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CHAPTER 1
The Personal Computer
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oday’s personal computer, like the one shown in Figure 1-1, is a much more powerful
computer than the PCs of just five years ago. Not to mention how different the PC is
from computers way back in the early days of its development. Remember that the
whole of the computer’s history is compacted into a little more than 50 years and the
personal computer has only been around for a little over 20 years. In fact, the PC’s most
spectacular development has probably been made in just the past five to ten years. It is
also safe to say that the computer of today will be nothing compared to what we’ll have in
five to ten more years. The one bit of good news in all of this is that the PC will most likely
continue to have the same basic hardware components.
T
A BRIEF LOOK AT THE EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
Twenty-five years ago, it was virtually unthinkable that somebody would want to have
a computer on their desk. Many of the “big” thinkers of the time could not even conceive
of what anyone would possibly do with such a thing. It was a time of mainframes and
minicomputers, which served the needs of corporations, companies, and departments.
The idea that a single person could possibly have use for a computer all to themselves
was just unthinkable.
Figure 1-1.
Personal computers come in several styles
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The Personal Computer
Mainframe Computers
Until the dawn of the personal computer in the early 1980s, computers were large, multiple
cabinet affairs that required special room conditions and trained operators and programmers. Mainframe computers, the larger of the computers (see Figure 1-2) can literally fill a
room. These large computers, sold by IBM, Amdahl, Unisys, Hitachi, and others, are used
to fulfill the computing needs of large companies and corporations and are also used in
large telecommunications centers. They are very powerful with huge amounts of storage
and processing capability. The drawbacks to the mainframe computer for use as a personal
computer are its size, its immense amount of computing power, and its price, which can
run into the millions of dollars.
Before the personal computer, each mainframe user worked at a terminal, which is a
device (see Figure 1-3) that combines a display monitor with a keyboard and is attached
directly to the mainframe computer by a dedicated cable. The terminal, so called because it
terminates the connection line, allows the user to send large blocks of data—the contents of
the entire display screen, actually—to the mainframe for processing, and the results are
displayed on the terminal’s monitor. The early mainframe user did not have use of a
mouse, and all data was entered as text. Graphical user interfaces (GUI) such as Microsoft
Windows or X Windows were yet to come. Today’s mainframe user is more likely to be
connected to the mainframe over a local network and to use a PC as a terminal device.
Figure 1-2.
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Mainframe computers provided computing for entire companies
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Figure 1-3.
Terminals, like the VT 520, are one way to connect to a mainframe. Photo courtesy
of Boundless Technologies
For more information on the history of the mainframe and its uses today, visit the
following Web sites:
▼
Rock Painter's Mainframe Links www.texasrock.com/oem.shtml
■
Techweb Encyclopedia www.techweb.com/encyclopedia
■
The Machine That Changed the World ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/TMTCTW.html
▲
Stanford University gobi.stanford.edu/computer_history/
Minicomputers
The minicomputer (see Figure 1-4) was developed to serve the computing needs of smaller
companies and the larger departments of corporations. The minicomputer, also known
today as a midrange computer, has essentially the same functionality of the larger mainframe computer but on a smaller scale—and not much smaller, at that. The minicomputer
was developed largely to open new markets for computers after most of the larger companies had purchased mainframes. The mainframe was scaled into a smaller package
with most of its functions remaining and a little less storage and processing power, sold
at a reduced price. There are computing devices today, made by Hewlett Packard,
Compaq, and others, that are manufactured under the name minicomputer that are in
fact midlevel computers that are more powerful than personal computers and less powerful than a mainframe. Because of advances in technology, today’s minicomputer can
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Figure 1-4.
The Personal Computer
Minicomputers were as powerful as mainframes, only smaller
fulfill the entire computing needs of a small- to medium-sized company as well as serve
as a very powerful communications server. Minicomputers are much too big, in terms of
processing power and size, not to mention price, to be used as a personal computer.
