LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: PROFILE ................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
Geography................................................................................................................................ 1
Area .................................................................................................................................. 1
Geographic Divisions and Climate ................................................................................... 1
Climate ............................................................................................................................. 2
Bodies of Water ................................................................................................................ 3
Major Cities ...................................................................................................................... 4
Modern History........................................................................................................................ 6
Independence and Civil War ............................................................................................ 6
Reconciliation and Reconstruction ................................................................................... 7
Government ............................................................................................................................. 8
Media ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Economy .................................................................................................................................. 9
Ethnic and Religious Groups ................................................................................................. 10
Chapter 1 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 12
CHAPTER 2: RELIGION ............................................................................................................ 13
Overview................................................................................................................................ 13
Major Religions ..................................................................................................................... 13
Muslim Sects .................................................................................................................. 13
Differences Between Sunnis and Shi’ites....................................................................... 14
Christian Sects ................................................................................................................ 15
Druze .............................................................................................................................. 15
Religion and Government ...................................................................................................... 16
Influence of Religion on Daily Life....................................................................................... 17
Religious Holidays................................................................................................................. 17
Muslim Holidays ............................................................................................................ 17
Christian Holidays .......................................................................................................... 19
Places of Worship .................................................................................................................. 20
Mosques .......................................................................................................................... 20
Churches ......................................................................................................................... 20
Behavior in Buildings of Worship ......................................................................................... 21
Chapter 2 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 22
CHAPTER 3: TRADITIONS ....................................................................................................... 23
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 23
Codes of Politeness ................................................................................................................ 23
Gender Issues ......................................................................................................................... 24
© D LI F LC | i
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Hospitality and Gift Giving ................................................................................................... 26
Eating Habits and Food ......................................................................................................... 27
Dress Codes ........................................................................................................................... 28
Nonreligious Holidays ........................................................................................................... 29
Dos and Don’ts ...................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 3 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 31
CHAPTER 4: URBAN LIFE ........................................................................................................ 32
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 32
Urbanization .......................................................................................................................... 33
Urban Economy and Work Issues ......................................................................................... 35
Healthcare .............................................................................................................................. 36
Education ............................................................................................................................... 37
Restaurants ............................................................................................................................. 39
Marketplaces and Street Vendors .......................................................................................... 40
Transportation ........................................................................................................................ 42
Bus .................................................................................................................................. 42
Cars ................................................................................................................................. 42
Taxis ............................................................................................................................... 43
Street Crime and Solicitations ............................................................................................... 43
Chapter 4 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 45
CHAPTER 5: RURAL LIFE ........................................................................................................ 46
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 46
Land Distribution ................................................................................................................... 47
Rural Economy ...................................................................................................................... 48
Rural Transportation .............................................................................................................. 49
Healthcare .............................................................................................................................. 50
Education ............................................................................................................................... 51
Village Life ............................................................................................................................ 52
Border Crossings and Checkpoints ........................................................................................ 53
Landmines.............................................................................................................................. 54
CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LIFE ...................................................................................................... 57
Typical Household and Family Structure .............................................................................. 57
Roles and Responsibilities Within the Family....................................................................... 58
Status of Women, Children, and Adolescents ....................................................................... 59
Married Life and Divorce ...................................................................................................... 59
Family Events and Rites of Passage ...................................................................................... 60
Naming Conventions ............................................................................................................. 61
Chapter 6 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 63
FINAL ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................ 64
FURTHER READING ................................................................................................................. 67
© D LI F LC | ii
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
CHAPTER 1: PROFILE
Introduction
Although one of the smallest countries in the Middle East,
Lebanon is one of the region’s most diverse. This diversity is
evident not only in the people, but in the land itself.
Ports along Lebanon’s Mediterranean coastline have been active
for several millennia. With its doors open to the world, Lebanon
has long kept pace with change, and continues to today. Its
mountain forests supplied the wood used for building ancient
navy ships. Lebanon’s mountains have offered protection and sanctuary for many different
peoples, laying the foundation for today’s patchwork Lebanese society. The fertile intermountain valley makes vital agricultural production possible.
Lebanon’s population represents a unique range of religions. The country has a large Christian
population, the largest group being Maronites. The country’s Muslims are divided among Sunnis
and Shi’ites. The government accommodates power-sharing among religious groups. But a
devastating sectarian civil war enveloped the country from 1975 to 1990, destroying the
economy and much of the infrastructure. Although Lebanon has made significant progress since
the end of the war, politics remain volatile and some sectarian groups are more entrenched than
ever.
Geography
Area
Lebanon is a small country at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. At 10,400 sq km (4,015
sq mi), the country is roughly 70% of the size of Connecticut. Lebanon has just two neighbors:
Israel to the south and Syria to the east and north. The southern border with Israel runs for 79 km
(49 mi); the border with Syria is 375 km (233 mi) long. The western coastline formed by the
Mediterranean Sea runs for 225 km (140 mi). In the Middle East, only the Palestinian Territories
and Bahrain are smaller than Lebanon.1, 2, 3
Geographic Divisions and Climate
Lebanon’s terrain is divided into four main geographic regions, all running in a north-northeast
direction parallel to the coast.
The country’s westernmost region is the coastal plain. This narrow strip of land runs the full
length of the country. Its widest point, in northern Lebanon, is just 6.5 km (4 mi) and it narrows
1
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 11 April 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
2
Embassy of Lebanon, “Overview: Geography and Climate,” 2009,
http://www.lebanonembassyus.org/country_lebanon/overview.html
3
Central Intelligence Agency, “Country Comparison: Area,” in The World Factbook, n.d.,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html
© D LI F LC | 1
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
to 1.5 km (0.9 mi) farther down the coast. The ground along the coastal plain is mostly rocky;
some agriculture is possible, however, because of the river and marine sediments in the soil.
Citrus orchards are common along the coast, especially in the northern and southern sections.4, 5,
6
Bordering the coastal plain to the east are the Lebanon
Mountains. This mountain chain, also known as Mount
Lebanon, is home to Lebanon’s famed cedar forests. As the
mountain chain runs southward, the terrain becomes a hilly
plateau. The Lebanon Mountains form the country’s largest
geographic region.7, 8
East of the Lebanon Mountains is the Bekaa Valley. This
valley, actually an elevated plateau between higher mountainous regions, runs the full length of
eastern Lebanon. Although the valley receives less rain than the coastal plain and the Lebanon
Mountains (primarily because of a rain shadow caused by the mountains to the west), the rivers
running through the valley make this an agriculture rich region. Wheat and barley fields make
the valley Lebanon’s breadbasket.9, 10
The Anti-Lebanon Mountains are the country’s easternmost region. These mountains extend into
Syria and are arid with poor soil. Thus, the region supports little agriculture and is sparsely
populated.11
Climate
Lebanon has a Mediterranean climate. Summers are hot and dry, whereas winters are short, wet,
and cool. Although Lebanon is small, weather varies throughout the country because of
landscape differences in each of the four regions.12, 13
The coastal plain and the Lebanon Mountains receive the most rainfall. Winters along the coast
tend to be mild. Beirut’s January average, for example, is 14°C (57°F). These temperatures
4
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
Wafa Khoury, “Citrus Industry and Certification Programmes in Lebanon,” Options Méditerranéenes: Série B.
Etudes et Recherches, no. 21 (1998): 74, http://ressources.ciheam.org/om/pdf/b21/99001631.pdf
6
Zinett Moussa and Abdel Kader el Hajj, “Citrus Production in Lebanon: Pre-Feasibility Study of IPM of Citrus
(IAM–Bari), 2010, 2, http://www.lari.gov.lb/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=da%2BPNJGwAvU%3D&tabid=68
7
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon Mountains,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334207/Lebanon-Mountains
8
Rita Stephan, “Chapter 6: Land Resources,” in State and Trends of the Lebanese Environment 2010 (Beirut: United
Nations Development Programme/Ministry of Environment, Republic of Lebanon, 2011), 190,
http://www.moe.gov.lb/Documents/SOER%20Chap%206%20reduced.pdf
9
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Al-Biqāʿ,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/66336/Al-Biqa
10
LonelyPlanet, “Introducing Bekaa Valley,” 2011, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/bekaa-valley
11
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Anti-Lebanon Mountains,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/27617/Anti-Lebanon-Mountains
12
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
13
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Aquastat, “Lebanon: Water Resources and Use,” 2008,
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/lebanon/index.stm
5
© D LI F LC | 2
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
decline with the rising elevation of the Lebanon Mountains.
Snow falls in the mountains and often does not melt until early
summer. Bsharri, a city at an altitude of 1,916 m (6,286 ft) in
the Lebanon Mountains, has a January average of 0°C (32°F).14,
15
Summers along the coast can be quite warm and humid. Sea
breezes blowing eastward in the afternoon offer some relief
from the high temperatures.16 Summer temperatures can be high
in the Lebanon Mountains, but nights are considerably cooler
than on the coast and there is less humidity. The coast and southern foothills of the Lebanon
Mountains are affected during the spring and autumn by winds coming in from the south.
Originating in Egypt, these khamsin winds are dusty and can be oppressively hot.17, 18
The Bekaa Valley and Anti-Lebanon Mountains lie in the rain shadow cast by the Lebanon
Mountains and receive relatively little moisture compared with western Lebanon.19, 20 The Bekaa
Valley offers some relief from the coastal summer heat and is a popular destination during the
warmer months. Although the valley is largely shielded from the uncomfortable khamsin winds
of the spring and autumn, chilling winds from the north blow through the valley in the winter.21
The Anti-Lebanon Mountains are drier than their western neighbors, and precipitation in winter
months typically brings snow at higher elevations.22
Bodies of Water
The Mediterranean Sea has greatly influenced Lebanon’s
history. The area that is now Lebanon first came to prominence
under the Phoenicians. Tripoli, Sidon, and Tyre were all ancient
Phoenician port cities. Even Beirut has Phoenician roots. Tyre
and Sidon were famous throughout the ancient world for their
purple dyes derived from the mucus of mollusks off their
shores. Lebanon’s history was further influenced by
14
ClimateTemp.info, “Lebanon Climate Guide to the Average Weather & Temperatures with Graphs Elucidating
Sunshine and Rainfall Data & Information About Wind Speeds & Humidity,” 22 July 2011,
http://www.climatetemp.info/lebanon
15
ClimateTemp.info, “Bsharri Climate Guide to the Average Weather & Temperatures with Graphs Elucidating
Sunshine and Rainfall Data & Information about Wind Speeds & Humidity,” 22 July 2011,
http://www.climatetemp.info/lebanon/bsharri.html
16
BBC Weather, “Lebanon,” 22 March 2011,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/hi/country_guides/newsid_9384000/9384098.stm
17
As’Ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Thomas
Collelo (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987), 45, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
18
Maya Abou Nasr, “Annual ‘Khamsin Wind’ Bears Down Hard on Lebanon,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 3 April 2004,
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/Apr/03/Annual-Khamsin-Wind-bears-down-hard-onLebanon.ashx#axzz1p1U3PPv7
19
As’Ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Thomas
Collelo (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987), 46–47, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
20
Michelle Felton, “Climate of Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and West Bank and Gaza,” in World and Its Peoples: Israel,
Jordan, Lebanon, West Bank, and Gaza, vol. 7 (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2007), 871.
21
As’Ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Thomas
Collelo (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987), 47, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
22
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon: Land: Climate,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
© D LI F LC | 3
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Mediterranean powers from Greece and Rome. Lebanese cities are mentioned by Homer and in
the Old and New Testaments. Today the Mediterranean remains crucial for Lebanese trade.23, 24
Three major rivers traverse Lebanon’s landscape. The Litani River is the
longest within the country’s borders. After running south-southwest
through the Bekaa Valley, the Litani cuts westward, carving a canyon
through southern Lebanon before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.
The Litani River is dammed toward the southern end of the Bekaa Valley,
forming the Qaraoun Reservoir. This reservoir is Lebanon’s largest
artificial lake and a hydroelectric source. The watershed of the Litani
covers 20% of Lebanon and provides irrigation water for agriculture.25, 26,
27
The Hasbani River is located in southeast Lebanon, farther inland than the
Litani River. The Hasbani originates in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and flows south through the
Golan Heights and into Israel. It eventually empties into Lake Tiberias (the Sea of Galilee).
Lebanese plans to divert water from Hasbani tributaries have angered Israel in the past.28, 29, 30
The Orontes River originates in northeast Lebanon before flowing into Syria in the north and
eventually through Turkey to the Mediterranean Sea. Because of its northward flow (Lebanon’s
other rivers flow south), the Orontes is also known as the Asi River; asi means “rebel” in
Arabic.31, 32
Major Cities
Lebanon’s capital, Beirut, traces its ancient lineage to Phoenician
times. During the 19th century, the city gained prominence as a
trading center. The city became a melting pot of different
religious and ethnic groups, and eventually became one of the
Middle East’s key commercial centers. The Lebanese Civil War,
23
Terry Carter and Lara Dunston, “The South,” in Syria & Lebanon, 2nd ed. (Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely
Planet Publications, 2004), 341.
24
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Sidon,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543141/Sidon
25
Réseau International des Organismes de Bassin, “Litani River & Litani River Authority Projects,” 8 June 2007,
http://www.riob.org/IMG/pdf/Sleiman_Antoinette_Litani_River_and_Litani_River_Authority_Projects.pdf
26
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Aquastat, “Lebanon: Water Resources and Use,” 2008,
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/lebanon/index.stm
27
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Līṭānī River,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343419/Litani-River
28
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Aquastat, “Lebanon: Water Resources and Use,” 2008,
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/lebanon/index.stm
29
BBC News, “Israel Hardens Stance on Water,” 17 September 2002,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2265139.stm
30
Arnon Medzini and Aaron T. Wolf, “Towards a Middle East at Peace: Hidden Issues in Arab-Israeli
Hydropolitics,” Water Resources Development 20, no. 2 (June 2004): 196.
31
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Aquastat, “Lebanon: Water Resources and Use,” 2008,
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/lebanon/index.stm
32
Greg Shapland, Waters of Discord: International Water Disputes in the Middle East (New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1997), 144.
© D LI F LC | 4
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
which began in 1975, devastated the city. Since the 1990s, the city has
worked to rebuild its infrastructure and repair its economic and cultural
status in the region. Today Beirut is largely divided along religious lines.
It is estimated that Christians and Muslims make up roughly equal
percentages of the population.33, 34
Tripoli, in the northwest part of the country, is Lebanon’s second-largest
city. During the civil war, Tripoli suffered at the hands of clashing rival
Palestinian factions and from offshore Israeli shelling. Tripoli is largely a
Sunni city. Major industries include soap and cotton manufacturing, and
tobacco processing.35, 36
Sidon, a port city south of Beirut, is a center for fishing and trade. The majority of Sidon’s
population are Sunni Muslim. There are large Palestinian refugee camps near the city.37, 38, 39
As do other port cities in Lebanon, Tyre has ancient Phoenician roots. Located along the coast in
Lebanon’s far south, Tyre was originally an island city. It has been joined to the mainland since
Greek engineers under Alexander the Great built a land bridge. Tyre was later a major Roman
city, the ruins of which are a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city is predominantly Shi’ite
with a significant Palestinian Sunni population. During the 2006 Hizballah-Israel conflict, Tyre
was the target of Israeli airstrikes.40, 41
Lebanon’s largest inland city is Zahlé, located on the eastern side of the Lebanon Mountains in
the Bekaa Valley. Zahlé is renowned for its vineyards and wineries and for its production of
arak, an anise-flavored alcoholic drink similar to Greek ouzo.42, 43
33
Terry Carter and Lara Dunston, “Beirut,” in Syria & Lebanon, 2nd ed. (Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely
Planet Publications, 2004), 235–36.
34
Kamal Suleiman Salibi, “Beirut,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/58884/Beirut
35
Terry Carter and Lara Dunston, “Tripoli,” in Syria & Lebanon, 2nd ed. (Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely
Planet Publications, 2004), 300–301.
36
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Tripoli,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/605826/Tripoli
37
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Sidon,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543141/Sidon
38
United Nations Relief and Works Agency, “Palestine Refugees: A Special Case,” 2011,
http://www.unrwa.org/userfiles/20111002306.pdf
39
Are Knudsen, “Nahr el-Bared: The Political Fall-Out of a Refugee Disaster,” in Palestinian Refugees: Identity,
Space and Place in the Levant, eds. Are Knudsen and Sari Hanafi (Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, 2011),
101.
40
Sabrina Tavernise, “Tyre Reels From Attacks That Never Fail to Shock,” New York Times, 27 July 2006,
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/27/world/middleeast/27lebanon.html
41
UNESCO, “Tyre,” 2012, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/299
42
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Zahlah,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/655397/Zahlah
43
Terry Carter and Lara Dunston, “The Bekaa Valley,” in Syria & Lebanon, 2nd ed. (Footscray, Victoria, Australia:
Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 321.
© D LI F LC | 5
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Modern History
Independence and Civil War
Lebanon officially became independent in 1943. (Lebanon and Syria had previously been
administered by the French in a mandate set up after World War I.) To accommodate Lebanon’s
many religions, a system was established in which certain government posts were held by
representatives of various religious groups. The viability of this system was tested in the
following decades by external and internal pressures.44, 45
Within a few years of Lebanon’s independence, the state of Israel was formally created.
Although Lebanon’s role in the ensuing conflict was small, the country was affected by waves of
Palestinian refugees crossing the borders. Palestinians aligned with other Sunni forces in
Lebanon and, by 1968, began attacking Israeli territory and interests. These actions prompted an
Israeli response. The cycle only worsened after 1970 when militant Palestinians were forced
from Jordan. The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) moved its headquarters to Beirut,
after which it formed some ties with the government.46, 47, 48
As tensions increased, so did the degree to which Lebanon was
fractured. The Lebanese Armed Forces were incapable of
ensuring stability. Because the state lacked power, militias
organized along sectarian lines. Christian groups largely
resented the idea that Lebanon’s future would be determined by
Palestinian militants. Many Muslim groups were bitter about
Christian political power despite the number of Muslims having
increased since the country’s census (40 years prior), and so
aligned with Palestinian militants. In April 1975, a Christian militia killed a busload of
Palestinians. Violence erupted and Lebanon’s civil war began.49, 50, 51
Within a year the army had fractured, much of Beirut was destroyed, and more than 10,000
people were killed. Syria, which saw an opportunity for greater regional influence, joined the
fray and by October 1976 placed more than 20,000 Syrian troops in Lebanon. Israel, having
made peace with Egypt in 1979, sought to end the instability on its northern border and invaded
44
Albert Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
1991), 429.
45
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 626.
46
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 628–30.
47
Richard David Barnett et al., “Lebanon,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
48
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
49
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 630–33.
50
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
51
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
© D LI F LC | 6
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Lebanon in 1982 with the goal of destroying the PLO. Shi’ite groups, prominent in the south,
despised Israeli intervention and, with support from Iran, launched many attacks against Israeli
forces. By the time Israel withdrew, much of Lebanon was under Shi’ite or Syrian control.52, 53, 54
Reconciliation and Reconstruction
By the mid-1980s, Lebanese civil society was shattered, and
achieving a unified national identity seemed impossible.
