Koedoe 54:
12.
Shem M, M., Van, S.E. and Ignas MA,H. 2013. Seasonal resource use and niche breadth in an assemblage
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
14
of coexisting grazers in a fenced Park. Open Journal of Ecology 3: 383-388.
Smuts, G.L. 1974. Game movements in the Kruger National Park and their relationship to the
segregation of sub-populations and the allocation of culling compartments. Journal of the South African
Wildlife Management Association 4: 51-58.
Smuts, G.L. 1975. Home range sizes for Burchell's zebra Equus burchelli antiquorum from the Kruger
National Park. Koedoe 18: 139-146.
Smuts, G. L. 1976. Population characteristics of Burchell's Zebra (Equus burchelli antiquorum, H. Smith,
1841) in the Kruger National Park. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 6: 99-112.
Stears, K., Shrader, A., Selier, J. and Castley, G. 2015. Equus quagga– Plains Zebra. In: M.F. Child, E. Do
Linh San, D. Raimondo, H. Davies-Mostert and L. Roxburgh (eds), The Red List of Mammals of South
Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho, South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife
Trust, South Africa.
Stelfox, J.G., Peden, D.G., Epp, H., Hudson, R.J., Mbugua, S.W., Agatsiva, J.L. and Amuyunzu, C.L. 1986.
Herbivore dynamics in southern Narok, Kenya. Journal of Wildlife Management 50: 339.
Thouless, R.C. 1995. Aerial survey for wildlife in Omo valley, Chew Bahir, and Borana areas of southern
Ethiopia. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization. Ecosystems Consultants, London, UK.
Vanleeuwe, H. 2009. Large mammals and human impact survey. Upemba and Kundelungi National
Parks, DRC, USFWS/WCS/Panthera unpublished report.
Wanyama, F., Elkan, P., Grossman, F., Mendiguetti, S., Modi, A., Kisame, F., Kato, R., Okiring, D., Loware,
S. and Plumptre, A.J. 2014. Aerial surveys of Kidepo Valley National Park and Karenga Community
Wildlife Area. Unpublished Technical Report.
Young, T.P., Palmer, T.M. and Gadd, M.E. 2005. Competition and compensation among cattle, zebras, and
elephants in a semi-arid savanna in Laikipia, Kenya. Biological Conservation 122: 351-359.
Zwick, K.L., Sivell, D., Bamlett, R., Devon, I., Lloyd, J., MacGregor, H., and Stewart, L. 1998. Pian-Upe
Wildlife Reserve: biological and socio-economic survey. Frontier-Uganda Wildlife Protected Areas
Project Baseline Surveys Programme Report No. 12. The Society for Environmental Exploration, London
& Uganda Wildlife Authority, Kampala.
Citation
King, S.R.B. & Moehlman, P.D. 2016. Equus quagga. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016:
e.T41013A45172424. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
For Supplementary Material, and for Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the
Red List website.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
15
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Habitat
Season
Suitability
Major
Importance?
2. Savanna -> 2.1. Savanna - Dry
-
Marginal
-
2. Savanna -> 2.2. Savanna - Moist
-
Suitable
Yes
3. Shrubland -> 3.5. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry
-
Marginal
-
3. Shrubland -> 3.6. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Moist
-
Suitable
Yes
4. Grassland -> 4.5. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry
-
Suitable
Yes
4. Grassland -> 4.6. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Seasonally
Wet/Flooded
-
Suitable
Yes
Threats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Threat
Timing
Scope
Severity
Impact Score
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.2.
Droughts
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Causing/could
cause fluctuations
Medium
impact: 6
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion
Ongoing
Unknown
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
Ongoing
Unknown
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.3. Livestock farming
& ranching -> 2.3.4. Scale Unknown/Unrecorded
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.1. Intentional use (species is
the target)
6. Human intrusions & disturbance -> 6.2. War, civil
unrest & military exercises
Causing/could
cause fluctuations
Slow, significant
declines
Rapid declines
Unknown
Unknown
Medium
impact: 6
Conservation Actions in Place
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions in Place
In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning
Action Recovery plan: No
Systematic monitoring scheme: Unknown
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
16
Conservation Actions in Place
In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management
Conservation sites identified: No
Occur in at least one PA: Yes
Area based regional management plan: No
Invasive species control or prevention: Not Applicable
In-Place Species Management
Harvest management plan: No
Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: Yes
Subject to ex-situ conservation: Yes
In-Place Education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: Unknown
Included in international legislation: No
Subject to any international management/trade controls: No
Conservation Actions Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions Needed
1. Land/water protection -> 1.2. Resource & habitat protection
2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management
4. Education & awareness -> 4.3. Awareness & communications
Research Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.5. Threats
3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.2. Harvest level trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.4. Habitat trends
Additional Data Fields
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
17
Distribution
Estimated area of occupancy (AOO) (km²): 2250000
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): No
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 4180000
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Yes
Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): No
Continuing decline in number of locations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: No
Lower elevation limit (m): 0
Upper elevation limit (m): 4300
Population
Number of mature individuals: 150000-250000
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
Extreme fluctuations: No
Population severely fragmented: No
No. of subpopulations: 70
Continuing decline in subpopulations: Yes
Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: No
All individuals in one subpopulation: No
Habitats and Ecology
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Unknown
Generation Length (years): 10
Movement patterns: Full Migrant
Congregatory: Congregatory (year-round)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Equus quagga – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41013A45172424.en
18
The IUCN Red List Partnership
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.
The IUCN Red List Partners are: BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International;
Conservation International; Microsoft; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of
Rome; Texas A&M University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™