For more information on the minicomputer, visit the following Web sites:
▼
Minicomputer www.whatis.com/minicomp.htm
■
Stanford University gobi.stanford.edu/computer_history/mini.htm
▲
SPARC Directory www.sparcproductdirectory.com/history.html
Other Computers
You may have heard of a couple of other computer classifications: the supercomputer
and the embedded computer. A supercomputer, like the one pictured in Figure 1-5, is an
extremely powerful computer used mostly in research and space, military, and governmental applications. A supercomputer, which can cost tens of millions of dollars, contains
the equivalent of thousands of personal computers that share in the processing load to
solve very large and complex problems in hours or days instead of weeks, months, or
years. A supercomputer is the largest and most powerful computer, sometimes equaling
the power of several mainframes combined. For example, the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) is using a supercomputer to calculate the value of the mathematic
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Figure 1-5.
A supercomputer is the most powerful of the computer family
value pi to over a million decimal places, so far. Although it is the stuff dreams are made
of, a supercomputer is way beyond consideration as a personal computer.
It seems as if virtually all electronic devices have a computer built into them in some
way. These very small and single purpose processors are classified as embedded computers.
An embedded computer is built into another device to control, monitor, or manage some
activity for the device. The controls of a microwave oven, the carburetion on your car, the
function of your electronic alarm clock, even your wristwatch most likely, all have at least
one, and probably more, embedded computers. While it is true that a personal computer
also has an embedded computer in its microprocessor (more on this later), the PC’s processor
is a multifunction device capable of controlling more than a single process or activity.
For more information on supercomputers and embedded computers, visit the following
Web sites:
Supercomputers:
▼
Ohio Supercomputer Center www.osc.edu
▲
Top500 Supercomputer List www.hoise.com/vmp/examples/top500/
Embedded computers:
▼
Technologic Systems www.t-systems.com/sbc/
■
Gary's Encyclopedia members.aa.net/~swear/pedia/embedded.html
▲
DMOZ Open Directory dirt.dmoz.org/Computers/Hardware/
Embedded_Systems/
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The Personal Computer
The Evolution of Personal Computers
There is some argument about what was actually the very first personal computer. Some
say it was the MITS Altair 8800 (see Figure 1-6), and others claim it was the Apple. It may
depend on the definition you use for just what a personal computer is, or was.
The Altair 8800 was a kit computer that fast became the favorite of hobbyists looking
to get a computer all their own. Ed Roberts and his company, MITS (Model Instrumentation Telemetry Systems), developed this early personal computer kit, which was named
the Altair by his daughter after a planetary destination on the TV show Star Trek. The software for the MITS was a BASIC programming language written by a fledgling company
called Microsoft. However, like nearly all early personal computers, the Altair 8800 did
not have off-the-shelf application software, and users had to write their software themselves using the BASIC language interpreter. While this was a challenge, to those kindred
spirits looking to get in on the computing craze, it wasn’t a problem.
In 1978, after seeing a demonstration of the Altair 8800, two young computer enthusiasts, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, set out to build their own computer and developed a
computer they named the Apple I. Like its predecessors, the Apple I established a following that encouraged its young developers to continue. The Apple II soon followed (see
Figure 1-7), bolstered by what may have been the first killer application, an early spreadsheet program called VisiCalc, and became a commercial success.
It wasn’t long before nearly every mainframe and minicomputer manufacturer leaped
into the personal computer market. IBM, Digital Equipment, and others soon had their own
PCs in the marketplace. The IBM PC and its extended technology (XT) and advanced technology (AT) versions soon became the standard for computers using Intel microprocessors,
Figure 1-6.
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The Altair MITS is thought to have been the first personal computer
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Figure 1-7.
The Apple computer was the first commercially successful personal computer
while Apple Computer continued to carve its own niche. The IBM PC AT (see Figure 1-8) and
the Apple Macintosh (see Figure 1-9) represent commercially successful PCs that largely
defined the personal computer in terms of its size, shape, and functions—a standard that has
continued until today. This is the point at which we will begin looking at the technology of
the PC and its hardware.