Unemployment rose consistently through the decade and
income fell 80% between 1982 and 1987. Inflation reached
500% in 1987, and the economy was completely stalled. Even
sectarian groups were breaking down. Differing PLO factions
began to fight among themselves and, in the process, lost the
support of leftist groups, their former allies. A rift formed
among Shi’ites, who competed for Iranian support and differed on matters such as the possibility
of compromise with other groups. In 1989, members of the Lebanese parliament (those still alive
since the last election in 1972) met in Taif, Saudi Arabia, with the support of the Arab League
and the United States.55, 56
The 1989 summit resulted in the Taif Agreement. Under terms of the accord, Muslims split
representation in government with Christians. It was agreed that most militias would disarm and
that Syria would continue to provide security for at least 2 years. The civil war officially ended
in 1990, but only after the country’s infrastructure was destroyed and as many as 160,000 were
killed.57, 58
Since the war’s end, the government has earnestly invested in rebuilding the economy. But some
sectarian strife has remained. Hizballah, the Shi’ite militia, remained armed following the Taif
Agreement and remains active in southern Lebanon. Israel and Hizballah fought a war of
attrition through much of the 1990s until Israel withdrew from Lebanese territory in 2000.
Conflict resumed in 2006 when Hizballah forces in southern Lebanon drew Israel into a short
and bloody war.59, 60
52
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 630–33.
53
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
54
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
55
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 635–36.
56
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
57
GlobalSecurity.org, “Lebanon: (Civil War 1975–1990),” 7 November 2011,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/lebanon.htm
58
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 636.
59
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
60
Andrew Exum, “Hizballah at War, A Military Assessment,” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policy
Focus no. 63 (December 2006), http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/pubPDFs/PolicyFocus63.pdf
© D LI F LC | 7
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Lebanese politics have been volatile. In 2005, the leader of a major political party and two-term
prime minister, Rafik Hariri, was assassinated in Beirut. Outrage at his death prompted a popular
uprising calling for the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanese borders and for a government
independent of Syrian influence. This “Cedar Revolution” prompted counterprotests. Differences
between those sympathetic to the “Cedar Revolution,” known as the March 14 Alliance, and
those opposed to it, the March 8 Alliance, define Lebanese politics today.61, 62
Government
Lebanon is officially a republic (the country’s full name is the
Lebanese Republic or Al-Jumhuriyah al-Lubnaniyah) headed by
a president, a prime minister, and a parliament. Lebanon’s
constitution dates to 1926, but the country did not gain full
independence from the French mandate until 1943. In that same
year, an unwritten power-sharing agreement known as the
National Pact came into force and laid the foundation for
Lebanon’s unique governing system.63
According to the pact, Christians were to retain a 6:5 ratio over Muslims in parliament. A
number of offices were reserved for specific sectarian groups, with the power of the office
relative to the group’s size. Since that time, the office of president is traditionally held by a
Maronite Christian, the prime minister is a Sunni Muslim, the speaker of parliament is a Shi’ite
Muslim, the deputy speaker of parliament and deputy prime minister are Greek Orthodox, and
the chief of the general staff is a Druze. This unique political power-sharing agreement among
religious groups is known as confessionalism. Lebanon’s confessional system was adjusted
slightly in the 1989 Taif Agreement. Since 1989, presidential power has been reduced, and
Muslims and Christians share equal representation in parliament.64
The parliament is Lebanon’s legislative branch. It has one house called the National Assembly
(Majlis al-Nuwab in Arabic), the members of which are elected by popular vote for 4-year terms.
Lebanon’s chief of state is the president. The president serves a 6-year term after being elected
by the National Assembly and may not serve consecutive terms. The president appoints the
prime minister in consultation with the National Assembly. The prime minister is the head of
government.65
61
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Rafiq al-Hariri,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/255323/Rafiq-al-Hariri
62
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
63
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
64
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
65
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
© D LI F LC | 8
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Media
The media in Lebanon reflect the country: modern, vibrant, and diverse. Multiple newspaper,
television, and radio outlets exist, and many are marketed toward specific factions in society.
Many of the major newspapers are in Arabic, but there are also major French and English papers
(L’Orient-Le Jour and The Daily Star). Some media outlets are owned by politicians and others
are linked with various sectarian groups. The newspaper Al-Mustaqbal (“The Future”) is tied to
the political party the Movement of the Future and its leader, former prime minister Saad Hariri.
(Al-Mustaqbal was founded by Rafik Hariri, Saad’s father, the two-term prime minister
assassinated in 2005.)66 The Hariri family also owns Future TV. The television station Al-Manar
(“The Beacon”) is a pro-Hizballah network that has operated since 1991.67, 68
According to Reporters Without Borders, there is more media freedom in
Lebanon than in any other Middle East nation. According to Article 13 of
the constitution, freedom of expression (oral and written) is protected
“within the limits established by law.”69 There are laws against defaming
the president or inciting sectarian strife, but there is latitude for criticism
of government policies and other officials. Such criticisms are daily
occurrences. Lebanon’s 1974 decree-law on press freedom requires the
state to question those suspected of defamation in front of a judge and in
the presence of a lawyer. The government was criticized in 2010 for its
interrogation of a journalist in a manner contrary to the 1974 law.70, 71
The state runs a television station (Tele-Liban), a radio station (Radio-Liban), and a major news
agency (Lebanese National News Agency), but the majority of Lebanon’s media stations are
independent. International media groups, such as the BBC and Radio France, have partner
stations in Lebanon. There have been some reports of journalists being attacked in Lebanon
during times of sectarian tension.72, 73
Economy
The civil war in Lebanon (1975–90) significantly damaged the country’s economy. Prior to the
war, Lebanon had been a regional financial and commercial center. The country had steady
growth rates, and per capita income rose consistently. Imports had always exceeded exports, but
66
Rafik Hariri Foundation, “Rafik Hariri’s Bibliography [sic],” 2007,
http://rhf.org.lb/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=9&Itemid=12&lang=en
67
BBC News, “Lebanon Profile: Media,” 24 August 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14648683
68
Avi Jorisch, “Al-Manar: Hizbullah TV, 24/7,” Middle East Quarterly (Winter 2004): 17–31,
http://www.meforum.org/583/al-manar-hizbullah-tv-24-7
69
NowLebanon.com, “The Lebanese Constitution,” 23 May 1926,
http://www.nowlebanon.com/Library/Files/EnglishDocumentation/Official%20Documents/Lebanese%20Constitutio
n.pdf
70
Reporters Without Borders, “Al-Akhbar Reporter Held and Interrogated Illegally by Defense Ministry,” 13
August 2010, http://en.rsf.org/al-akhbar-reporter-held-and-13-08-2010,38140.html
71
BBC News, “Lebanon Profile: Media,” 24 August 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14648683
72
Reporters Without Borders, “Black Day for Media in Lebanon,” 25 January 2011, http://en.rsf.org/liban-blackday-for-media-in-lebanon-25-01-2011,39395.html
73
BBC News, “Lebanon Profile: Media,” 24 August 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14648683
© D LI F LC | 9
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Lebanon’s vibrant service sector made up for the trade deficit. But during the war, steady growth
was destroyed along with the country’s infrastructure. The cost of living increased, and national
output decreased by half. By the end of the war, the economy was stalled and fragmented.74, 75, 76
The Lebanese government began an aggressive program in the
1990s to rebuild the country’s infrastructure and to get the
economy back on track. Reconstruction found success but was
largely accomplished through borrowing. Therefore, public debt
and budget deficits have grown in the ensuing years. At 137%
of its gross domestic product (GDP), Lebanon’s public debt is
the fifth-highest in the world. Although Lebanon has made
significant economic progress since the end of the civil war, it
is subject to internal and regional instability. After 4 years of 8% growth, the economy expanded
just 1.5% in 2011. This low rate was due to the collapse of the government at the beginning of
the year and Syrian unrest.77, 78, 79
Today, services account for roughly 80% of the economy, and
the per capita GDP is USD 15,600. (The per capita GDP figure is
three times higher than that of neighboring Syria but roughly half
that of neighboring Israel.) One-third of the population lives
beneath the poverty line. Citrus, grapes, olives, and tobacco are
common crops. Costs for imports, at USD 20.9 billion in 2011,
are roughly four times greater than revenues from exports.80, 81
Ethnic and Religious Groups
Lebanon’s people migrated from lands far and near, mixing with many ancient civilizations over
centuries. The Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Christians, and Muslims all influenced Lebanese
culture. Thus, modern Lebanon is a true melting pot in which individual ethnic identities are
difficult to trace. Although some sources state the country is primarily Arab (the CIA World
Factbook states that Lebanon is 95% Arab, 4% Armenian, and 1% other), such classification
overstates the importance of ethnicity. Many Christians in Lebanon identify themselves as
74
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon: Economy,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon/23395/Economy
75
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
76
John Roberts, “Chapter 3: The Economy,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Thomas Collelo (Washington, DC:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
77
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
78
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
79
Central Intelligence Agency, “Country Comparison: Public Debt,” in The World Factbook, n.d.,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html
80
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
81
Central Intelligence Agency, “Country Comparison: GDP-Per Capita (PPP),” in The World Factbook, n.d.,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html
© D LI F LC | 10
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Phoenician rather than Arab. So any classification is an oversimplification of Lebanon’s rich
cultural fabric.82, 83
Native Lebanese are joined by other national groups in
Lebanon. The most obvious is the large number of Palestinian
refugees in Lebanon. Today there are 12 refugee camps and
more than 400,000 Palestinian refugees in Lebanon.84 Violence
in the wake of the Syrian uprising in 2011 and 2012, in
addition to the Syrian regime’s brutal crackdown, has sent
large numbers of Syrians into Lebanon as well.85
Religious groups, not ethnic, are the key factor in analyzing Lebanon’s population. For political
reasons, there has not been a census in Lebanon since 1932. Percentages have likely changed
since then, but the major religious groups remain the same. In 1932, the country was 54%
Christian. Christian groups recognized by the constitution include several Catholic and Orthodox
churches (Armenian Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Chaldean Catholic, Greek Catholic, Greek
Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Syrian Catholic, and Syrian Orthodox), Copts, Protestants,
Maronites, and others. The Maronites are the largest single Christian group in Lebanon.86
In 1932, Muslims made up 44% of the population. Unlike most other Middle East countries,
Lebanon has a sizable Shi’ite population. Hizballah, a Shi’ite militia, receives support from Iran,
a Shi’ite state. But the Sunni Muslim population is sizable. The Druze, a group of Shi’ite origin,
remain a small minority in the country. The Druze are quite insular, and many Muslims consider
the group heretical.87
Exact numbers for these groups are unknown today, but it is estimated that higher birthrates
among Muslims since the 1932 census now make Islam the majority religion in Lebanon. 88
82
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
83
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
84
Sherifa Shafie, “Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon,” ForcedMigration.org, n.d., 2, 4,
http://www.forcedmigration.org/research-resources/expert-guides/palestinian-refugees-in-lebanon/fmo018.pdf
85
Reuters, “Syrian Refugee Exodus Grows,” 10 April 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/10/us-syriarefugees-idUSBRE8390JE20120410
86
As’Ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Thomas
Collelo (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987), 48, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
87
As’Ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Thomas
Collelo (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987), 48, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
88
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
© D LI F LC | 11
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Chapter 1 Assessment
1. Like other Middle East nations, Lebanon is predominantly desert.
FALSE
Lebanon’s terrain is divided into four main geographic regions. From west to east, these
regions are the coastal plain, the Lebanon Mountains, the Bekaa Valley, and the AntiLebanon Mountains.
2. Despite civil war in rural areas, Beirut remained unharmed during the war.
FALSE
Beirut was devastated during the 15-year long civil war. Since the 1990s, the city has
worked to rebuild its infrastructure and repair its economic and cultural status in the
region.
3. Most major Lebanese cities are ancient coastal cities.
TRUE
Tripoli, Beirut, Sidon, and Tyre are all port cities with Phoenician roots. These cities
were influenced by later Mediterranean powers, including the Greeks and the Romans.
4. Hizballah is an armed militia that retains power in southern Lebanon.
TRUE
Hizballah, unlike other militias, did not disarm following the 1989 Taif Agreement.
Hizballah’s status as an Israeli resistance movement drew Israel into war in southern
Lebanon in 2006.
5. Ethnicity is the single most important factor in Lebanese identity.
FALSE
Religious groups, not ethnic, are the key factor in analyzing Lebanon’s population. The
country has large Christian and Muslim populations that include many sects.
© D LI F LC | 12
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
CHAPTER 2: RELIGION
Overview
Compared with other countries in the Middle East, Lebanon is
small in area and population, but it is the most religiously
diverse. Lebanon officially recognizes 18 religious sects; 12 are
Christian and include groups found across the world (such as
Roman Catholics) and indigenous groups (such as the
Maronites). Muslim groups comprise another four sects; the two
most prominent are the Sunnis and Shi’ites. Outside Iran,
Lebanon is unique in the region for its high percentage of
Shi’ite Muslims. The remaining two groups are Jewish and Druze. Religion is a central factor in
the government’s organization and the starting point for family law. Religion played a prominent
role in the tumultuous civil war and is of foremost concern in Lebanese society.
An official census of Lebanese religious affiliations has not been carried out since 1932, largely
because of the political sensitivity of such information. The U.S. Department of State quotes
values produced by Statistics Lebanon, a Beirut research firm, that show a slight majority to be
Muslim (split relatively evenly between Shi’ite and Sunni). Estimates of the numerous groups
vary, but sources are generally consistent in showing Muslim groups as the majority religious
population. The Christian population has declined over the last six decades because of significant
emigration of some Christian groups and a higher birthrate for Muslims.89, 90, 91
Major Religions
Muslim Sects
The two major branches of Islam in Lebanon are Shi’a and Sunni. Followers of both sects have
many common beliefs. Among these are the five pillars of Islam: (1) All Muslims believe in one
God (Allah) and that the Prophet Muhammad is his messenger; (2) they are expected to offer five
daily prayers (salat) praising Allah; (3) they should make a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca at least
once in a lifetime; (4) they should fast (sawm) between sunrise and sunset during Ramadan (the
ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar); and (5) they are to provide a percentage of their
wealth (zakat) to the poor and needy.92 Muslims believe that the Holy Quran is the word of God
passed down through the archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad over a 23-year period
starting in 610 C.E.93 As the literal word of God, the Quran is a sacred text to all Muslims.
89
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 2010 International Religious
Freedom Report, “Lebanon,” 13 September 2011, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168269.htm
90
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 11 April 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
91
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon: Religion,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
92
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Islam: The Foundations of Islam: Fundamental Practices and Institutions of
Islam: The Five Pillars,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam
93
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Muhammad: The Life of Muhammad: The Advent of the Revelation and the
Meccan Period,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad
© D LI F LC | 13
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Mistreatment of the Quran, including inappropriate disposal such as burning, is considered
blasphemous.
Differences Between Sunnis and Shi’ites
The division between Shi’ites and Sunnis emerged over who
should succeed the Prophet Muhammad after his death. Some
followers believed that the new leader did not necessarily need
to descend from the Prophet Muhammad. Their choice was the
Prophet Muhammad’s close friend and advisor, Abu Bakr, who
became the first Caliph, or successor, of the Muslim
community. Today, those who support this succession by merit
are known as Sunni Muslims. Shi’ite Muslims, on the other
hand, are those who believe that the leadership should have initially been passed on to Ali ibn
Abu Talib, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law. In fact, the word “Shi’a” is derived from “shi’at
Ali,” which translates as “the party (or faction) of Ali.”94, 95
Despite common core values, traditions, and practices, the two Islamic sects have significant
differences. Sunnis have a generally less powerful religious hierarchy than Shi’ites. The majority
of Shi’ites believe in a God-appointed succession of supreme imams who, similar to the Roman
Catholic pope, are infallible in interpreting the law or tradition. There are several branches of
Shi’a Islam across the world distinguished by the number of imams the individual group
accepted after the death of Muhammad. Most Shi’ites in Lebanon are known as Twelvers, a
designation that acknowledges their belief in 12 successive imams following Muhammad.96 The
Shi’ite sect has traditionally focused on the moral messages to be taken from martyrdom and
suffering. The stories of the death of Ali and his son Husayn and the historic status of Shi’ite
Muslims as a minority sect sometimes persecuted by Sunni Muslims are common themes in
Shi’ite sermons.97, 98
In Lebanon, differences between Sunnis and Shi’ites have geopolitical implications. Hizballah,
the prominent Shi’ite militia, receives support from Iran. Iran is the world’s most powerful
Shi’ite majority nation and is interested in extending its influence. Hizballah has also received a
great deal of support from Syria. Although Syria is not a Shi’ite majority nation, it has been ruled
since 1970 by Alawis, a branch within Shi’a Islam.99, 100
94
Christopher M. Blanchard, “Islam: Sunni and Shiites,” Congressional Research Service, 28 January 2009, 1,
http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RS21745.pdf
95
Hans Wehr, The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, ed. J. M. Cowan (Urbana, IL: Spoken
Language Services, Inc., 1994), 581.
96
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 90–92.
97
Christopher M. Blanchard, “Islam: Sunni and Shiites,” Congressional Research Service, 28 January 2009, 5,
http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RS21745.pdf
98
John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed, Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think (New York:
Gallup Press, 2007), 2–3.
99
Laila Bassam, “Hezbollah Says Gets Support, Not Orders, from Iran,” Reuters, 7 February 2012,
http://photovine.us/article/2012/02/07/us-lebanon-hezbollah-idUSTRE81629H20120207
100
Michael Rubin, “The Enduring Iran-Syria-Hezbollah Axis,” Middle Eastern Outlook (American Enterprise
Institute) 6, (17 December 2009), http://www.aei.org/article/foreign-and-defense-policy/regional/middle-east-andnorth-africa/the-enduring-iran-syria-hezbollah-axis/
© D LI F LC | 14
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Christian Sects
Lebanon’s Christian population is divided mostly into three
main sects. The largest of these are the Maronites, a religious
community affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church but with
its own patriarch, liturgy, and ecclesiastical traditions. The
Maronite Church traces its history to St. Maron, a monk of the
late fourth to early fifth centuries, and to St. Johannes Maron,
patriarch of Antioch (in modern southeastern Turkey) between
685 and 707, when the Maronites were attacked by Byzantine
forces and fled south from modern northwestern Syria to Mount Lebanon. They lived there in
relative isolation from other Christian sects until the Crusaders arrived several centuries later.101,
102
The most significant other Christian sects in Lebanon are the Greek Orthodox and Greek
Catholic churches. Both of these churches follow what is known as the Byzantine rite, or the
liturgy as practiced in Eastern Orthodox churches. But the Greek Catholic Church remains in
communion with the Roman Catholic Church, while the Greek Orthodox Church adheres to the
Eastern Orthodox Church. The two main distinctions between these closely related sects are the
following: the Greek Orthodox Church rejects the idea of papal infallibility (unlike the Greek
Catholics); and Orthodox doctrine holds that the Holy Spirit proceeds, or emanates, only from
the Father (God) and not from the Son (Jesus), unlike the Catholic interpretation of the
procession.103, 104
Other Christian groups in Lebanon, with fewer followers, are the Armenian Orthodox (also
known as Gregorians), the Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites), Assyrians (Nestorians), Roman
Catholics (Latins), and evangelicals (including Protestant groups such as Baptists).105
Druze
The Druze, who refer to themselves as the Muwahhideen (“believers in one God”), practice a
religion that is an offshoot of a Shi’ite branch known as Ismailism.106 The Druze religion is
highly insular in its rites and doctrines, but because of what is known about the Druze faith—in
particular, its emphasis on the divinity of Fatimid caliph Hakim—the Druze faith is generally
considered heretical or it is disavowed by other Muslim sects.107, 108 The Druze do not allow
101
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Maronite Church,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/366006/Maronite-church
102
James Minahan, ed., “Maronites,” in Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around
the World, L–R, vol. 3 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), 1195–1196.
103
As’ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Religion: Christian Sects,” in Lebanon: A
Country Study (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1987), 69. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
104
Vladimir Lossky, “Chapter 10: The Procession of the Holy Spirit in Orthodox Trinitarian Theology,” in Eastern
Orthodox Theology: A Contemporary Reader, 2nd ed., ed. Daniel B. Clendenin (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Academic, 2003), 168–69.
105
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “Lebanon,” in 2010 International
Religious Freedom Report, 13 September 2011, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168269.htm
106
Jamie Stoikes, ed., “Druze,” in Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, vol. 1 (New York:
Infobase Publishing, 2009), 183–85.
107
GlobalSecurity, “Druze,” 2010–2012, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-druze.htm
© D LI F LC | 15
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
people to convert to or fall away from their religion, and
intermarriage with non-Druze is forbidden.109 Even within the Druze
community, only a minority—the uqqal (“knowers” or “the wise”)—
are privy to the Druze religious beliefs. The men and women who are
part of the uqqal, dress in a distinctive manner characterized by dark
clothing and white head coverings. Several levels of advancement
exist among uqqal, with the ajawid (“the good”) at the pinnacle of
this hierarchy. Within Druze society, including the majority who are
not uqqal (collectively known as the juhhal, or “the ignorant” or “the
uninitiated”), the ajawid provide an unquestioned moral and religious
authority that guides the cultural norms of the entire community.110,
111
Religion and Government
Lebanon is a religiously heterogeneous state in which religious affiliation and governmental
participation have long been intertwined. The constitution, adopted in 1926 during the French
Mandate and subsequently amended several times, embraces a power-sharing formula among the
nation’s religious sects. This power-sharing arrangement is often referred to as confessionalism.
By a long-standing but unwritten convention (the National Pact of 1943), Lebanon’s president is
a Maronite Christian, the prime minister is a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the National
Assembly is a Shi’ite. Cabinet member appointments are also apportioned among the religious
groups.112
Lebanon’s confessional system is the source of some contention.
Christians, who originally outnumbered Muslims when the
government was established, do not wish to lose power. Since 1989,
parliamentary seats have been distributed equally between Muslim
and Christian sects, overriding an earlier formula that numerically
favored Christians.113 According to most estimates, Muslims now
outnumber Christians, but the confessional system does not reflect
Lebanon’s current population distribution. The confessional system
creates such a political sensitivity to population estimates that an
official census has not occurred since 1932.114, 115
108
William Ochsenwald and Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: A History, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill,
2004), 93.
109
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Druze,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172195/Druze
110
The Institute of Druze Studies, “Who Are the Druzes?” Intercom 21, no. 1 (October 1998,
http://web.archive.org/web/20090114032929/http://www.druzestudies.org/Druzes.html
111
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “‘uqqāl,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/618943/uqqal
112
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon: Government and Society: Constitutional Framework,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
113
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon: Government and Society: Constitutional Framework,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon
114
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
115
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Lebanon,” 1 December 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35833.htm
© D LI F LC | 16
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Influence of Religion on Daily Life
Religion is the most significant influence on personal identity and drives
many aspects of daily life. Lebanese people often live in communities of
those with the same religion, and areas of the country are divided along
religious lines. Shi’ites live primarily in the southwest and northeast,
Sunnis in the southeast and northwest; Maronites in central Lebanon live
next to the Druze in the south, and other Christian groups in the east and
northwest. Beirut is a microcosm of these divisions. Although the city is
cosmopolitan and diverse, it is largely segregated by religion. East Beirut
is primarily Christian, West Beirut is largely Sunni, and Shi’ites
dominate the southern part of the city.116, 117
Most recognized religious groups follow their family and personal laws in matters such as
marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance. These religious codes act as final word on
legal matters. Civil marriage is not an option within Lebanon, but civil marriages performed
outside the country are legally recognized by the government.118, 119, 120
Religion informs gender roles. According to the country’s laws, women are free to fully
participate in society, but religious conventions of some groups can limit women’s roles.
Lebanon’s major religious groups remain patriarchal. Because of religious conventions, women’s
roles are seen primarily through a domestic lens. The preeminence of religious over civil law
often places women at a disadvantage in matters of inheritance, divorce, and other family and
social issues. Property and land are common areas of concern in inheritance cases, and women
are typically not treated equitably.121, 122, 123
Religious Holidays
Muslim Holidays
For Lebanon’s Muslims, the year’s major holidays are Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr. Eid al-Adha,
literally the Feast of the Sacrifice, commemorates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son. (In
116
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Beirut,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/58884/Beirut
Dartmouth University, “Distribution of Lebanon’s Main Religious Groups, 1992” (Middle East Maps for course
“Government 46: Politics of the Middle East and North Africa,” Fall 2007), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gov46/lebmain-rel-1992.gif
118
Khatoun Haidar, “Antiquated Laws Violate Women’s Civil Rights,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 27 August 2007,
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Lebanon-Examiner/Aug/27/Antiquated-laws-violate-womens-civilrights.ashx#axzz1vAVwOHf3
119
Melvin Ember and Carol R. Ember, eds., “Lebanon,” in Countries and their Cultures (New York: Macmillan
Reference USA, 2001), 1269–72.
120
Law Library of Congress, “Legal Research Guide: Lebanon,” 21 March 2012,
http://www.loc.gov/law/help/lebanon.php
121
Khatoun Haidar, “Antiquated Laws Violate Women’s Civil Rights,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 27 August 2007,
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Lebanon-Examiner/Aug/27/Antiquated-laws-violate-womens-civilrights.ashx#axzz1vAVwOHf3
122
Melvin Ember and Carol R. Ember, eds., “Lebanon,” in Countries and their Cultures (New York: Macmillan
Reference USA, 2001), 1270–71.
123
Law Library of Congress, “Legal Research Guide: Lebanon,” 21 March 2012,
http://www.loc.gov/law/help/lebanon.php
117
© D LI F LC | 17
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
the Islamic tradition, Abraham offered his son Isma’il [Ishmael] as a
sacrifice, rather than Isaac, as in the Judeo-Christian tradition.) The
holiday occurs in conjunction with the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Eid
al-Adha is Islam’s highest holy day and as such is also known as the
“greater Eid.” Lebanese celebrate the Eid by feasting on lamb.
Typically, each household has its own sheep. Meat is prepared and
distributed within households, to extended family members, and to the
poor. This reminds Muslims of the sheep God provided to Abraham to
sacrifice in place of Isma’il.124, 125, 126
Eid al-Fitr marks the end of the month of Ramadan. Lebanese celebrate the “lesser Eid” by
feasting. Many will gather in mosques for morning prayers the day the Eid begins, and then
celebrate for two to three days. Because Muslims commemorate Ramadan by fasting through the
day, the end of Ramadan is marked by large family feasts. Children often receive gifts of new
clothes, and public institutions are closed.127, 128, 129
Other Muslim holidays include Mawlid al-Nabi and Ashura. Mawlid al-Nabi is a public holiday
celebrating the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad. Ashura is especially important to Shi’ites
because it marks the day Husayn ibn Ali was killed at Karbala. Shi’ites gather in large
processions and some participate in a form of self-abuse called flagellation. Official Hizballah
processions are particularly military in style and accompanied by Hizballah party flags and
slogans. But the day also holds meaning to Sunnis. Ashura was originally a day of fasting for
Muslims, but today in Lebanon it is primarily a day for children to receive treats. It is not a
public holiday.130, 131
Because all of Islam’s holidays are based on the Islamic lunar calendar, their dates on the
Western Gregorian calendar shift slightly every year. A lunar year is slightly less than two weeks
shorter than a solar year.132
124
Timothy E. Gall and Jeneen Hobby, eds., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life:
vol. 4, Asia and Oceania, 2nd ed. (New York: Gale/Cengage Learning, 2009), 555.
125
Mohamad El Amin, “Tourism Picks Up Dramatically for Eid al-Adha,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 9 November 2011,
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Lebanon/2011/Nov-09/153451-tourism-picks-up-dramatically-for-eid-aladha.ashx#axzz1tXxMwhFP
126
Encyclopædia Britannica, “‘Īd al-Aḍḥā,” 2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281649/Id-al-Adha
127
Timothy E. Gall and Jeneen Hobby, eds., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life:
vol. 4, Asia and Oceania, 2nd ed. (New York: Gale/Cengage Learning, 2009), 555.
128
Marie Dhumieres, “Beirutis Prepare for Eid al-Fitr Holiday,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 30 August 2011,
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/2011/Aug-30/147562-beirutis-prepare-for-eid-al-fitrholiday.ashx#axzz1tXxMwhFP
129
Encyclopædia Britannica, “‘Īd al-Fiṭr,” 2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam
130
Augustus Richard Norton, “Ritual, Blood, and Shiite Identity: Ashura in Nabatiyya, Lebabon,” TDR.49, no. 4
(Winter 2005), 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4488690
131
Rachid Elbadri, “Shia Rituals: The Impact of Shia Rituals on Shia Socio-Political Character” (master’s thesis,
Naval Postgraduate School, March 2009), 70–73, http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA496820
132
Encyclopædia Britannica, “Muslim Calendar,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295700/Muslim-calendar
© D LI F LC | 18
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Christian Holidays
For many of Lebanon’s Christians, Easter is the year’s holiest
day (typical among Eastern Christian churches). Easter is
preceded by 40 days of fasting and preparation (known as the
Great Lent) when observers avoid meat and typically eat meals
with fish, cheese, and fruit. Easter is celebrated with lengthy
church services followed by feasts. During Easter, children often
play a game with painted hard-boiled eggs. Two children will tap
the tips of their eggs together, and the child whose egg does not
crack carries on to try again with other children.133
The Greek Orthodox Church uses the Julian calendar rather than the Gregorian calendar used in
the West. Thus, Greek Orthodox holidays may not fall on the same days as holidays in other
Christian churches in Lebanon. For example, Greek Orthodox Easter may be as late as the first
week in May, whereas Easter for other Christian churches is always in March or April.134
Protestants and other Christians of the Western rite commemorate Christ’s birth on 25
December; Eastern Christians celebrate Christmas on 7 January. Because of Western influence,
Christmas is similar to celebrations in other parts of the world. Christmas trees, presents in bright
wrapping paper, candies, and many other recognizable elements have come to characterize a
Lebanese Christmas. Christmas is often preceded by 40 days of fasting. Although many consider
Easter the year’s holiest day, it is eclipsed by Christmas in
terms of public recognition and jubilation. For many in
Lebanon, even those who are not Christian, Christmas is a
time for significant celebration with friends and families. The
two weeks surrounding Christmas are a busy time in Lebanon
as people travel and revel in the holiday atmosphere. It is the
most significant holiday in the country. After New Year’s
Day, another national holiday, the merrymaking dies down
and people return to their typical daily routines.135
Exchange 1: Merry Christmas!
Visitor:
Merry Christmas!
Local:
Same to you, too!
meelaad mazheed!
meelaad mazheed!
Other Christian holidays include the Feast of the Annunciation and Assumption Day. The
Annunciation (March 25) celebrates the Angel Gabriel’s announcement to Mary that she would
conceive Jesus. Assumption Day (August 15) commemorates Mary’s ascension to heaven at the
133
Timothy E. Gall and Jeneen Hobby, eds., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life:
vol. 4, Asia and Oceania, 2nd ed. (New York: Gale/Cengage Learning, 2009), 555.
134
Timothy E. Gall and Jeneen Hobby, eds., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life:
vol. 4, Asia and Oceania, 2nd ed. (New York: Gale/Cengage Learning, 2009), 555.
135
Timothy E. Gall and Jeneen Hobby, eds., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life:
vol. 4, Asia and Oceania, 2nd ed. (Detroit: Gale/Cengage Learning, 2009), 555.
© D LI F LC | 19
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
end of her life. Both these days are national holidays. The Feast of Saint Maron, the Maronite
church’s namesake, is also a public holiday (February 9).136
Places of Worship
Mosques
The central place of worship in Islam is the mosque. Most mosques consist of a large room
where a prayer leader (imam) directs long rows of worshippers. The direction to Mecca is
marked in a niche (mihrab) in the wall so that worshippers will know which direction to face
when praying. A pulpit (minbar) often stands near the mihrab and offers a place for sermons to
be given during Friday prayers. Towers (known as minarets), attached to or adjacent to the
mosque, allow the muezzin to call worshippers to prayer throughout the day. 137, 138
Lebanon’s mosques reflect the country’s long and diverse
history and are built in a number of styles. The Muhammad alAmin Mosque in Beirut is a modern structure but is patterned
after centuries-old Turkish mosques. The mosque’s central
domes and tall, rocket-like minarets are indicative of Ottoman
styles.139 The Al-Omari Mosque dates to the 12th century and
was originally a Crusader church. In 1291 the church was
converted into a mosque. It has been expanded and restored
throughout the centuries, most recently in 2004 when a modern courtyard and second minaret
were added.140, 141
Exchange 2: Where is the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque?
Where is the Muhammad
wayn jaami' mHamad il
Visitor:
al-Amin Mosque?
ameen?
Local:
At Martyr’s Square.
ib-saaHit ish shuhadaa
Churches
Lebanon’s Christian history dates to Christianity’s earliest days. Churches are often small and of
simple design. They are typically stone structures that often include a small bell tower topped
with a cross.
136
Timothy E. Gall and Jeneen Hobby, eds., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life:
vol. 4, Asia and Oceania, 2nd ed. (Detroit: Gale/Cengage Learning, 2009), 555.
137
Albert Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
1991), 28.
138
Sheila S. Blair and Jonathan M. Bloom, “Art and Architecture: Themes and Variation,” in The Oxford History of
Islam, ed. John Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 226–43.
139
Tom Perry, “Beirut Mosque Potent Symbol of Lebanon Troubles,” Reuters, 17 October 2008,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/10/17/us-lebanon-mosque-idUSTRE49G4HQ20081017
140
Ministry of Tourism, Lebanon, “Al Omari Mosque (Beirut),” n.d., http://www.lebanontourism.gov.lb/SiteDetails.aspx?Sites=259
141
Ward Vloeberghs, “The Genesis of a Mosque: Negotiating Sacred Space in Downtown Beirut,” EUI Working
Papers, Mediterranean Programme Series, 2008, 17, http://www.uclouvain.be/cps/ucl/doc/eplcorta/documents/RSCAS_2008_17.pdf
© D LI F LC | 20
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
The Cathedral of St. George is one of Beirut’s most recognizable
landmarks. The church was patterned after Rome’s Basilica di
Santa Maria Maggiore and has been described as just as
important to Lebanon’s Maronites as Notre Dame is to France’s
Catholics. Located near the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque, the
cathedral was built in 1888 but suffered significant damage
during the civil war and was closed temporarily until it was
restored and reopened in 2000. Damage to churches and
destruction of important artifacts and art were common during
the war.142, 143
Behavior in Buildings of Worship
It is important to dress modestly in mosques and in other places
of worship in Lebanon. Women should cover their arms and
legs and not wear tight-fitting clothing. Shoes are never worn in
a mosque and should be removed before entering the building.
There may be a designated area with mats or carpets outside the
walls of a mosque where shoes are removed. Pay attention to
what local residents are doing. Some mosques do not permit
visitors to enter. At other mosques, entry is not allowed during
times of prayer or during Ramadan.144
Services at Christian churches in Lebanon will be recognizable to Christians visiting from
elsewhere in the world. Visitors are typically welcome in churches. Visitors should be respectful
of any services taking place.
Exchange 3: May I enter the church?
Visitor:
May I enter the church?
feeyee foot 'alkneeseh?
Local:
Yes.
ay
Exchange 4: When is Mass?
Visitor:
When is Mass?
Local:
On Sunday.
aymta il idaas?
yom il aHad
142
Ministry of Tourism, Lebanon, “Cathedral of St. George (Maronite),” n.d., http://www.lebanontourism.gov.lb/SiteDetails.aspx?Sites=128
143
Ward Vloeberghs, “The Genesis of a Mosque: Negotiating Sacred Space in Downtown Beirut,” EUI Working
Papers, Mediterranean Programme Series, 2008, 1, http://www.uclouvain.be/cps/ucl/doc/eplcorta/documents/RSCAS_2008_17.pdf
144
Ministry of Tourism, Lebanon, “Al Omari Mosque (Beirut),” n.d., http://www.lebanontourism.gov.lb/SiteDetails.aspx?Sites=259
© D LI F LC | 21
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Chapter 2 Assessment
1. Iran has supported Lebanon’s Shi’ites.
TRUE
In Lebanon, differences between Sunnis and Shi’ites have geopolitical implications.
Hizballah, the prominent Shi’ite militia, receives support from Iran.
2. The Druze actively seek converts among Lebanon’s Christians and Muslims.
FALSE
The Druze are highly insular and do not allow people to convert to or fall away from their
religion.
3. Confessionalism refers to the power-sharing arrangement in government.
TRUE
The nation’s constitution embraces a power-sharing formula among the nation’s religious
sects. By a long-standing but unwritten convention, Lebanon’s president is a Maronite
Christian, the prime minister is a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the National
Assembly is a Shi’ite.
4. Ashura is an important Maronite holiday.
FALSE
Ashura is important to Shi’ites because it marks the day Husayn ibn Ali was killed at
Karbala. Shi’ites gather in large processions and some participate in a form of self-abuse
called flagellation.
5. Because Lebanon is a cosmopolitan country, women do not need to cover their arms in
mosques.
FALSE
It is important to dress modestly in mosques and in other places of worship in Lebanon.
Women should cover their arms and legs and not wear tight-fitting clothing.