If you wish to learn more about some of the earliest computers and the pioneers who
developed them, visit the following Web sites:
▼
The Obsolete Computer Museum www.obsoletecomputermuseum.org/
■
Jones Telecommunications and Multimedia Encyclopedia www.
digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/pc_hd.html
▲
The Mary Butterworth School www.marybutterworth.net/historyofpc.html
The PC over the Years
Here is a list of some of the key events that have lead to the personal computer as we
know it today. Each of these events was instrumental in either the development of the
hardware of the PC or its software.
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Figure 1-8.
The IBM PC AT established the standard for Intel-based personal computers
Figure 1-9.
The Apple Macintosh established a strong niche market early on
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Year
Event
1961
Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first commercially available
integrated circuit.
1963
Douglas Engelbart patents the mouse pointing device.
1970
Intel introduces the 4004 microprocessor.
1971
IBM introduces the floppy disk.
1974
Intel releases the 8080 microprocessor.
1975
MITS Altair 8800 sells in kit form for $375.
1976
Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs build Apple I.
1977
Microsoft Corporation formed by partners Bill Gates and Paul Allen.
Apple Computer produces Apple II.
1978
Intel produces the 8086 microprocessor.
1979
VisiCalc, the first killer application, is released. Intel produces the
8088 microprocessor.
1980
Apple III computer is introduced.
The Radio Shack TRS-80 is introduced.
1981
IBM 5150 PC released featuring PC DOS (MS-DOS) 1.0.
1982
Commodore 64 computer is introduced.
Intel produces the 80286 microprocessor.
The Compaq Portable PC is introduced.
1983
Lotus 1-2-3 application is released.
IBM PC XT is introduced.
MS-DOS 2.0 is released.
1984
Hewlett Packard releases the LaserJet printer.
Phoenix ROM BIOS is released.
1985
Intel releases the 80386DX.
Microsoft Windows 1.0 is released.
PC CD-ROM drives are made available.
1986
The first 80386 PC is produced.
1987
Apple Macintosh computer is introduced.
IBM introduces PS/2 computers featuring OS/2 and VGA graphics.
1988
Intel releases the 80386SX microprocessor.
Steve Jobs introduces the NeXT computer.
1989
Intel announces the 486 microprocessor.
1990
Microsoft Windows 3.0 is released.
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Year
Event
1991
AMD releases its clone of the 386 microprocessor.
1992
Intel releases the 486DX2 microprocessor.
Windows 3.1 is released.
1993
The Intel Pentium microprocessor is announced.
1994
Netscape Navigation browser is released.
Iomega introduces the Zip drive.
1995
Pentium Pro microprocessor is introduced.
1998
Pentium II microprocessor is released.
As you can see, many separate events, all of them loosely related, were instrumental
in the development of the personal computer as it exists today. The general structure of
the PC has changed very little since its beginnings in the late 1970s. However, its speed,
capacities, and power have increased nearly exponentially.
For a more fully detailed listing of the timeline and events in the history of the personal
computer, visit the following Web sites:
▼
The Microcomputer Timeline www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/comphist/
■
Computer History www.komkon.org/fms/comp/
■
The Home Computer Hall of Fame www.gondolin.org.uk/hchof/
▲
The Historical Computer Society www.cyberstreet.com/hcs/
INTEL VERSUS APPLE
In what has been compared to a religious war at times, the debate has raged for years between IBM clone users and Macintosh users. The term IBM clone refers to personal computers based on the IBM PC AT architecture, an open architecture that was shared with other
computer manufacturers and became the standard for computers with Intel microprocessors. Often the “clone” part of the name is dropped and people refer to “IBM computers”
(regardless of their true manufacturer).
With several hundred different manufacturers of IBM-type computers, sales of the
clone have far exceeded the sales of the Apple computers. So much so that the term PC
has come to mean non-Apple computers; although technically Apple computers are
personal computers as well, it is common to hear a distinction made between an Apple
computer and a PC.
In 1971, two pioneering engineers, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, formed Intel to
develop and manufacture microprocessors. One of their first microprocessors, the 8080
(see Figure 1-10), was used in many of the early computers, including the Altair 8800 and
IMSAI 8080, another popular early PC. Over the years, Intel microprocessors have
emerged as the market leader. While other manufacturers such as AMD, Cyrix, and Zilog
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Figure 1-10.