© D LI F LC | 22
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
CHAPTER 3: TRADITIONS
Introduction
Lebanon has its own unique cultural identity despite conquest
by many foreign powers. Although Lebanese culture is
characteristically Arab, it still reflects the nation’s long
association with the West and Christianity. Muslim, Christian,
and Jewish traditions have melded to form Lebanon’s
cosmopolitan culture.145
The family is the primary social institution in the country and
influences all spheres of Lebanese life, including the political, financial, educational, and
personal. The greatest loyalty is owed to the family. 146, 147 Younger Lebanese are increasingly
interested in material success and value education, prestige, and power.148
Recent data suggest that most people are developing a sense of national identity and prefer to
identify themselves as Lebanese over any other label. The importance of national identity varies
among the four main religious groups but is high for all (61% of Shi’ites; 62% Sunni Muslims;
71% Christians; 96% Druze). Few Lebanese Christians or Druze identify themselves as Arabs.149
The Lebanese people are proud of their heritage and culture, and they strive to attain and
maintain dignity, honor, and reputation. An individual’s name and honor are highly valued.150
Lebanese are friendly and hospitable people, and they are working hard to put hatreds and
conflicts behind them to create a modern and progressive country.151, 152
Codes of Politeness
The Lebanese adhere strongly to proper social protocol. Their greetings are a mix of Arabic and
French traditions. Both men and women shake hands. Handshakes are accompanied by a warm
145
Afaf Sabeh McGowen, “Chapter 1: Historical Setting,” in A Country Study: Lebanon, ed. Thomas Collelo
(Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgibin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+lb0012%29
146
Mansoor Moaddel, “Ethnicity and Values Among the Lebanese Public: Findings from a Values Survey” (paper,
Population Studies Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 2008), 4,
http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/research/tmp/moaddel_lebanese_survey_pr_jan08.pdf
147
Afaf Sabeh McGowen, “Chapter 1: Historical Setting,” in A Country Study: Lebanon, ed. Thomas Collelo
(Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgibin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+lb0012%29
148
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
149
Mansoor Moaddel, “Ethnicity and Values Among the Lebanese Public: Findings from a Values Survey” (paper,
Population Studies Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 2008), 6–7,
http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/research/tmp/moaddel_lebanese_survey_pr_jan08.pdf
150
Kwintessential, “Lebanon: Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette,” n.d.,
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/lebanon.html
151
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
152
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Syria and Lebanon (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet
Publications, 2004), 39–40.
© D LI F LC | 23
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
smile and are often more prolonged than in the United States. Muslim women are likely to
refrain from shaking hands.
Exchange 5: Good morning!
Visitor:
Good morning!
Local:
Good morning to you!
SabaaH il KhayR!
SabaaH il nooR!
Exchange 6: Good night!
Visitor:
Local:
tiSbaH 'ala KhayR!
wu inta bKhayR!
Good night!
Good night to you!
Close friends and relatives will greet each other and say goodbye
with three alternating kisses on the cheeks. In the cities, both men
and women will kiss each other in this way. In rural areas, this
customary gesture is used only by persons of the same gender. When
meeting someone, it is usual to exchange greetings, inquire about the
person’s health, and make polite small talk.153, 154
Exchange 7: How are you?
Visitor:
How are you?
Local:
Fine, very well.
keef Haalak?
ikteeR imneeH
The most common greeting is marhaba (hello). But the French bonjour (good day), English hi,
or the more colloquial Arabic keef halik (How are you? [when greeting a woman]) or keef halak
(How are you? [when greeting a man]) are also used.155
Exchange 8: Hi! (Informal)
Visitor:
Local:
Visitor:
Local:
Hi!
Hello!
How are you today?
Just fine.
maRHaba!
maRHabtayn!
keefik il yom?
maashee il Haal
Gender Issues
The government ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination
Against Women in 1993, but there are exceptions for religious law.156, 157 Although some
153
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
Kwintessential, “Lebanon: Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette,” n.d.,
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/lebanon.html
155
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
156
Programme on Governance in the Arab Region, United Nations Development Programme, “Gender: Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW),” n.d.,
http://www.pogar.org/countries/compare.aspx?t=4
154
© D LI F LC | 24
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
elements of a woman’s social status are determined by Lebanese
civil law, much of her status depends on her religious group.158
Potential contradictions between the two codes explain why
women have some civil liberties but have difficulties exercising
them. Women’s movement is legally unrestricted, and women
may obtain passports or other travel documents without a man’s
permission. Although women’s clothing choices are not dictated
by law, an increasing number of women are veiling
themselves.159
Personal status codes are based on religious law and often discriminate against women or put
them at a disadvantage. For example, depending on the religious group, a woman can be married
when she is 12.5 years old, while the lowest legal marital age for a man is 16. Men have parental
authority and are the rightful guardians of children. Women are seen as custodians without legal
rights, especially if they choose to remarry. In interfaith marriages, children are assigned to the
religious faith and sect of the father. Inheritance practices, even among non-Muslims, typically
provide smaller shares for women.160
Domestic violence, including spousal rape, is not a crime.161 As many as
75% of women are estimated to be victims of domestic violence at some
point in their lives.162 Courts may require battered women to return to
their homes. Family and other social pressures often compel women to
stay in abusive relationships. Police generally ignore complaints of
domestic abuse, although the government does provide legal assistance to
women.163 Honor crimes are rare, but they are nonetheless against the
law.164
Although women make up 29% of the workforce and half of all
university students, they are generally excluded from political institutions
157
Social Institutions and Gender Index, “Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://genderindex.org/country/lebanon
158
Programme on Governance in the Arab Region, United Nations Development Programme, “Gender: Law of
Personal Status,” n.d., http://www.pogar.org/countries/compare.aspx?t=4
159
Social Institutions and Gender Index, “Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://genderindex.org/country/lebanon
160
Social Institutions and Gender Index, “Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://genderindex.org/country/lebanon
161
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “2010 Human Rights Report:
Lebanon,” 8 April 2011, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154466.htm
162
Natalia Antelava, “Lebanon’s Hidden Problem of Domestic Abuse,” BBC News, 3 December 2009,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8392475.stm
163
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “2010 Human Rights Report:
Lebanon,” 8 April 2011, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154466.htm
164
Human Rights Watch, “Lebanon: Law Reform Targets ‘Honor’ Crimes,” 11 August 2011,
http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/08/11/lebanon-law-reform-targets-honor-crimes
© D LI F LC | 25
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
and underrepresented in government.165 Career women face significant social pressure, and men
sometimes forbid women from working outside the home.166 Women in the workforce tend to be
better educated than their male counterparts. Women work in professional fields, including
medicine, law, academia, and government, but they rarely achieve senior positions or positions
with decision-making authority.167
Hospitality and Gift Giving
Lebanese are gracious hosts who take their obligations of
hospitality seriously. Entertaining guests is considered an honor.
Lebanese frequently visit friends and family, often without
notice. Guests are usually offered tea or coffee. To refuse such
offers would be rude and an insult.168, 169
Gifts are an inherent part of the Lebanese culture. It is customary
to bring a small gift when visiting someone. A gift’s symbolic
representation of friendship is far more important than its economic value. Particularly expensive
gifts could be viewed as bribes and may be insulting. Appropriate gifts include flowers, a dessert,
something to drink, or perhaps something small for the home. Alcohol is acceptable, although it
may be best to avoid bringing alcohol to a Muslim household. When visiting a Muslim home, it
is advisable to say that the gift is for the host rather than the hostess.170, 171, 172
Unspoken rules of etiquette require that hosts do everything possible to make a guest feel
welcome. This is done by offering food. If a guest refuses an offer of additional food, hosts often
insist that the guest take more. Because it is customary in Lebanon to refuse initial offers of more
food, the host’s insistence is based on the belief that the guest really does want more food but is
simply being polite in refusing the first offer. It would actually be rude for a host to stop offering
after an initial refusal. At the end of a meal, diners typically “praise the hands” of the person who
prepared it.173
Exchange 9: The food tastes so good.
Guest:
The food tastes so good.
Host:
Thanks for the compliment.
il akel Tayeb ikteeR
shukRan, 'aalkampleemo
165
Programme on Governance in the Arab Region, United Nations Development Programme, “Gender: Conditions
of Women,” n.d., http://www.pogar.org/countries/compare.aspx?t=4
166
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “2010 Human Rights Report:
Lebanon,” 8 April 2011, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154466.htm
167
Programme on Governance in the Arab Region, United Nations Development Programme, “Gender: Lebanon,”
n.d., http://www.pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=4&cid=9
168
Kwintessential, “Lebanon: Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette,” n.d.,
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/lebanon.html
169
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
170
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
171
Kwintessential, “Lebanon: Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette,” n.d.,
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/lebanon.html
172
Culture Crossing, “Lebanon: Gift Giving,” n.d.,
http://www.culturecrossing.net/basics_business_student_details.php?Id=23&CID=115
173
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
© D LI F LC | 26
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Guests invited to dine with a Lebanese host are obligated to linger over the meal and beyond.
When invited to lunch, guests are expected to stay until at least 4 p.m. It is impolite to leave
immediately after finishing a meal. If another guest arrives as you are leaving, you should stay at
least long enough to greet the newcomer and engage in a bit of small talk.174 To do otherwise
would be considered rude.
Exchange 10: I really appreciate your hospitality.
I really appreciate your
Guest:
hospitality.
Host:
It’s my pleasure.
anaa ikteeR im-adiRlak
Deeyaaftak
ahlaa wu sahlaa
Eating Habits and Food
Lebanese food represents a rich culinary tradition derived from
Turkey, France, and other parts the Middle East. Staples in
Lebanon include baklava (sweet pastry), laban (yogurt), and
stuffed vegetables. Lebanese dishes rarely contain heavy
sauces; instead, their flavor comes from herbs, spices, and fresh
ingredients. Hot oval-shaped bread, khobz, is served at nearly
every meal. Poultry and lamb are the most commonly eaten
meats, but vegetables, rice, and fruit make up more of a typical
meal than meat.175, 176, 177 Pork is eaten but generally avoided by Muslims.178
One of the most popular and typical breakfast items, manakish, is a flat, round disk of bread
covered with thyme, sesame seeds, and olive oil, and then baked. Cheese, jam, and eggs are other
favorites.179, 180 Lunch, the main meal of the day, is usually eaten between noon and 3 p.m. Small
dishes of pickled vegetables, hummus, stuffed grape leaves, and salads, called a mezze, are
usually served first. Meatballs made of bulgur or rice and chopped meat (kibbeh) are a popular
national dish. Kebabs and kefta (ground meat mixed with herbs and spices) are also commonly
served. Lunch frequently lasts 2 hours. Families generally try to eat together because it is at
174
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
Food by Country, “Lebanon,” 2012, http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-South-Africa/Lebanon.html
176
Sean Sheehan and Zawiah Abdul Latif, Cultures of the World: Lebanon (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish
Benchmark, 1997), 126.
177
Margaret J. Goldstein, Lebanon in Pictures (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2005), 53.
178
K. Romano-Young, “Lebanon,” in World and Its Peoples—Arabian Peninsula: Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Yemen (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2007), 979.
179
Fouad, “Manakish: Lebanon’s Favourite Breakfast,” The Food Blog, 2 December 2009,
http://thefoodblog.com.au/2009/12/manakish-lebanons-favourite-breakfast.html
180
Roula Barake, “Bilad al Sham (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine),” in Food, Cuisine, and Cultural
Competency for Culinary, Hospitality, and Nutrition Professionals, ed. Sari Edelstein (Sudbury, MA: Jones and
Bartlett Publishers, 2011), 577.
175
© D LI F LC | 27
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
meals that many family discussions take place.181, 182 It is highly unusual for Lebanese people to
eat alone.183 Dinners are similar to breakfast.184
Exchange 11: What is the name of this dish?
What is the name of this
Guest:
dish?
Host:
This is kibbeh.
shoo isim hal akleh?
haydee kebeh
Exchange 12: What ingredients are used to make kibbeh?
What ingredients are used
shoo minHuT bil kebeh?
Guest:
to make kibbeh?
Bulgur wheat, lamb,
biRghul, laHam ghanam,
Host:
onions, salt, black pepper,
baSal, miliH, fulful aswad,
olive oil, and allspice.
zayt zaytoon wu ibhaaRaat
When eating European food or rice, Lebanese use utensils and hold them Continental style,
keeping the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right. But utensils are rarely used when
eating Lebanese food. Instead, food is scooped with small pieces of bread or lettuce.185, 186 It is
considered polite to leave a little food on your plate rather than cleaning it.187
Dress Codes
Dress codes in Lebanon are more relaxed and varied than in
other Middle East countries. But one must dress more
conservatively near religious sites and in conservative parts of
the country.188 The Lebanese, although conservative in their
dress, are quite stylish. Western-style clothing is the most
common in the cities. Traditional Shi’ite women wear the
chador (a long robe covering the entire body) over their
181
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
Food by Country, “Lebanon,” 2012, http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-South-Africa/Lebanon.html
183
Frank D. Arwiche, “Lebanon: Food and Economy,” in Countries and Their Cultures, vol. 3, eds. Melvin Ember
and Carol R. Ember (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2001), 1268, http://www.everyculture.com/JaMa/Lebanon.html
184
Roula Barake, “Bilad al Sham (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine),” in Food, Cuisine, and Cultural
Competency for Culinary, Hospitality, and Nutrition Professionals, ed. Sari Edelstein (Sudbury, MA: Jones and
Bartlett Publishers, 2011), 578.
185
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
186
Kwintessential, “Lebanon: Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette,” n.d.,
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/lebanon.html
187
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Syria and Lebanon (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet
Publications, 2004), 416.
188
Foreign Affairs International Trade Council, Government of Canada, “Travel Report: Lebanon,” 18 January
2012, http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/report_rapport-eng.asp?id=159000
182
© D LI F LC | 28
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
clothing. Other Muslim women often choose to wear the hijab (headscarf). 189, 190
Clothing should be modest, neat, and clean. Dresses or skirts should be at least knee-length. Low
necklines and sleeveless tops are generally unacceptable, particularly in more traditional areas.
For business situations, women may wear pants, but jeans or shorts are not appropriate.191, 192
In some regions, people still wear traditional clothing, which can provide clues about religious
affiliation. Men may wear baggy pants, fitted from the knees to the ankle, known as sherwal.193
Christian men in northern Lebanon sometimes wear a cone-shaped felt hat (labbade) made from
camel hair. More modern dress substitutes the brimless, flat-topped, conical-shaped red hat
called a tarboosh for the labbade.194, 195 Although the tarboosh is still worn, many men have
adopted the traditional Arab headscarf known as the keffiya.196
In the mountainous regions of Lebanon, it is still common to see Druze people wearing
traditional clothing. Druze men wear baggy pants and a white tarboosh; Druze women wear a
white veil and long, loose-fitting black or dark-blue gowns. Druze women sometimes wear a veil
pinned to a tarboosh with a silver medallion.197, 198, 199
Nonreligious Holidays
In addition to religious holidays, Lebanon has a number of
secular national holidays. New Year’s Day (1 January) is
celebrated by many with lavish dinners, fireworks displays,
music, and dance after midnight.200 Martyrs’ Day (6 May)
commemorates the execution of Lebanese nationalists in 1916
by Ottoman Turk commander Jamal Pasha in Martyrs’
Square.201, 202 Resistance and Liberation Day (25 May)
189
Culture Crossing, “Lebanon: Dress,” n.d.,
http://www.culturecrossing.net/basics_business_student_details.php?Id=19&CID=115
190
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
191
Culture Crossing, “Lebanon: Dress,” n.d.,
http://www.culturecrossing.net/basics_business_student_details.php?Id=19&CID=115
192
CultureGrams World Edition, “Lebanon,” ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University, 29 March 2012.
193
Margaret J. Goldstein, Lebanon in Pictures (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2005), 42.
194
Almashriq, “Origin of Levantine Costumes,” n.d.,
http://almashriq.hiof.no/general/600/640/646/costumes_of_the_Levant/origin.html
195
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Tarboosh,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583429/tarboosh
196
H. Gupta-Carlson, “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, eds. Timothy L. Gall and
Jeneen Hobby (New York: Gale Cengage Learning, 2009), 556–7.
197
Almashriq, “Origin of Levantine Costumes,” n.d.,
http://almashriq.hiof.no/general/600/640/646/costumes_of_the_Levant/origin.html
198
Julia Makarem, “The Druze Overview,” 2007, http://www.americandruze.com/the%20druze%20overview.html
199
Margaret J. Goldstein, Lebanon in Pictures (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2005), 42.
200
Maps of World, “New Year in Lebanon,” 2009, http://travel.mapsofworld.com/lebanon/new-year.html
201
Karim El-Khazen, “History of Lebanon: French Mandate,” December 2011,
http://www.lebguide.com/lebanon/history/lebanon_history_french_mandate.asp
202
K. Romano-Young, “Lebanon,” in World and Its Peoples—Arabian Peninsula: Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Yemen (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2007), 978.
© D LI F LC | 29
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
commemorates the end the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon in 2000. Typical observances
include conferences, rallies, and speeches, particularly in the southern regions most affected by
the occupation and subsequent withdrawal.203, 204 Independence Day (22 November) marks
Lebanese independence from French control. Celebrations throughout the nation are largely
public, rather than private, and are commemorated with flag flying, political speeches, military
parades, and the laying of a wreath at the tomb of the Unknown Soldier.205, 206, 207 Other public
holidays include Rafik Hariri Memorial Day (14 February) and Labor Day (1 May).208
Dos and Don’ts
Do wave all fingers with the palm facing down to beckon someone to come.
Do make eye contact.
Do use utensils to eat Western food.
Do accept invitations for coffee or tea.
Do remove shoes before entering a mosque.
Don’t point at or beckon someone with the index finger.
Don’t pass or receive objects with the left hand.
Don’t cross an ankle over the knee or show the soles of your feet or shoes.
Don’t make public displays of affection, even with your spouse.
Don’t ask about someone’s religion or talk about religion in Lebanese homes.
203
The Free Dictionary, “Lebanon Resistance and Liberation Day,” 2012,
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Lebanon+Resistance+and+Liberation+Day
204
K. Romano-Young, “Lebanon,” in World and Its Peoples—Arabian Peninsula: Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Yemen (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2007) 978.
205
Find the Data, “Lebanon Holiday: Independence Day,” 2012, http://holidays.findthedata.org/d/d/Lebanon
206
Naharnet, “Lebanon Celebrates its 68th Independence,” 22 November 2011,
http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/21000
207
K. Romano-Young, “Lebanon,” in World and Its Peoples—Arabian Peninsula: Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Yemen (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2007) 978.
208
Q++ Studio, “Lebanon Public Holidays 2012,” 2011, http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/lebanon.htm
© D LI F LC | 30
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Chapter 3 Assessment
1. Religion is more important than family in forming loyalties.
FALSE
The family is the primary social institution in the country and influences all spheres of
Lebanese life, including the political, financial, educational, and personal. Family
commands the strongest loyalty before all other groups.
2. Handshakes in Lebanon are often briefer than in the United States.
FALSE
Handshakes are often more prolonged than in the United States.
3. Women must receive the permission of a male relative in order to travel or obtain a
passport.