The Intel 8080 microprocessor. Photo courtesy of the Intel Museum
Archives and Collections
have competed with Intel, Intel has managed to dominate the market with its x86 and
Pentium microprocessors (see Chapter 3 for more information on the microprocessors
used in PCs).
While other developers were adopting the Intel chips, Steve Wozniak chose to use
the 6502 microprocessor in the Apple I and II computers. He did this for several reasons,
not least of which was that it cost less than $100. He also favored this processor because its
disassembler allowed the user to play around with the system. Figure 1-11 shows the Apple I
motherboard with the 6502 processor (the large white chip on the center of the board).
The debate as to which system, the PC or the Macintosh, may be better is certainly a
matter of preference and will probably continue for as long as the two platforms are
manufactured and sold. Essentially, the hardware, the focus of this book, is and performs
about the same (although even this very general statement could start an argument).
Some believe the Macintosh computer to be better for artistic uses and graphics and the
PC to be better for number crunching and applications, but these differences are largely
because of the software developed for each.
The examples we show in the figures and illustrations of this book focus on personal
computer systems based on Intel processors. This is not meant to indicate that one type of
computer is better or worse than another. Our choice is based strictly on the fact that the
PC has dominated the market and that you are more likely to have an Intel-based computer
than not.
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Figure 1-11.
The Personal Computer
Apple I motherboard with the Intel 6502 microprocessor
AN OVERVIEW OF SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
Okay, let’s take a quick tour of a typical personal computer’s hardware. Study Figure 1-12
and take note of each of the items in the illustration.
Figure 1-12.
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The hardware of a typical PC
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The items in Figure 1-12 correspond to the following:
▼
The monitor, which is also called the display, the visual display unit (VDU),
or the screen
■
The keyboard
■
The system unit, which contains the motherboard, disk drives, expansion
cards, and input/output ports
▲
The mouse
The desktop computer in Figure 1-12, where the monitor sits on top of the system unit,
is a very common configuration for personal computers. Other popular PC configurations
are the tower and minitower computers, in which the system units sits on the floor or other
surface and the monitor sits separately on a desktop or wherever. Figure 1-13 shows a
tower-style computer.
Computers also come in small packages. The notebook computer (see Figure 1-14)
has made power-computing very portable. The pocket-sized palmtop computer, such as
the Casio Cassiopia (Figure 1-15), and the personal digital assistant (PDA), such as the
3Com Palm Pilot or the Mindspring Visor (see Figure 1-16), has the ability to perform
many personal productivity applications.
Figure 1-13.
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A personal computer with a tower case. Photo courtesy of IBM Corporation
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Figure 1-14.
A notebook computer
Figure 1-15.
An example of a palmtop computer. Photo courtesy of Casio
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The Personal Computer
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Figure 1-16.
A personal digital assistant (PDA). Photo courtesy of Handspring, Inc.
Regardless of the size of the package, personal computers all have the same six
groups of hardware components:
▼
Input devices
■
Output (display) devices
■
Processor/motherboard
■
Storage devices
■
Adapters/peripherals
▲
Power supply
Input Devices
Computers process data into information; simulate an action or animation; and, among
other actions, replicate hand motions to draw an image. What each of these actions or
processes has in common is that each requires some form of interaction with an operator.
At least so far, the operator is generally human and the human needs to provide instructions, data, or other stimuli (called inputs) to the computer so it can do its thing. To facilitate
this interaction, the computer must provide devices that the operator can use to give it its
inputs. Reasonably enough, these devices are called input devices.
Over the years, the most common input device has been the keyboard. However, in the
past few years, it has been a dead heat between the keyboard and mouse (see Figure 1-17)
because virtually every computer sold has both devices. Newer hybrid devices now even
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Figure 1-17.
The Personal Computer
A standard keyboard and mouse. Photo courtesy of Logitech International
combine the two, replacing the mouse with a touchpad built right into the keyboard. This
hybrid style is very common on notebook computers, as shown in Figure 1-18. See
Chapter 18 for more information on keyboards and other input devices.
Figure 1-18.