FALSE
Women’s movement is not restricted by law, and women may obtain passports or other
travel documents without a man’s permission.
4. An individual’s personal status is partly based on religious rather than civil law.
TRUE
Although the government ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination Against Women in 1993, there are exceptions for religious law. Personal
status codes are based on religious law.
5. It is an insult to refuse an offer of tea or coffee.
TRUE
Refusing offers of tea or coffee is considered rude and regarded as an insult.
© D LI F LC | 31
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
CHAPTER 4: URBAN LIFE
Introduction
In 2010, 87% of the Lebanese population lived in urban areas,
and approximately one-half lived in or around the capital,
Beirut.209, 210 The urban population is concentrated primarily
along the Mediterranean coast. A large portion of this
population is young: most 15- to 24-year-olds live in cities.211
Lebanon is much more urbanized than other Arab Middle East
countries. Its urban growth stems from a combination of ruralurban migration and an influx of political refugees.212 Today,
approximately 92% of the Palestinian refugees live in camps in four of the largest cities: Beirut,
Sidon, Tripoli, and Tyre.213, 214 Much of the growth was unplanned, resulting in the rapid
expansion of informal settlements at the fringes of major urban areas, particularly Beirut and
Tripoli. Many of those living in the informal settlements were displaced from their homes during
the civil war or are refugees. Around Beirut there are 24 slums where approximately 300,000
people live in substandard housing that often lacks basic services such as electricity and adequate
sanitation.215, 216
209
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
210
Jad Chaaban, “The Costs of the Lebanese Sectarian System,” American University of Beirut, 2011, 1,
http://www.mediapart.fr/files/Costs_of_sectarianism_v1.pdf
211
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 11,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
212
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 12,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
213
Almashriq, “Palestinian Refugee Camps in Lebanon: 1999,” n.d.,
http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/300/300/307/pal-camps/
214
Josh Wood, “The Palestinians’ Long Wait in Lebanon,” New York Times, 2 March 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/03/world/middleeast/03iht-m03-lebanon.html
215
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 14–16, 50,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
216
Mona Fawaz and Isabelle Peillen, “Understanding Slums: Case Studies for the Global Report on Human
Settlements; The Case of Beirut Lebanon” (report to UN-Habitat, 2003), 10–15, 29, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpuprojects/Global_Report/cities/beirut.htm
© D LI F LC | 32
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Lebanon’s cities, especially Beirut, did not escape the ravages of
its 15-year civil war (1975–90), which decimated urban
infrastructure, including sewer systems, electrical grids,
communications, and transportation facilities. Hundreds of
thousands were left homeless.217 As Lebanon continues to
rebuild, the cities are reinventing themselves, transforming, and
looking toward the future.218, 219 But challenges remain. Since
the civil war, cities have become more divided along religious
and sectarian lines.220 Although many residential neighborhoods remain divided, rebuilt
downtown areas in cities such as Beirut have created new spaces where people from all
backgrounds can mingle and interact.221, 222 While the nation struggles to balance the traditional
with the modern and create its post-civil war identity, it also must face the more common
problems of cities everywhere.223, 224
Urbanization
Rapid urbanization caused numerous problems, including a loss
of farmland, rising levels of pollution, and increased water
demands. Lebanon’s urban infrastructure was essentially
destroyed during its civil war and the 2006 war with Israel.
Although there has been progress in the rebuilding efforts, more
work remains.225
Urban water authorities can barely meet demands. Nearly 90%
of urban households are connected to city water networks, but
water delivery is uneven. The amount and quality of water available to households depends on a
217
Dona J. Steward, “Economic Recovery and Reconstruction in Postwar Beirut,” Geographical Review 86, no. 4
(October 1996): 494–95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/215929?seq=8
218
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Syria and Lebanon (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet
Publications, 2004), 234–36, 299, 302–6.
219
Craig Larkin, “Reconstructing and Deconstructing Beirut: Space, Memory and Lebanese Youth” (Divided
Cities/Contested States Working Paper no. 8, 2009), 12–16,
http://www.conflictincities.org/PDFs/WorkingPaper8_21.5.09.pdf
220
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 6,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
221
William Mark Habeeb, The Middle East in Turmoil: Conflict, Revolution and Change (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 2012), 131.
222
Hilary Silver, “Divided Cities in the Middle East,” City and Community 9, no. 4 (December 2010): 345–57,
http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Sociology/documents/Divided-cities-middle-east.pdf
223
Gruia Badescu, “‘Do You Want to Go to Solidere?’: Architectural Reconstruction and Post-War Reconciliation
in Beirut,” Middle East Political and Economic Institute, 11 January 2011, http://mepei.com/in-focus/3971-do-youwant-to-go-to-solidere-architectural-reconstruction-and-post-war-reconciliation-in-beirut
224
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 54–69, 78–80,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
225
Leonard Binder, “Chapter 1: Introduction: Global Perspectives and Regional Realities,” in Rebuilding Devastated
Economies in the Middle East, ed. Leonard Binder (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007), 11.
© D LI F LC | 33
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
number of factors, including water pressure, household location, and season. To supplement
available water, many urban dwellers purchase water from vendors or water trucks, or secure
water from other sources. Mismanagement of water supplies adds to the problem. There is
minimal capacity for the storage of fresh water, and 40–50% of water is lost through leaks in
failing pipes.226, 227
Wastewater management presents another challenge. Although 66% of the urban population are
connected to public wastewater networks, only 8% of wastewater is treated. Much of the raw
sewage is simply dumped into the ocean or other inland water sources. Sewage runoff and other
urban waste pollute freshwater sources, including the Abu Ali River near Tripoli.228 Solid waste
disposal problems remain largely unresolved.229
Lebanon cannot produce enough energy to meet domestic need and imports 97% of its energy.
Even this is insufficient to meet demand; daily electrical blackouts are common. People buy
backup generators to help deal with the problem. Illegal hookups to the electrical grid further
stress the system and create a threat to public safety.230
Beyond the infrastructure needs, social issues are emerging as sources of concern. Expensive and
modern urban redevelopment has pushed many people to more affordable areas outside the
cities. Economic segregation has reduced the opportunities for interaction among different
groups and created greater social distance among people. Spatial division furthers sectarian and
religious divisions and reduces intergroup tolerance, which may cause other problems in the
future.231, 232, 233
226
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 60,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
227
IRIN News, “Lebanon: Climate Change and Politics Threaten Water Wars in Bekaa,” 1 February 2009,
http://www.irinnews.org/Report/82682/LEBANON-Climate-change-and-politics-threaten-water-wars-in-Bekaa
228
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 58–59, 62,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
229
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 59–60,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
230
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 64–65,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
231
Ruthie Ackerman, “Rebuilding Beirut,” Daily Beast, 29 October 2010,
http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2010/10/29/the-battle-over-turning-beirut-into-the-next-dubai.html
232
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 78, 80,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
233
Gruia Badescu, “‘Do You Want to Go to Solidere?’: Architectural Reconstruction and Post-War Reconciliation
in Beirut,” Middle East Political and Economic Institute, 11 January 2011, http://mepei.com/in-focus/3971-do-youwant-to-go-to-solidere-architectural-reconstruction-and-post-war-reconciliation-in-beirut
© D LI F LC | 34
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Urban Economy and Work Issues
Lebanon’s urban economy revolves around the service sector (particularly commerce, tourism,
and finance), which employs 42% of the urban workforce. The rest work in trade and
manufacturing (36%) or agriculture (7%). Beirut, which generates about 75% of the nation’s
economy, depends mostly on commerce from the Port of Beirut and tourism.234, 235
Unemployment is estimated to be around 9%, but youth
unemployment is much higher (22%).236, 237 High youth
unemployment represents a serious problem because nearly
41% of the population are under age 25. More than half live in
Beirut, its southern suburbs, and Mount Lebanon.238 University
graduates constitute about 21% of the unemployed.239 It takes a
new graduate about a year to find a job, leading many to
emigrate in search of work.240 Lebanon’s brain drain has been
labeled as the nation’s largest problem. The country loses more than 20,000 skilled workers a
year.241 This migration pattern has also created a significant demographic shift, leaving
considerably fewer males in the 25–29 age group than in younger groups, particularly those 20–
24.242
Unemployment is even higher in refugee camps, where nearly 56% are jobless.243 The high
refugee unemployment rate stems partly from Lebanese laws that bar Palestinians from working
in the public sector or in a number of other professions.244, 245
234
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 30, 33,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
235
Embassy of Lebanon, “Profile of Lebanon: The Economy,” n.d.,
http://www.lebanonembassyus.org/country_lebanon/economy.html
236
The World Bank, “Data: Lebanon,” 2012, http://data.worldbank.org/country/lebanon
237
International Labour Organization, Department of Statistics, “Statistical Update on Arab States and Territories
and North African Countries,” May 2011, 3, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--stat/documents/presentation/wcms_156325.pdf
238
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, “Lebanon Urban Profile: A Desk Review Report” (report to the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, October 2011), 11,
http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/Lebanon%20Urban%20Profile%20%20A%20Desk%20Review%20Report.pdf
239
Population and Development Strategies Programme, “Chapter III: Labor Force and Economic Activity Rates:
Employment and Unemployment,” in National Survey of Household Living Conditions 2004–2005, 2007, 60,
http://www.bloggingbeirut.com/docs/chapter3.pdf
240
Tamara Qiblawi, “Lebanon’s Youth Unemployment Rates Following Widespread Regional Trend,” Daily Star
(Lebanon), 31 January 2011, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Lebanon/Jan/31/Lebanons-youthunemployment-rates-following-widespread-regional-trend.ashx#axzz1rrjuZQpm
241
Patrick Galey, “Parliament Speaker Warns Brain Drain ‘Biggest Problem We Face in Lebanon,’” Daily Star
(Lebanon), 20 May 2010, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Politics/May/20/Parliament-speaker-warns-brain-drainbiggest-problem-we-face-in-Lebanon.ashx#axzz0qo835PMM
242
Population and Development Strategies Programme, “Chapter 1: Demographic Characteristics of Residents,” in
National Survey of Household Living Conditions 2004–2005, 2007, 32,
http://www.pdslebanon.org/UserFiles/Chapter1_DemographicCharacteristicsOfResidents.pdf
243
Jad Chaaban et al., “Socio-Economic Survey of Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon” (report to the United Nations
Relief and Works Agency, 31 December 2010), x, http://www.unrwa.org/userfiles/2011012074253.pdf
© D LI F LC | 35
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Healthcare
Although it is expensive, healthcare in Lebanon is among the best in the region. Urban residents
have a large number of clinics and hospitals. But healthcare is dominated by the private sector,
which oversees nearly 90% of beds in private hospitals.
Exchange 13: Is there a hospital nearby?
Visitor:
Is there a hospital nearby?
Local:
Yes, in the center of town.
fee mustashfaa aReebeh
min hon?
ay, ibnuS il balad
Because of the private-sector domination, Lebanon has an oversupply of high technology
services and doctors, most of whom are specialists. The large number of specialists has focused
most of the nation’s healthcare on medical treatments, but Lebanon is gradually shifting the
focus to prevention.246 Only about 20% of households have a primary-care physician.247
Exchange 14: Is the doctor in, sir?
Visitor:
Is the doctor, Sir?
Local:
No.
yaa istaaz, il Hakeem hon?
laa
Every citizen has a right to healthcare, regardless of ability to
pay, but the fragmented delivery system has made it difficult for
the government to meet the increasing demands for
coverage.248, 249 About half the population receives medical
coverage under the Ministry of Public Health; the other half is
privately covered.250 The majority of those who have health
insurance plans are urban residents, particularly people living in
Beirut and Mount Lebanon.251
Exchange 15: Do you know what is wrong?
244
Jad Chaaban et al., “Socio-Economic Survey of Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon” (report to the United Nations
Relief and Works Agency, 31 December 2010), 13, http://www.unrwa.org/userfiles/2011012074253.pdf
245
Jim Muir, “Lebanon Grants Palestinian Refugees Right to Work,” BBC News, 17 August 2010,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11004945
246
Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, “The Role of Contractual Arrangements in Improving Health
Sector Performance” (report for the World Health Organization, n.d.), 7,
http://gis.emro.who.int/HealthSystemObservatory/PDF/Contracting/Lebanon.pdf
247
Roger Sfeir, “Strategy for National Health Care Reform in Lebanon,” n.d., 16,
http://www.fgm.usj.edu.lb/files/a62007.pdf
248
Nabil M. Kronfol, “Trade in Health Services: Lebanon as a Case Study” (report for the World Health
Organization, n.d., ), 2,
http://gis.emro.who.int/HealthSystemObservatory/PDF/Trade%20And%20Health%20Services/Lebanon.pdf
249
Walid Ammar et al., “Lebanon National Health Accounts” (draft paper prepared for the World Health
Organization, December 2000), 1, http://www.who.int/nha/docs/en/Lebanon_NHA_report_english.pdf
250
Paige Kollock, “Healthcare for All: Talking to Health Minister Mohammad Khalifeh,” Now Lebanon, 7 April
2010, http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=158847
251
Population and Development Strategies Programme, “Chapter IV: Health Insurance and Chronic Diseases,” in
National Survey of Household Living Conditions 2004–2005, 2007, 67–68,
http://www.bloggingbeirut.com/docs/chapter4.pdf
© D LI F LC | 36
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Local:
Visitor:
Do you know what is
wrong?
No.
bita'Rif shoo SaayeR?
laa
Medical care in larger hospitals and clinics meets Western standards. Most hospitals, particularly
private facilities, feature modern equipment and French- or English-speaking doctors and nurses.
Doctors are well trained.252, 253
Exchange 16: Is University Hospital far from here?
Is University Hospital far
Buyer:
from here?
It’s about a quarter of an
Seller:
hour away.
mistashfa izh zhaam'a b'eed
min hon?
bad-haa shee Rubi' saa'a taReeban
Although medical facilities are not available in every area of Lebanon, no part of the country is
more than three hours away from Beirut. Doctors usually require patients, particularly foreign
visitors, to pay in advance or care will be denied, even in cases of emergency.254, 255, 256
Education
Lebanon’s education system is regarded as one of the best in the region.257, 258 Public schools
provide free education, but they are underfunded and undersupplied, which results in inferior
education relative to private schools.259 In the Middle East, only Qatar has a higher knowledge
gap (48%) than Lebanon (45%) between private and public schools. This gap has led to between
50% and 60% of students enrolling in private schools, leaving the poorest students in public
schools.260, 261, 262
252
Foreign and Commonwealth, Government of the United Kingdom, “Middle East and North Africa: Lebanon,” 21
March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-northafrica/lebanon
253
Re:locate Magazine, “Health and Healthcare in Lebanon,” 2010, http://www.relocatemagazine.com/healthmockup/1127-health-and-healthcare-in-lebanon
254
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government, “Lebanon: Health,” 11 February 2012,
http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/Lebanon
255
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Lebanon: Country Specific Information,” 16 February
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_948.html
256
GlobalSurance, “Lebanon International Health Insurance Healthcare System,” 2005,
http://www.globalsurance.com/resources/lebanon/
257
European Commission, “Lebanese Republic: Country Strategy Paper 2007–2013” (report for the European
Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument, 2007), 9, 41,
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2007/october/tradoc_136439.pdf
258
Sultan Lootah and Anne Simon, “Arab Human Capital Challenge” (report for the Mohammed Bin Rashid Al
Maktoum Foundation, 2008), 36, http://www.mbrfoundation.ae/English/Documents/AHCC-%20English.pdf
259
Faten Elhajj, “Equipping Lebanon’s Schoolchildren: A Textbook Case,” alakhbar, 11 January 2012,
https://english.al-akhbar.com/content/equipping-lebanon%E2%80%99s-schoolchildren-textbook-case
260
USAID, “Lebanon,” 13 September 2011, http://www.usaid.gov/locations/middle_east/countries/lebanon/
261
Hassan Chakrani, “Gaping Holes in Education and the Labor Market in Lebanon,” alakhbar, 27 February 2012,
http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/gaping-holes-education-and-labor-market-lebanon
© D LI F LC | 37
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Lebanese students are required to complete 9 years of primary
school: 6 years of elementary and 3 years of intermediate
education. Secondary education spans 3 years. 263, 264 The school
year runs from October to June. 265 Courses in public schools are
generally taught in Arabic; classes in private schools are taught
primarily in English and French.266, 267 Of the nation’s 41
colleges, universities, and technical institutes, only one
(Lebanese University) is public. Higher education is heavily
influenced by the French and American systems, and generally requires 3 to 5 years for a degree.
268, 269
Of the nation’s 32 universities, 16 are located in Beirut.270
Most Lebanese children attend school. Nearly 88% of girls and 89% of boys are enrolled in
primary schools; 80% of girls and 73% of boys are enrolled in secondary schools.
Approximately 53% are enrolled in some kind of postsecondary education.271
Palestinians in Lebanon face special educational challenges. They must pass the same
examinations as Lebanese nationals, including the French and English language components, to
gain admission to Lebanese universities. Lack of access to comprehensive education makes it
unlikely that Palestinian students can pass the exams.272 A 2010 survey showed that while 92%
of Palestinians between the ages of 7 and 15 attend school, only about 50% of Palestinian
262
Nayla Madi Masri, “National Report of Lebanon” (report from the National Committee for Illiteracy and Adult
Education, Beirut, Lebanon, 30 June 2008), 4,
http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/INSTITUTES/UIL/confintea/pdf/National_Reports/Arab%20Stat
es/Lebanon.pdf
263
Education Encyclopedia, “Lebanon: Educational System Overview,” Education State University, 2012,
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/827/Lebanon-EDUCATIONAL-SYSTEM-OVERVIEW.html
264
Ministry of Education and Higher Education, Government of Lebanon, “Achievements: 2010,” 18 May 2011, 10,
http://www.mehe.gov.lb/uploads/file/Reports/2011/Progress_Report_of_Ministry_of_Education_18_5_2011_%28R
epaired%29.pdf
265
Government of Lebanon, “Lebanon: Education System,” n.d., http://www.higheredu.gov.lb/arabic/Guides/Educ_Sys.pdf
266
Government of Lebanon, “Lebanon: Education System,” n.d., http://www.higheredu.gov.lb/arabic/Guides/Educ_Sys.pdf
267
Ali Akbar Mahdi, ed., “Lebanon,” in Teen Life in the Middle East (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003), 130–
31.
268
Embassy of Lebanon, “Profile of Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://www.lebanonembassyus.org/country_lebanon/overview.html
269
Chronicle of Higher Education, “Lebanon,” 12 April 2012,
http://chronicle.com/academicDestination/Lebanon/36/
270
4 International Colleges and Universities, “Universities in Lebanon,” 2012, http://www.4icu.org/lb/lebaneseuniversities.htm
271
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Institute for Statistics, “Education (All Levels)
Profile: Lebanon,” 2011,
http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=120&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=42
20&BR_Region=40525
272
Canadian Palestinian Educational Exchange, “Palestinian Education in Lebanon,” 2011,
http://www.cepal.ca/?page_id=146
© D LI F LC | 38
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
children attend secondary school. About 33% have the equivalent of a high-school diploma,
compared with 50% of their Lebanese counterparts.273
Restaurants
Many restaurants in Lebanon feature international cuisine, including French, Italian, Greek,
Chinese, American, and Indian.274 Take-out establishments offer a wide range of food.
Exchange 17: Are you still serving breakfast?
Are you still serving
Customer:
breakfast?
Waiter:
Yes.
ba'adkun 'ambit-admoo
taRwee-a?
ay
Lebanese tend to eat dinner much later than Westerners, often as late as 10 p.m. Families often
eat out together, lingering long into the night.275
Exchange 18: May I have a glass/bottle of water?
May I have a glass/bottle of
Customer (male):
water?
Waiter:
Yes, sir!
feek ta'Teenee kibaayet
maay / aneenit maay?
na'am, yaa istaaz!
Lunch, the main meal of the day, typically begins with a
variety of up to 40 small dishes called a mezze. The dishes
may be hot or cold and often include hummus, stuffed grape
leaves, salads, and grilled kebabs. Food is usually presented
all at once rather than being served in courses.276
Exchange 19: What type of meat is this?
Guest:
What type of meat is this?
Host:
Chicken.
shoo naw' hal laHmeh
haydee?
idzhaazh
Common desserts include fresh seasonal fruits or sweet pastry filled with pistachios and drizzled
with honey. A colorless, alcoholic anise-flavored drink known as arak, the national drink, or
strong Arabic-style coffee, ahweh, accompanies dessert.277
Exchange 20: Do you have dessert?
273
Jad Chaaban et al., “Socio-Economic Survey of Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon” (report to the United Nations
Relief and Works Agency, 31 December 2010), x–xi, http://www.unrwa.org/userfiles/2011012074253.pdf
274
Food by Country, “Lebanon,” 2012, http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-South-Africa/Lebanon.html
275
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Syria and Lebanon (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet
Publications, 2004), 67, 90–91.
276
Food by Country, “Lebanon,” 2012, http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-South-Africa/Lebanon.html
277
Food by Country, “Lebanon,” 2012, http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-South-Africa/Lebanon.html
© D LI F LC | 39
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Customer:
Do you have some dessert?
Waiter:
Yes, certainly.
Exchange 21: I would like some coffee.
Customer:
I would like some coffee.
Waiter:
Sure.
'indkun Halwayaat shighil
il yom?
ay, akeed
finzhaan ahweh min faDlak
tikRamee
Tipping is generally expected in restaurants. In more upscale restaurants 10% is appropriate.278
Exchange 22: Please bring the bill to me.
Customer:
Please bring the bill to me.
Waiter:
Okay.
min faDlak zhiblee il
fetooRa
okey
Marketplaces and Street Vendors
Urban areas, especially Beirut, offer a variety of shopping options, including modern malls and
neighborhood markets. Malls usually open around 10 a.m. and close around 10 p.m., although
some stay open later.279
Exchange 23: Is the market nearby?
Visitor:
Is the market nearby?
is soo aReeb min hon?
Local:
Yes, over there on the right. ay, hooneek 'aalyameen
Shopping in Beirut is relatively expensive. But bargains can be found on Hamra Street and in the
Basta and Zakla areas of the city. Haggling is accepted at these places.280
People have been trading in traditional markets, known as
suqs, since Phoenician times. These centers of trade and
commerce flourished until civil war broke out in 1975.
Downtown Beirut’s old suqs were razed by rehabilitation
projects after the war. The new Beirut suqs bear little
resemblance to the historical shops of earlier markets.
Designed as a combination of modern convenience and
traditional heritage, Beirut suqs are filled with designer and
high-end merchandise.281
Exchange 24: Do you have any more of these?
Buyer:
Do you have any more of
'indak ba'd min hawdee?
278
Tim Murphy, “Etiquette 101: Tipping Guide,” Condé Nast Traveler, December 2008,
http://www.cntraveler.com/travel-tips/travel-etiquette/2008/12/Etiquette-101-Tipping-Guide
279
Beirut, “Shopping, Shops and Malls: Shopping Centers,” 2012, http://www.beirut.com/Shopping
280
Dirt Cheap Beirut, “Budget Shopping,” n.d., http://dirtcheapbeirut.com/budget-shopping/
281
Beirut Souks, “”Beirut Souks,” n.d., http://www.beirutsouks.com.lb
© D LI F LC | 40
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Seller:
these?
No.
laa
Flea markets are difficult to find in Lebanon, although in Beirut there are some organized
markets that resemble flea markets.282 Burj Hammoud, a neighborhood area in Beirut’s
Armenian quarter, is a good place to buy souvenirs. Bargaining is expected.283
Exchange 25: Where can I find souvenirs?
Where can I find
Customer:
souvenirs?
Waiter:
In the old Byblos Market.
wayn blaa-ee tizkaaRaat?
ib-soo beeblos il adeem.
Tripoli still has some of the old-style suqs. One of the city’s oldest commercial bazaars is Souk
al-Haraj. Other major suqs include Suq al-Sayyagheen (specializing in gold and silver) and Suq
al-Bazerkan.284
Exchange 26: Please, buy something from me.
Please, buy something from bitRazhaak, ishtiRee shee
Seller:
me.
minee
bi'tiZiR, maa ba-a ma'ee
Buyer:
Sorry, I have no money left.
maSaaRee
Lebanon’s official currency is the Lebanese lira (LL), also referred to as the pound. In March
2012, USD 1 was roughly equivalent to LL 1,498.285 U.S. dollars are commonly accepted, and
many prices are quoted in dollars. Credit cards are widely accepted, except in smaller budget
hotels and restaurants.286, 287
Exchange 27: Can you give me change for this?
Can you give me change
Buyer:
for this?
Seller:
No.
feek tiSRiflee haydee?
laa
282
I Know a Great Place, “Beirut: Things to Buy,” 2011,
http://www.iknowagreatplace.com/community/search/background.aspx?tids=847&mcid=10
283
I Know a Great Place, “Beirut: Things to Buy,” 2011,
http://www.iknowagreatplace.com/community/search/background.aspx?tids=847&mcid=10
284
Tripoli City, “Souks (Shopping Bazaars) in Tripoli,” 8 November 2009, http://tripoli-city.org/souk.html
285
Oanda, “Currency Converter,” 29 March 2012, http://www.oanda.com/currency/converter/
286
Lonely Planet, “Lebanon: Money and Costs,” 2011, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/practicalinformation/money-costs
287
Ministry of Tourism, Government of Lebanon, “About Lebanon: Useful Information,” n.d., http://www.lebanontourism.gov.lb/About/Practical_Information.aspx
© D LI F LC | 41
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Transportation
Public transportation within the country is usually safe, but travelers should avoid shared, or
service, taxis.288 There are no domestic air services or trains within Lebanon.289 Travel south of
the Litani River is discouraged because of the high risk posed by landmines and unexploded
ordnance. Minefields are not clearly marked, and mines can shift position.290
Bus
Buses travel between the capital in Beirut and other major
towns in Lebanon. Although bus travel is generally safe, some
buses are poorly maintained. Microbuses can be somewhat
more expensive than regular buses but are becoming
increasingly popular alternatives.291 Buses do not usually offer
transportation within a town or city, although there are plans to
purchase 250 buses from Turkey for mass transportation.
Beirut has a relatively extensive network of buses within the city, but they stop running early in
the evening.292, 293, 294
Exchange 28: Will the bus be here soon?
Visitor:
Will the bus be here soon?
Local:
Yes.
il baS RaH yoSal aReeban?
ay
Cars
Driving in Lebanon is hazardous, and the nation’s accident rate is high. Lebanon’s roads are
generally in poor condition and filled with potholes.295 Lanes are seldom marked, drivers often
ignore traffic signs and signals, and driving behavior is aggressive.
Exchange 29: Is there a gas station nearby?
Is there a gas station
Visitor:
nearby?
Local:
Yes.
fee imHaTit banzeen
aReebeh min hon?
ay
The military may block roads, particularly near border crossings, when there are demonstrations
or other types of unrest. Always carry identity papers and be prepared to stop at military
288
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Lebanon: Country Specific Information,” 16 February
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_948.html
289
Lonely Planet, “Lebanon: Getting Around,” 2011, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/transport/getting-around
290
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government, “Lebanon: Health,” 11 February 2012,
http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/Lebanon
291
Lonely Planet, “Lebanon: Getting Around,” 2011, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/transport/getting-around
292
Bus-Planet, “Buses in Lebanon,” 2009, http://www.bus-planet.com/bus/bus-asia/Lebanon/files/intro.html
293
World Bulletin, “Lebanon May Buy Buses from Turkey for Mass Transportation,” 30 March 2012,
http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=87883
294
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Syria and Lebanon (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet
Publications, 2004), 430–31.
295
Allo’ Expat Lebanon, “Driving in Lebanon,” 2012,
http://www.lebanon.alloexpat.com/lebanon_information/driving_in_lebanon.php
© D LI F LC | 42
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
checkpoints, which are usually manned by armed security forces. Avoid night driving when
possible, particularly in the rural areas. Diesel vehicles are banned.296, 297, 298
Exchange 30: Where can I rent a car?
Visitor:
Where can I rent a car?
Local:
By the square.
wayn feenee asta-zheR
seeyaaRa?
bis saaHa
Taxis
Taxis, identifiable by their red license plates, should be selected with care. Service, or shared,
taxis have been reported to be unsafe. Passengers have been robbed by other passengers and
sometimes drivers. Use only cabs from recognized companies and avoid hailing cabs on the
street.299, 300
Exchange 31: Is the road to the airport crowded?
Is the road to the airport
Visitor:
crowded?
Local:
No, traffic is light today.
fee 'azh-a 'aTaRee il
maTaaR?
laa, il yom is sayR maashee
Street Crime and Solicitations
Crime rates in Lebanon are low to moderate. There have been
reports that purse-snatching is common. Personal security risks
related to terrorism are much higher. Attacks can occur anywhere
in the country, especially around Palestinian refugee camps. Other
areas of high risk include Tripoli, parts of the Bekaa Valley, and
regions south of the Litani River. Travelers should avoid the
Bekaa Valley because kidnapping is a serious concern. The
Lebanese government issued a public warning that foreign
nationals could be targeted for ransom by militant groups in the region.301, 302
296
Foreign and Commonwealth, Government of the United Kingdom, “Middle East and North Africa: Lebanon,” 21
March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-northafrica/lebanon
297
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government, “Lebanon: Local Travel,” 11 February 2012,
http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/Lebanon
298
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Lebanon: Country Specific Information,” 16 February
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_948.html
299
Foreign and Commonwealth, Government of the United Kingdom, “Middle East and North Africa: Lebanon,” 21
March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-northafrica/lebanon
300
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Lebanon: Country Specific Information,” 16 February
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_948.html
301
Foreign and Commonwealth, Government of the United Kingdom, “Middle East and North Africa: Lebanon,” 21
March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-northafrica/lebanon
302
Foreign and Commonwealth, Government of the United Kingdom, “Middle East and North Africa: Lebanon,” 21
March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-northafrica/lebanon
© D LI F LC | 43
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
The streets of Beirut are filled with beggars, many of whom are children and part of organized
rings.303 Children as young as 3 offer flowers for sale, a window wash for a car, or simply beg
for money. The law prohibits forcing or allowing a child to beg, but a lack of centers where
homeless children can be cared for has prevented police from acting more forcefully.304 It is
advisable to politely ignore requests for money.
303
Diana Nemen, “Beirut’s Streets: A Playground for Children Beggars,” Ya Libnan, 7 April 2011,
http://www.yalibnan.com/2011/04/07/beirut%E2%80%99s-streets-a-playground-for-children-beggars/
304
Van Meguerditchian, “Child Beggar Networks Persist Despite Crackdown,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 8 February
2012, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/2012/Feb-08/162564-child-beggar-networks-persist-despitecrackdown.ashx#axzz1qtjwufBU
© D LI F LC | 44
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Chapter 4 Assessment
1. Approximately one-third of Lebanese live in cities.
FALSE
In 2010, 87% of the Lebanese population lived in urban areas, and approximately onehalf lived in or around the capital, Beirut.
2. Trade and manufacturing is the cornerstone of the urban economy.
FALSE
The urban economy revolves around the service sector, which employs 42% of the urban
workforce. The rest work in trade and manufacturing (36%) and agriculture (7%).
3. Lebanon’s hospitals meet Western standards of care.
TRUE
Medical care in larger hospitals and clinics meet Western standards. Most hospitals,
particularly private facilities, have modern equipment and French- or English-speaking
doctors and nurses.
4. Lebanon has high rates of crime.
FALSE
Crime rates in Lebanon are low to moderate. There have been reports that pursesnatching is common. Personal security risks related to terrorism are much higher.
5. Most of Lebanon’s economic activity is generated in Beirut.
TRUE
Beirut, which generates about 75% of the nation’s economy, depends mostly on
commerce from the Port of Beirut and from tourism.
© D LI F LC | 45
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
CHAPTER 5: RURAL LIFE
Introduction
Until the beginning of the 20th century, Lebanon was largely a
rural country.305 Today, about 13% of the Lebanese population
is rural.306 Most of the nation’s agricultural lands are in the
Bekaa Valley or along the Mediterranean coast. Nearly a quarter
of the arable land is in the northern regions.307, 308, 309 Between
20% and 25% of rural residents depend directly on agriculture
for their livelihoods; approximately 70% of the rural population
have jobs that depend on agriculture in other ways.310, 311
Rural residents are generally poorer than their urban counterparts; within rural areas, poverty
levels vary. The highest poverty rates are in north Lebanon (52.5%) and south Lebanon (42%).
The poverty levels in these areas exceed the national average of 29%. In the Bekaa Valley, the
poverty rate is approximately the same as that of the nation as a whole. In Mount Lebanon
(19.5%) and Nabatiyé (19%), the rates are slightly lower than the national average.312
The high rates of rural poverty are due to many factors. Among the most significant are small
farms, lack of credit, and high production costs.313 For example, 73% of farms are less than one
hectare (2.5 acres) in size.314 Poor irrigation practices, mountainous terrain, extensive use of
chemicals, and small domestic markets only add to the cost of raising crops.315
Much of rural Lebanon remains underdeveloped, with poor infrastructure. Although there are
some ongoing redevelopment projects, the government seems more interested in rebuilding the
305
Georges Corm, “Lebanon Secrets for Economic Survival and The Need for a New Vision for the Future
Reconstruction Policy,” Saudi Business Focus, 14 September 2006, 1,
http://www.georgescorm.com/personal/download.php?file=906.pdf
306
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
307
René Moawad Foundation, “Agriculture: Rural Economy,” n.d.,
http://www.rmf.org.lb/agriculture/overview/overview2.html
308
Margaret J. Goldstein, Lebanon in Pictures (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2005), 62–63.
309
Marinos Markou and George Stavri, “National Agricultural Policy Report: Lebanon Final” (report for the Market
and Trade Policies for Mediterranean Agriculture, October 2005), 6,
http://medfrol.maich.gr/documentation/view/reports/wp1-napr/NAPR_LEBANON.pdf
310
René Moawad Foundation, “Agriculture: Rural Economy,” n.d.,
http://www.rmf.org.lb/agriculture/overview/overview2.html
311
Rural Poverty Portal, International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Rural Poverty in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/lebanon
312
Rural Poverty Portal, International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Rural Poverty in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/lebanon
313
Rural Poverty Portal, International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Rural Poverty in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/lebanon
314
International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Lebanon,” 2011,
http://www.ifad.org/events/gc/34/nen/factsheet/lebanon.pdf
315
Rural Poverty Portal, International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Rural Poverty in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/lebanon
© D LI F LC | 46
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
physical infrastructure of the cities in the aftermath of the 16-year civil war.316 Living conditions
in many rural areas are substandard, and basic services and infrastructure are lacking. The
government is aware of these issues and is trying to improve conditions, but rural development
aid is limited and is likely to remain so in the near future.317
Land Distribution
In 1961, the Lebanese Ministry of Agriculture reported that less
than 0.5% of the population owned more than 15% of the land,
while 53% of the population owned around 9%.318 Little has
changed since then. The distribution of land ownership in
Lebanon today remains one of the most inequitable in the world
and the most inequitable in the Middle East, with half of all
agricultural lands owned by 0.1% of the population.319
Land tenure and ownership is complex and rooted in several systems. Current rules classify land
as either private or public/mashah lands. Individuals may own private lands, but public lands are
collectively owned by a municipality or a religious body. Private lands and their operations fall
under the Ministry of Finance, while public lands fall under the Ministry of Interior.320
Exchange 32: Do you own this land?
Official:
Do you own this land?
Local:
Yes.
hal aRD laa ilak?
ay
Within the system, several problems persist. All surveyed land is governed by one set of rules,
while unsurveyed land is governed by another. Water rights further complicate matters because
water rights are individual property. This means that land can be sold without water rights or
vice versa.321
The security of land tenure is reduced by the corrupt practices of public officials, inconsistencies
of land rights, the encroachment of illegal settlers, and unsurveyed lands.322 One other factor
complicating land ownership is gender. Traditional practices limiting a woman’s access to credit
and other services have made it difficult for women to maintain control of their land. Illiteracy
and ignorance of property rights have further eroded women’s access to owning land. Because
316
Jihad Makhoul and Lindsey Harrison, “Development Perspectives: Views from Rural Lebanon,” Development in
Practice 12, no. 5 (November 2002): 613, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4029406
317
René Moawad Foundation, “Socio-Economic Background of Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://www.rmf.org.lb/aboutus/lebcontext/lebcontext.html
318
Isam Al-Khafaji, Tormented Births: Passages to Modernity in Europe and the Middle East (New York: I. B.
Taurus and Co. Ltd., 2004), 25–26.
319
Yasmine Ryan, “Letter From Lebanon: Farmers Face Uncertain Future,” Scoop, 13 May 2007,
http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0705/S00245.htm
320
Hamadeh Shady, Ghosn Sabine, and Rachid Grace, “Lebanon: Country Case Study” (report for the United
Nations Development Program, n.d.), 1–6.
321
Hamadeh Shady, Ghosn Sabine, and Rachid Grace, “Lebanon: Country Case Study” (report for the United
Nations Development Program, n.d.), 6.
322
Hamadeh Shady, Ghosn Sabine, and Rachid Grace, “Lebanon: Country Case Study” (report for the United
Nations Development Program, n.d.), 8.
© D LI F LC | 47
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
inheritance is often governed by religious bodies, women tend to inherit smaller portions than
their male relatives. For example, Muslim women inherit only about half that of their male
relatives, despite being entitled to equal shares.323
Rural Economy
Agriculture accounts for less than 5% of Lebanon’s GDP but is
an important source of livelihood for rural residents.324, 325, 326
Many rural Lebanese are small farmers, livestock herders, or
fishers. Major crops include citrus and other fruits, potatoes,
sugar beets, olives, and tobacco. Livestock production includes
raising goats and sheep.327
Exchange 33: What crops do you grow?