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The touchpad and keyboard on a notebook computer
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Output Devices
The output devices of any computer are linked to the senses of its human operator. If you
haven’t made this connection before, give it some thought. The computer must communicate with its operator through one of their senses, most likely sight and sound. These
two human senses allow the operator to see and hear the outputs produced by the
computer. The other human senses could be used, but at least so far the computer has not
had much success with using the operator’s senses of touch, taste, and smell. (You know
systems that produce real-time smells can’t be too far into the future, and there are already
printers that can produce their output in Braille for sight-impaired users.)
Printers and Displays
The human sense of sight is by far the sense most often used to view a computer’s output.
Text and graphics can be permanently placed on paper by a printer (like the one in
Figure 1-19) or viewed temporarily on the monitor (see Figure 1-20). Some outputs of
the computer, some of which may not even seem like outputs—like the Windows desktop—do not need to be printed for permanent reference, while others need to be printed
so they can be viewed away from the computer and shared with others. See Chapters 16
and 17 for more information about displays and printers, respectively.
Sound Devices
The other common output from a personal computer is sound. Whether it is as simple as the
beep codes produced through the system speaker when the computer is started up or the
Figure 1-19.
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A laser printer. Photo courtesy of Lexmark International
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Figure 1-20.
The Personal Computer
A flat-panel monitor. Photo courtesy of ViewSonic, Inc.
near-high fidelity sounds produced from a CD-ROM or DVD, digital systems and sound are
a match made in audio heaven. See Chapter 21 for more information on sound devices.
Inside the System Case
The system case encloses most of the key electronic components of the personal computer, including the motherboard, power supply, and expansion cards. The motherboard, an example of which is shown in Figure 1-21, holds the microprocessor, memory,
ROM, and most of the other electronic components that allow the computer to function.
These vital components are covered in detail in Part II of this book.
Don’t think of the system case as just a plastic or metal box into which all of these
components are placed just so they won’t get damaged or lost. The system case plays a
very vital role in both the electrical and ventilation systems engineered into the PC. Chapter 15 details the functions and purpose of the system case.
It All Works Together
The amount of accumulated engineering time over the years that has gone into perfecting
the way in which the personal computer’s components work together is immense. The
way the parts fit and function together to allow you to write a letter, play a game, or find
Wal-Mart’s online shopping page is no accident. If you are like most computer users, you
rarely wonder about or consider how the components interact to create the function of
the computer.
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Figure 1-21.
A microcomputer’s motherboard. Photo courtesy of Iwill USA
Not counting the millions of transistors crammed into a computer’s microprocessor,
there are literally thousands of interacting parts in a computer. All of these parts must be
coordinated, controlled, and managed so that the computer’s actions fulfill the desire of
its user. However, the PC is much more than just hardware. In order for the computer to
accomplish something useful and of value, it must also have software to instruct the
hardware on what to do, data to be processed, and a person to either develop the instructions or enter the data (and to place value on the output). If any one of these components
is missing, nothing of value or use can happen. Without hardware, software is useless
and vice versa. Without data, what is there to do? And without a person, who enters the
data or views the output?
As important as each of these components is, this is not the beginner’s guide to software, people, or data. In this book, you will find an in-depth introduction and guide to
the hardware of the personal computer. The focus in this book is on explaining how,
when, and why components, parts, and features are used, as well as some tips on what to
do when they don’t work correctly or need to be replaced or updated.
IN THIS BOOK …
The contents of this book are structured so that you can focus on a particular group of the
parts of the PC.
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This part of the book (Part I—The Basics) also contains an introduction to some of
the underlying concepts and principles of the PC, including digital logic, electronics,
and electricity.
Part II (Internal Components) looks at the electronics and other components found
inside the system case. This is where all the mysterious stuff goes on and is a very good
place to start your reading.
Part III (External Components) covers the devices found outside the system case
(including the system case itself) that connect to the computer through its interface ports.
Finally, Part IV (System Care and Troubleshooting) is a guide to how to care for your
computer and figure out what is wrong when the PC is not working as it should.
We hope you enjoy this book. When you have completed it, you will be an ex-beginner.
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