Official:
What crops do you grow?
Local:
I grow citrus trees.
shoo ibtizRa' feehaa?
bizRa' shazhaR leymoon
The underdeveloped agricultural sector, largely ignored by the government, has received
investments equal to only about 1% of the national budget.328, 329 Unable to meet its domestic
needs, Lebanon now depends on imports to meet 80% of its food demands.330
Numerous factors, including political unrest, contribute to slow growth in the agricultural
industry and poor production.331 Inadequate irrigation systems coupled with high fuel costs and
unreliable electrical supplies leave farmers largely dependent on rainfall for water. Climate
change has altered the rainfall patterns in the country. Although rainfall has not diminished, it is
less frequent; less water seeping into the soil causes more erosion, landslides, and increased
desertification.332 Significant budget allocations to infrastructure are underway, which should
323
Hamadeh Shady, Ghosn Sabine, and Rachid Grace, “Lebanon: Country Case Study” (report for the United
Nations Development Program, n.d.), 6–7.
324
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
325
René Moawad Foundation, “Agriculture: Rural Economy,” n.d.,
http://www.rmf.org.lb/agriculture/overview/overview2.html
326
Rural Poverty Portal, International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Rural Poverty in Lebanon,” n.d.,
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/lebanon
327
Margaret J. Goldstein, Lebanon in Pictures (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2005), 62–63.
328
Julia Naime, “Lebanon’s Agricultural Challenges,” NotEnoughGood.com (research blog of the Sustainable
Impacts and Strategic Global Initiatives group), 10 August 2011, http://notenoughgood.com/2011/08/lebanonsagricultural-challenges/
329
Atif Abdallah Kubursi, “Lebanon’s Agricultural Potential: A Policy Analysis Matrix Approach,” n.d.,
http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/kubursi/ebooks/policy.htm
330
glObserver, “Lebanon Agriculture Profile 2012,” 17 May 2011,
http://www.globserver.com/en/lebanon/agriculture
331
Bank Audi Sal Audi Saradar Group, “Lebanon Economic Report” (report for the Bank Audi Sal Audi Saradar
Group, 4th Quarter 2011), 3,
http://research.banqueaudi.com/documents/EconomicReports/lebanon_economic_report.pdf
332
glObserver, “Lebanon Agriculture Profile 2012,” 17 May 2011,
http://www.globserver.com/en/lebanon/agriculture
© D LI F LC | 48
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
help modernize farming, create greater access to affordable loans, and increase production.333, 334,
335
Rural Transportation
Travelers should use only legitimate public transport vehicles that are recognizable by their red
license plates.336 Avoid traveling within 5 km of the Syrian border. Some border incursions by
Syria have been violent.
Exchange 34: Is the highway to Damascus safe?
Is the highway to
Visitor:
Damascus safe?
Local:
I don’t know.
TaRee ish shaam aamneh?
maa bi'Rif
Travel south of the Litani River is ill-advised because of the
danger of unexploded ordnance. Political instability in this
region is a problem. In late November 201, several rockets were
fired into south Lebanon.337
Lebanon’s roads are in a state of disrepair. Driving crosscountry is dangerous because of the risk of minefields and
unstable political conditions.338 Lebanese drivers can be
aggressive, travel at unsafe speeds, and may drive on the wrong side of the road.339 Many of
Lebanon’s narrow rural mountain roads have hairpin turns requiring extra caution. Between
December and February, winter snows cause hazards, and some roads are closed from November
till June.340 Avoid night driving in rural areas.341
333
Marinos Markou and George Stavri, “National Agricultural Policy Report: Lebanon Final” (report for the Market
and Trade Policies for Mediterranean Agriculture, October 2005), 6,
http://medfrol.maich.gr/documentation/view/reports/wp1-napr/NAPR_LEBANON.pdf
334
Julia Naime, “Lebanon’s Agricultural Challenges,” NotEnoughGood.com (research blog of the Sustainable
Impacts and Strategic Global Initiatives group), 10 August 2011, http://notenoughgood.com/2011/08/lebanonsagricultural-challenges/
335
glObserver, “Lebanon Agriculture Profile 2012,” 17 May 2011,
http://www.globserver.com/en/lebanon/agriculture
336
Ambergh Education, “Useful Information About Lebanon: By Taxi and Service Taxi,” n.d.,
http://www.ambergh.com/pdf/english/useful_information_lebanon.pdf
337
Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Government of the United Kingdom, “Lebanon: Safety and Security; Local
Travel,” 21 March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-eastnorth-africa/lebanon
338
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, Government of Canada, “Travel Report: Lebanon,” 18 January
2012, http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/report_rapport-eng.asp?id=159000
339
Gomideast, “The Middle East for Visitors: Lebanon,” 2010, http://www.gomideast.com/lebanon/fastfax.html
340
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Syria and Lebanon (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet
Publications, 2004), 462.
341
Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Government of the United Kingdom, “Lebanon: Safety and Security; Local
Travel,” 21 March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-eastnorth-africa/lebanon
© D LI F LC | 49
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
It is possible to travel to rural areas by bus or a shared taxi. Buses are basic but clean. Taxis or
shared taxis can transport passengers between cities and towns. Reports of robberies in shared
taxis are on the rise, so caution should be exercised.342, 343
Exchange 35: Can you take me there?
Visitor:
Can you take me there?
Local:
Yes, I can.
feek taaKhidnee
lahooneek?
ay, feeyee
Healthcare
Healthcare in Lebanon’s hospitals and clinics is of good quality
and frequently up to Western standards.344, 345 But the nation’s
healthcare services are focused on curative and specialized care,
leaving preventive health services underdeveloped.346, 347 Most
health centers and hospitals are located in the urban areas,
especially in and around Beirut. Access is more limited for the
rural population, which relies on public transportation to get to
health centers in nearby villages. Only about 5% of Lebanon’s
rural areas are without permanent hospitals or clinics. To ease this problem, mobile health clinics
visit villages twice a month.348, 349
Medical care in Lebanon is expensive, but the Ministry of Health provides medical coverage for
Lebanese nationals who cannot pay for private insurance or who are not covered under an
employer plan. Individuals must pay 20% of their hospital costs in private hospitals and 5% in
public hospitals.350, 351 Many facilities, particularly those for foreign visitors, require advance
342
Lonely Planet, “Lebanon: Getting There and Away,” 2011,
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/transport/getting-there-away
343
Ambergh Education, “Useful Information About Lebanon: By Taxi and Service Taxi,” n.d.,
http://www.ambergh.com/pdf/english/useful_information_lebanon.pdf
344
Foreign and Commonwealth, Government of the United Kingdom, “Middle East and North Africa: Lebanon,” 21
March 2012, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-northafrica/lebanon
345
Re:locate Magazine, “Health and Healthcare in Lebanon,” 2010, http://www.relocatemagazine.com/healthmockup/1127-health-and-healthcare-in-lebanon
346
World Health Organization, “Lebanon: The Role of Contractual Arrangements in Improving Health Sector
Performance” (report for the Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean Division of the World Health
Organization, n.d.), 7, http://gis.emro.who.int/HealthSystemObservatory/PDF/Contracting/Lebanon.pdf
347
Walid Ammar et al., “Lebanon National Health Accounts” (report to the World Health Organization, December
2000), 21, http://www.who.int/nha/docs/en/Lebanon_NHA_report_english.pdf
348
Jihad Makhoul and Lindsey Harrison, “Development Perspectives: Views from Rural Lebanon,” Development in
Practice 12, no. 5 (November 2002): 615–16, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4029406?seq=1
349
René Moawad Foundation, “Mobile Dispensaries,” n.d., http://www.rmf.org.lb/health/mob_disp/mob_disp.html
350
Nabil M. Kronfol, “Lebanon: Trade in Health Services and GATS” (report for the World Health Organization,
n.d.), 5, http://gis.emro.who.int/HealthSystemObservatory/PDF/Trade%20And%20Health%20Services/Lebanon.pdf
351
Paige Kollock, “Healthcare for All: Talking to Health Minister Mohammad Khalifeh,” Now Lebanon, 7 April
2010, http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=158847
© D LI F LC | 50
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
payment in cash before providing treatment. Those who cannot pay may be turned away, even in
emergency situations.352, 353
Education
All Lebanese children are required to attend school through ninth
grade. Even though laws concerning mandatory education may not
be strictly enforced in remote rural areas, nearly all rural schoolaged children do attend school. In particularly remote regions
where there are only elementary schools, students must travel to
nearby villages to continue their education.354, 355
Exchange 36: Is there a school nearby?
Official:
Is there a school nearby?
Local:
Yes.
fee madRaseh aReebeh min
hon?
ay
Measurements of levels of educational attainment, success in education, and literacy rates show a
significant disparity between rural and urban populations. Approximately 88% of all adults in
Lebanon are literate, but residents in rural areas, particularly the Bekaa Valley, have the lowest
literacy rates in the nation.356, 357 Drop-out rates after elementary school are much higher in rural
areas, reaching nearly 43% in north Lebanon. Fewer rural students enter universities or seek
higher education. 358
Exchange 37: Do your children go to school?
Do your children go to
Official:
school?
Local:
Yes.
wulaadak beeRooHo
'aalmadRaseh?
ay
352
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, Government of Canada, “Travel Report: Lebanon,” 18 January
2012, http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/report_rapport-eng.asp?id=159000
353
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Lebanon: Country Specific Information; Medical
Facilities and Health Information,” 16 February 2012,
http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_948.html#medical
354
Jihad Makhoul and Lindsey Harrison, “Development Perspectives: Views from Rural Lebanon,” Development in
Practice 12, no. 5 (November 2002): 616, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4029406?seq=1
355
State University, “Lebanon: Educational System Overview,” 2012,
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/827/Lebanon-EDUCATIONAL-SYSTEM-OVERVIEW.html
356
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
357
Patrick Galey, “Lebanon Illiteracy Report Shows Alarming Urban-Rural Divide,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 4 July
2009, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/Jul/04/Lebanon-illiteracy-report-shows-alarming-urban-ruraldivide.ashx#axzz1qtjwufBU
358
Kamal Hamdan and CRI, “Chapter 4: Socio-Economic Citizenship and the State,” in Lebanon National Human
Development Report: Toward A Citizen’s State (report for the United Nations Development Programme, 2009), 134,
http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/national/arabstates/lebanon/NHDR_Lebanon_20082009_En.pdf
© D LI F LC | 51
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
There are two main reasons for the rural-urban education divide in Lebanon: the low
socioeconomic status of rural people and the low quality of public education in rural areas.359
The costs of staying in school do not justify staying out of the labor market. Rural students
believe that they will find work whether or not they finish school and they therefore enter the
workforce earlier.360
Village Life
Lebanon’s long history of decentralized governance changed
during the nation’s 16-year civil war. The federal government
seized more decision-making control, leaving municipal
governments with considerably less power. Although there have
been calls for stronger local government and increased
administrative decentralization, this has not been a priority, and
the government’s commitment to strong local governance
remains uncertain.361
There are six governorates in Lebanon, and each is administered by a governor representing the
central government. Each governorate is divided into districts headed by district chiefs who, in
collaboration with the governor, supervise local government activities. Districts are subdivided
into municipalities with at least 500 residents. Each municipality elects its own council, which
then elects mayors and vice-mayors. The peculiarities of the Lebanese political system have
resulted in a high degree of centralization in the more than 600 municipal governments. 362 The
smallest local governance unit is the village or town with between 50 and 499 residents, who
elect a headman and a council of elders.363, 364
Exchange 38: Will you take me to your mayor?
Will you take me to your
Official:
mayor?
Local:
Yes, welcome.
feek taaKhidnee 'ind il
muKhtaaR?
ay, tikRam
359
State University, “Lebanon: Educational System Overview,” 2012,
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/827/Lebanon-EDUCATIONAL-SYSTEM-OVERVIEW.html
360
Kamal Hamdan and CRI, “Chapter 4: Socio-Economic Citizenship and the State,” in Lebanon National Human
Development Report: Toward A Citizen’s State (report for the United Nations Development Programme, 2009),
134–35, http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/national/arabstates/lebanon/NHDR_Lebanon_20082009_En.pdf
361
Programme on Governance in the Arab Region, UNDP, “Lebanon: Local Government History,” n.d.,
http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=6&cid=9
362
Programme on Governance in the Arab Region, UNDP, “Lebanon: Local Government History,” n.d.,
http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=6&cid=9
363
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Lebanon: Local Government,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon/279113/Local-government
364
Teffera Betru and James S. Long, “Agricultural Extension as a Development Strategy for War-Torn Countries:
The Case of Lebanon,” Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education 3, no. 2 (Fall 1996): 17,
http://www.aiaee.org/attachments/408_Betru-Vol-3.2-2.pdf
© D LI F LC | 52
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Exchange 39: Mr. Mayor, we need your opinion.
Mr. Mayor, we need your
Official:
opinion.
Local leader:
You are welcome.
yaa HaDRet il muKhtaaR,
badnaa Ra-yak
ah-lan
Villages may also have a zaim (plural form = zuama), or political leader, who has the power to
broker decisions within the village. Zuama are often members of a prominent landowning family
with economic and political influence and may not be the official elected leaders.365, 366
In the 2010 municipal elections, about 74% of eligible voters participated in an election to fill
11,424 municipal seats. Women were elected to about one-third of the neighborhood-level
mayoral positions.367
Exchange 40: Do you know this area very well?
Do you know this area very
Official:
well?
Local:
Yes, I grew up here.
ibta'Rif hal manTa-a
imneeH?
ay, anaa iRbeet hon
Border Crossings and Checkpoints
The only land crossing into Lebanon is from Syria. The four official border crossings are at
Masnaa, Abboudiye, al-Qaa, and Aarida, and they are normally open year-round.368
Exchange 41: Where is the nearest checkpoint?
Where is the nearest
Official:
checkpoint?
Local:
Two kilometers from here.
wayn a-Rab nu-Tet
tafteesh?
'ala ba'id itnayn keelomiteR
min hon
Exchange 42: Is this all the ID you have?
Guard:
Is this all the ID you have?
Driver:
Yes.
haydee kel il awRaa ilee
ma'ak?
ay
In March 2012, because of the conflict in Syria, conditions along some of the border areas were
particularly tense. Syrian and Lebanese troops gathered near the al-Qaa border, and gunfire and
rocket-propelled grenades originating on the Syrian side fell inside Lebanese territory. 369
365
Jihad Makhoul and Lindsey Harrison, “Development Perspectives: Views from Rural Lebanon,” Development in
Practice 12, no. 5 (November 2002): 618–19, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4029406?seq=1
366
As’ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 4: Government and Politics,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Thomas Collelo
(Washington DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
367
Programme on Governance in the Arab Region, UNDP, “Lebanon: Local Government History,” n.d.,
http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=6&cid=9
368
Lonely Planet, “Lebanon: Getting There and Away,” 2011,
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/transport/getting-there-away#301178
369
Naharnet, “Border Clashes Along Lebanon-Syria Border,” 27 March 2012,
http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/34752-report-clashes-along-lebanon-syria-border
© D LI F LC | 53
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Exchange 43: Are you carrying any guns?
Guard:
Are you carrying any guns?
Driver:
No.
Haamil ay asliHa?
laa
Exchange 44: Please get out of the car.
Guard:
Please get out of the car.
Driver:
Okay.
min faDlak, Tlaa' min is
seeyaaRa
okey
Police roadblocks and military checkpoints are a common
occurrence. Passports are usually required at official
checkpoints. Officers may stop cars and do a search of cars
and belongings. When approaching a checkpoint, drivers
should slow down until waived through by police or stop if
ordered to. Downtown Beirut also has a series of police
checkpoints through which pedestrians may pass. Be prepared
to have bags searched.370, 371
Exchange 45: Show us the car registration.
Show us the car
Guard:
registration.
Driver:
Okay.
faRzheenaa wuRaa is
seeyaaRa
okey
Landmines
Lebanon has not acceded to the Mine Ban Treaty, but reports
that it has never produced or exported mines. There are 758
hazardous areas still believed to have landmines, many
resulting from conflicts with Israel in the 1980s and 2006. An
estimated 400,000 landmines are believed to contaminate 30%
of Lebanese territory. The areas of most concern are
Nabatiyeh, South Lebanon, Mount Lebanon, Bekaa, and North
Lebanon. Cluster munitions have affected water supplies and
power lines, and impeded farming and excavation.372, 373, 374
370
Lonely Planet, “Road Block Etiquette in Lebanon,” 30 March 2010,
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/travelblogs/11/52624/Road+Block+etiquette+in+Lebanon?destId=361092
371
Lonely Planet, “Lebanon: Getting There and Away,” 2011,
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/transport/getting-there-away
372
Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, “Lebanon,” 2 November 2011, http://www.themonitor.org/custom/index.php/region_profiles/print_profile/306
373
Press TV Global News, “Cluster Munitions, Land Mines in Lebanon: INfocus,” 12 February 2012,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oASn2-_FLvs
374
Rajana Hamyeh, “Clearing Cluster Bombs and Landmines: Lebanon’s Long and Winding Road,” Uprooted
Palestinians, 15 September 2011, http://uprootedpalestinians.blogspot.com/2011/09/clearing-cluster-bombs-andlandmines.html
© D LI F LC | 54
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Exchange 46: Is this area mined?
Visitor:
Is this area mined?
Local:
Yes.
hal manTa-a imlaghameh?
ay
The Syrian army planted landmines along some of its border with Lebanon. Some reports
suggest that mines were planted 100 meters (328 ft) apart near the border town of Wadi Khaled
in the disputed al-Joura region.375, 376
375
Dana Khraiche, “Syrian Army Completed Planting Landmines: Lebanon Residents,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 1
November 2011, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Politics/2011/Nov-01/152810-syrian-army-completed-plantinglandmines-lebanon-residents.ashx#axzz1qY3E2Xh5
376
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, Government of Canada, “Travel Report: Lebanon,” 18 January
2012, http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/report_rapport-eng.asp?id=159000
© D LI F LC | 55
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT
1. Roughly half the population of Lebanon lives in rural areas.
FALSE
About 13% of the Lebanese population is rural.
2. The poorest regions of the country are in the Bekaa Valley.
FALSE
The highest poverty rates are in north Lebanon (52.5%) and south Lebanon (42%). Rates
in the Bekaa Valley (29%), Mount Lebanon (19.5%), and Nabatiyé (19%) are at or below
the national average.
3. Lebanon imports over three-quarters of its food.
TRUE
The country now depends on imports to meet 80% of its food demands.
4. Students in rural areas rarely abandon school early to enter the workforce.
FALSE
Nearly all rural children attend schools. The two main reasons for lower levels of
education are the need to enter the workforce to make a living and the low quality of
public education in rural areas.
5. Most farms in Lebanon are small, less than (2.5 acres) in size.
TRUE
Seventy-three percent of farms are less than one hectare (2.5 acres) in size.
© D LI F LC | 56
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LIFE
Typical Household and Family Structure
In Lebanese society, family takes precedence over the individual and
is the basis for society. An individual’s actions reflect on the family
as a whole. Individuals often sacrifice their self-interest for the
benefit of the family; in return, individuals have a network of support
and protection formed by their immediate and distant relatives.
Access to education and employment is linked to an individual’s
family status.377, 378
Families are traditionally patriarchal and comprise three generations,
however this is changing over time as families become more nuclear.
Muslim families tend to have a more traditional multigenerational
family than Christian families. A bride will join her husband’s family after marriage, and adult
children may continue to live with the husband’s parents for years. Families in rural areas tend to
be much larger than urban families because children provide valuable help with farmwork.379, 380
Exchange 47: How many people live in this house?
How many people live in
Official:
this house?
Local:
Five.
kam shaKhS 'aayesh behal
bayt?
Khamseh
Many families employ foreign nationals as domestic workers. With more families moving to a
nuclear model and more women entering the workforce, many domestic workers have taken on a
great deal of the responsibility for child care. In larger, more traditional families, the
grandmother fills this role if the mother is not present in the home. There are roughly 200,000
domestic workers in Lebanon, accounting for nearly 5% of the country’s population.381, 382 There
are numerous expatriates from Sri Lanka, the Philippines, India, and African nations. Ethiopians
are a particularly large group in Lebanon. The quality of life for domestic workers varies. Many
377
As’ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Louis R.
Mortimer (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
378
Ali Akbar Mahdi, ed., Teen Life in the Middle East (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 2003), 126.
379
Ali Akbar Mahdi, ed., Teen Life in the Middle East (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 2003), 126.
380
Timothy L. Gall, ed., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, 2nd ed. (New York:
Gale, 2009), 556.
381
Rachel Stevenson, “Ethiopia Seeks Full Investigation into Suicide of Maid Beaten in Beirut,” Guardian, 20
March 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/mar/20/ethiopia-suicide-maid-beaten-beirut
382
Ross Mountain, “Lebanon: Foreign Labor,” United Nations Development Programme, 1997, 1,
http://www.undp.org.lb/programme/governance/advocacy/nhdr/nhdr97/chpt3d.pdf
© D LI F LC | 57
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
earn a good living, including retirement, while others are subject to violence and intimidation.383,
384
Roles and Responsibilities Within the Family
Age and gender determine status in the family hierarchy. Mothers are
the primary caregivers in the home and are often overprotective. They
spend the most time with the children and therefore often have a closer
relationship with them. Fathers are traditionally the family’s
breadwinner and spend a great deal of time outside the home. Both
parents support their children in education, sometimes hiring private
tutors to help children succeed in their studies. Fathers and mothers
make major decisions for their children, even when their children have
entered adulthood. Parents are usually greatly involved in their
children’s plans to marry.385, 386
Exchange 48: Are these children part of your family?
Are these children part of
Official:
your family?
Local:
Yes.
hawdee il wulaad min
'eeltak?
ay
Even though large numbers of Lebanese live outside the country, these expatriates typically
maintain close ties with their relatives in Lebanon. Money sent from the Lebanese diaspora
contributes significantly the economy. In 2007, it was estimated that USD 5.5 billion was sent to
Lebanon by family members working outside the country. By 2010, estimates for expatriate
remittances flowing into the country were as high as USD 8 billion.387, 388 Remittances now
outpace total country export revenues (USD 5.4 billion in 2011) and account for as much as onefifth of Lebanon’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Many Lebanese expatriates return home
often and visit family members.389, 390
383
Justin Salhani, “Ethiopians in Lebanon Protest their Consulate’s Apathy, Callousness,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 1
April 2012, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/2012/Apr-01/168755-ethiopians-in-lebanon-protesttheir-consulates-apathy-callousness.ashx#axzz1vWezj1IH
384
BBC News, “UN Urges Lebanon to Investigate Ethiopian Maid’s Death,” 3 April 2012,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17598437
385
As’ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Louis R.
Mortimer (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
386
Ali Akbar Mahdi, ed., Teen Life in the Middle East (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 2003), 126.
387
Timothy L. Gall, ed., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, 2nd ed. (New York:
Gale, 2009), 556.
388
Georges Pierre Sassine, “Don’t Let Lebanon’s Diaspora Go to Waste,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 12 December 2011,
7, http://georgessassine.com/lebanese-diaspora-brain-drain/
389
The Business Year, “Where the Heart Is,” n.d.,
http://www.thebusinessyear.com/publication.aspx?PubId=2&artId=12#channel=f3c64895ed22982&origin=http%3
A%2F%2Fwww.thebusinessyear.com&channel_path=%2Fpublication.aspx%3FPubId%3D2%26artId%3D12%26fb
_xd_fragment%23xd_sig%3Df1d76347a0df3ee%26&transport=postmessage
390
Central Intelligence Agency, “Lebanon,” in The World Factbook, 3 May 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html
© D LI F LC | 58
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Status of Women, Children, and Adolescents
Lebanon remains a male-dominated society, demonstrated through law
and social conventions. When individuals from different religious sects
have children, the children legally share the religious affiliation of their
father. Likewise, Lebanon’s nationality law looks only at paternity.
Children born to a father with Lebanese citizenship and to a nonLebanese mother are legally Lebanese. But children of a Lebanese
mother and a non-Lebanese father are not automatically citizens.391
Women, depending on their religion, are often at a disadvantage because
of inheritance laws and may face other legal restrictions in divorce or
child custody matters. Christian religious laws tend to offer more equity
for women than Muslim laws do.392
Boys are typically valued more than girls. It is considered good fortune for a couple’s firstborn to
be a boy. When a child is born, the birth may be acknowledged by a feast and celebration, but
when the child is a boy, the feast and celebration are much more lavish.393
During the violent civil war, few societal options were available for teens in Lebanon. Some
parents sent their children abroad for education, but many teens saw few choices outside of
joining a militia. Since the end of the war, teens are no longer pushed into militias, but many
have a cynical attitude toward politics and society.
Within Lebanese households, older siblings are expected to assist in the care of younger brothers
and sisters. With regard to schooling and activities, Lebanese teens are similar to Western youth.
Some are motivated and study regularly. Others are less disciplined and focused.394
Married Life and Divorce
The laws of the different religious groups in Lebanon
govern family matters. Thus marriage and divorce practices
vary among the country’s religious groups. For example,
under Muslim law polygamy is legal (though the rate of
polygamy in Lebanon is low). A man may marry as many
as four women, provided they are treated equally. But
Christianity does not permit polygamous marriage. Among
Muslims, marriage is considered a formal contract and
391
Marie Dhumieres, “Activists Lobby to Change Nationality Law,” Daily Star (Lebanon), 28 July 2011,
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/2011/Jul-28/Activists-lobby-to-change-nationalitylaw.ashx#axzz1TYR8PUtC
392
Timothy L. Gall, ed., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, 2nd ed. (New York:
Gale, 2009), 558–559.
393
As’ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Louis R.
Mortimer (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
394
Ali Akbar Mahdi, ed., Teen Life in the Middle East (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 2003), 121–26.
© D LI F LC | 59
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
often includes a dowry from the bride’s family and a bride price paid by the groom. Catholics
generally cannot divorce, while Muslim divorce is viewed as the end of a legal contract. Some
Christians change religions to obtain divorce.
There is no unified civil law in the country to override the religious
courts on family matters. Some sects allow girls as young as 12 to
marry; others specify a minimum age of 18. For generations, marriage
among first cousins was standard, especially among Muslim groups.
Marriage within the family was seen as a way to ensure the integrity of
potential marriage partners and to keep land inheritance within the
family. Trends in recent decades have shifted away from this tradition,
especially in rural areas. Some sects have always forbidden marriage
among close relatives. Roman Catholic family law has strict rules
against marriage to a close relative.395, 396
Even among differing Muslim groups, there may be diverse attitudes toward marriage. One
example is the Shi’ite acceptance of temporary marriage, also known as pleasure (mutaa)
marriage. Considered heretical by Sunnis, mutaa is a short-term arrangement that allows a
couple to have sexual relations without the stigma attached to relations outside the bonds of
marriage. This arrangement may last only hours or days, and it typically ends with the woman
receiving an agreed-upon bride price. The bride price may be something as inexpensive as a
piece of fruit or something more substantial, such as an apartment. Mutaa has become more
popular in Lebanon in recent years, especially since the 2006 war. Hizballah, in an attempt to
maintain legitimacy and authority among Lebanon’s younger generations, has sanctioned and
regulated the practice. Even among Shi’ites who accept the religious legitimacy of mutaa, many
hold a double standard for men and women participating in the practice. Women without prior
sexual experience as wives (divorcées or widows) who have been in a mutaa marriage are
considered less desirable for traditional marriages.397, 398, 399
Family Events and Rites of Passage
Most rites of passage in Lebanon are religious., Notable rites of passage
for Christians include baptism (often in infancy) and first communion.
There is a party for the baptism (Christening) and guest will bring gold
gifts. First communion marks the time a child first receives the
sacrament of the Eucharist, and it usually takes place before a child turns
395
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, “Gender Equality and Social Institutions in
Lebanon,” 2012, http://genderindex.org/country/lebanon
396
As’ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Louis R.
Mortimer (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
397
Hanin Ghaddar, “The Militarization of Sex: The Story of Hizballah’s Halal Hookups,” Foreign Policy, 25
November 2009, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/11/25/the_militarization_of_sex?page=full
398
Daniel Williams, “Lust in Lebanon, Low Pay Lead to Temporary ‘Pleasure’ Marriages,” Bloomberg, 3 December
2007, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXYlFbn3gGR8&refer=germany
399
Mona Harb and Lara Deeb, “Sanctioned Pleasures: Youth, Piety and Leisure in Beirut,” Middle East Report,
Winter 2007, http://www.merip.org/mer/mer245/sanctioned-pleasures
© D LI F LC | 60
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
9. This event is followed by a large family celebration in which the family offers token presents
to the guests.400
Significant life events such as births and marriages are celebrated by people of all faiths. The
birth of a new child is often celebrated with family and friends. A sweet rice pudding dish, called
meghli, often accompanies these celebrations. Marriage is a major milestone for Lebanese of all
faiths. The wedding celebration is a very important and extravagant party and those who cannot
bear the financial burden of a major celebration often elope. The groom’s family is responsible
for the wedding and trimming down the list of invitees can be a difficult task. Extended family
members who have not been invited are likely to be offended.
Women tend to marry at a younger age than men. It is typical for Lebanese women to marry in
their early twenties, whereas men often do not marry until they are in their late twenties or early
thirties. Arranged marriages continue to occur in some rural areas. The marriage ceremony varies
by religion, but most ceremonies are followed by celebrations that include a first dance for the
bride and groom and food for all the guests.401
Exchange 49: Congratulations on your wedding!
Congratulations on your
Visitor:
wedding!
We are honored to have
Local:
you here.
mabRook inshaa alaah btithanoo !
shaRaftoonaa
Funeral practices also adhere to religious conventions. Muslims typically bury their dead before
sunset on the day of a death. Christians hold funerals several days later. For many Muslims and
Christians, the 40th day after a death is a special day of mourning.402
Exchange 50: I offer my condolences to you and your family.
I offer my condolences to
il 'awaD bislamtak inta wa
Visitor:
you and your family.
'ayltak
Thank you for being with
alaah yeesalmak, wu
Local:
us.
shukRan lozhoodak ma'naa
Naming Conventions
Muslim names largely follow Arabic naming conventions. A
first name may be a popular Quranic figure, such as Ibrahim or
Musa, or may come from Muslim history, such as Muhammad.
Among Shi’ites, Ali, Hassan, and Hussein are especially
popular names. Second and third names are often those of the
person’s father and grandfather. The insertion of the word ibn
400
Timothy L. Gall, ed., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, 2nd ed. (New York:
Gale, 2009), 555–56.
401
Timothy L. Gall, ed., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, 2nd ed. (New York:
Gale, 2009), 555–56.
402
Timothy L. Gall, ed., “Lebanese,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, 2nd ed. (New York:
Gale, 2009), 555–56.
© D LI F LC | 61
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
(son) between names, denoting that one is the son of the person named, is not as common in
Lebanon as in North Africa and the Arab Gulf.403 Some popular names are Arab but not
necessarily religious, including Fouad for men and Zeina for women.
Arab names often begin with the term abdel, meaning “servant (or slave) of.” Abdel often
precedes one of God’s names, as in Abdullah (servant of God) or Abdel-Karim (servant of the
Generous). Allah may also be incorporated in other ways into a last name. For example, the last
name of Hizballah leader Hassan Nasrallah refers to the help or triumph of God.404, 405
Christian names often reflect the French influence in Lebanon. Michel, René, and Émile are
common names for men. Some names are popular among specific sects, such as Elie and Nikolai
among Greek Orthodox Lebanese. Yvonne and Elaine are popular names for older women, while
Mary, Nicole, and Nancy are typical among younger girls. Other Western names such as Charles
and George are ubiquitous. American names including Roy, Kevin, and Mike are growing in
popularity. It is usual in Lebanon for at least one male in a generation to be given the name of his
grandfather, out of respect for the earlier generation.406
403
Margaret K. Nydell, Understanding Arabs: A Guide for Westerners (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc.,
2002), 58.
404
Margaret K. Nydell, Understanding Arabs: A Guide for Westerners (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc.,
2002), 60–61.
405
Hans Wehr, The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 4th ed., ed. J. M. Cowan (Urbana, IL: Spoken
Language Services, Inc., 1994), 1138.
406
As’ad AbuKhalil, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Lebanon: A Country Study, ed. Louis R.
Mortimer (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lbtoc.html
© D LI F LC | 62
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
Chapter 6 Assessment
1. Lebanon’s foreign domestic workers often take some responsibility for child care in the
home.
TRUE
There are nearly 200,000 foreign domestic workers in the country. Many families employ
foreign nationals as domestic workers. With more families moving to a nuclear model
and more women entering the workforce, many domestic workers have taken on a great
deal of the responsibility for child care.
2. Children in Lebanon receive little family support in their personal studies.
FALSE
Both parents support their children in education, sometimes hiring private tutors to help
children succeed in their studies.
3. Children born to at least one Lebanese parent are automatically considered Lebanese
nationals.
FALSE
Lebanon’s nationality law considers only paternity. Children born to a father with
Lebanese citizenship and a non-Lebanese mother are legally Lebanese. But children of a
Lebanese mother and non-Lebanese father are not automatically citizens.
4. Most rites of passage in Lebanon are religious.
TRUE
Notable rites of passage for Christians include baptism (often in infancy) and first
communion.
5. Temporary marriage, or mutaa, is legally binding for at least one year.
FALSE
Mutaa is a short-term arrangement that allows a couple to have sexual relations without
the stigma attached to relations outside the bonds of marriage. This arrangement may last
only hours or days, and it typically ends with the woman receiving an agreed-upon bride
price.
© D LI F LC | 63
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
FINAL ASSESSMENT
1. Watershed from the Litani River covers 20% of Lebanon.
TRUE / FALSE
2. In the 1970s, Beirut served as headquarters for the Palestinian Liberation Organization
(PLO).
T RUE / FALSE
3. All sectarian-based media outlets are illegal in Lebanon.
TRUE / FALSE
4. Economic reconstruction has come at the expense of budget deficits and public debt.
T RUE / FALSE
5. The Lebanese presidency passes from Christian to Sunni to Shi’ite every 6 years.
TRUE / FALSE
6. Most estimates show Christians to be the majority population in Lebanon.
TRUE / FALSE
7. Lebanon’s largest Christian group are the Maronites.
T RUE / FALSE
8. Since the end of the civil war, Muslims and Christians have equal representation in
parliament.
T RUE / FALSE
9. Civil law in Lebanon overrides religious law in all family and social matters.
TRUE / FALSE
10. Easter is the holiest day of the year for Lebanon’s Christians.
T RUE / FALSE
11. Lebanese do not use utensils to eat their meals.
TRUE / FALSE
12. Muslim women are required by state law to wear the chador.
TRUE / FALSE
13. The Lebanese prefer to identify themselves first as Arabs and second as Lebanese.
TRUE / FALSE
14. It is appropriate for a man to shake a woman’s hand.
T RUE / FALSE
© D LI F LC | 64
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
15. Visitors invited to dine should expect to stay and socialize after the meal is over.
T RUE / FALSE
16. More than one in five young people are unemployed.
T RUE / FALSE
17. Most of the Palestinian refugee camps are located near major urban centers.
T RUE / FALSE
18. Public transportation in Lebanon is generally safe.
T RUE / FALSE
19. Less than half of Lebanese children attend primary and secondary schools.
TRUE / FALSE
20. The growth of Lebanon’s cities resulted solely from a migration of rural workers to urban
areas seeking a better life.
TRUE / FALSE
21. Approximately half of all agricultural lands are controlled by less than 1% of the people.
TRUE / FALSE
22. Agriculture accounts for less than 5% of GDP.
T RUE / FALSE
23. Basic medical care is largely unavailable in the countryside.
TRUE / FALSE
24. The smallest unit of local government is the district.
TRUE / FALSE
25. Zuama are politically elected governors.
TRUE / FALSE
26. Individualism is highly regarded in Lebanon, even at the expense of family loyalty.
TRUE / FALSE
27. Revenues sent to family members in Lebanon from Lebanese nationals around the world
outpace the country’s total export revenue.
T RUE / FALSE
© D LI F LC | 65
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
28. Because of lasting resentment of French rule, French names are widely detested among
all groups.
TRUE / FALSE
29. There is no unified civil law in the country to override religious law on family matters.
T RUE / FALSE
30. The practice of temporary marriage, or mutaa, is condoned by some Shi’ite Muslims.
T RUE / FALSE
© D LI F LC | 66
LEBANESE Cultural Orientation
FURTHER READING
Books
Anderson, Betty. The American University of Beirut: Arab Nationalism and Liberal Education.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011.
Deeb, Lara. An Enchanted Modern: Gender and Public Piety in Shi’i Lebanon. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 2006.
Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Thunder’s Mouth
Press/Nation Books, 2002.
Friedman, Thomas L. From Beirut to Jerusalem. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1989.
Gall, Timothy E., and Jeneen Hobby, eds. “Maronites.” In Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures
and Daily Life, 2nd ed. New York: Gale/Cengage Learning, 2009, 632–635.
Gibran, Khalil. The Prophet. New York: Knopf, 1952.
Malaspina, Ann. Creation of the Modern Middle East: Lebanon. New York: Chelsea House,
2009.
Norton, Augustus Richard. Hezbollah: A Short History. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
2007.
Shaery-Eisenlohr, Roschanack. Shi’ite Lebanon: Transnational Religion and the Making of
National Identities. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
Traboulsi, Fawwaz. A History of Modern Lebanon. London: Pluto Press, 2007.
Videos/DVDs
Doueiri, Ziad. West Beirut. 1998.
Labaki, Nadine. Caramel. Paris: Sunnyland Films, 2007.
© D LI F LC | 67