Roisman
Historical Sources in Translation
Ancient Greece from
Homer to Alexander
“This wide-ranging collection of passages from the ancient sources, judiciously selected and edited by
Joseph Roisman, and freshly translated by John Yardley, provides students of Greek history with an
essential corpus of evidence for the period from Homer to the Macedonian conquest of the East. Roisman
and Yardley are richly deserving of our praise and gratitude.”Waldemar Heckel, University of Calgary
“If you want a thorough and expert introduction to the evidence of ancient Greek history – in other words,
to the building blocks of western civilization – read this book.” Barry Strauss, Cornell University
Incorporating fresh, new translations of original Greek and Roman texts and drawing on a range of
sources, including artistic evidence, this sourcebook provides an inclusive and integrated view of Greek
history, from Homer to Alexander the Great.
Linking the political, military, and social history of the Greeks to their intellectual accomplishments,
Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander offers a full and integrated perspective on the period. Rather than
compartmentalizing Greek history and civilization into a number of thematic studies, the book focuses
on important developments, placing them within their political, economic, cultural, and intellectual
contexts, and examining both their influences and their effects.
Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander puts the reader in touch with the raw material of ancient history
and analyzes the importance of this evidence through extensive introductions and explanatory notes. An
accompanying website available at www.wiley.com/go/AncientGreece offers additional evidence and
explanations, as well as links to useful online resources.
Joseph Roisman is Professor of Classics at Colby College. He has authored and edited several books,
among them Brill’s Companion to Alexander the Great (2003) and The Rhetoric of Manhood: Masculinity in
the Attic Orators (2005).
J. C. Yardley is Emeritus Professor of Classics at the University of Ottawa. He has published extensively
on Greek and Roman history and sources. His books include Alexander the Great: Historical Sources in
Translation (ed. with Waldemar Heckel, Blackwell, 2004) and many translations of key texts, from Tacitus
and Justin to Livy and Quintus Curtius Rufus.
Cover image: Detail from black-figure amphora showing the arming
of a warrior, 6th century bce. Photo © RMN / Hervé Lewandowski.
Cover design by Richard Boxall Design Associates
ISBN 978-1-4051-2776-9
Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander
“Students of ancient Greece will respond to this book as John Sheffield (1709) did to Homer: ‘you will
hardly need another book.’ The new compilation of evidence merits the same praise for its range, aids,
and the quality of its illustrations and commentaries.” Carol Thomas, University of Washington
Historical Sources in Translation
Ancient
Greece from
Homer to
Alexander
The Evidence
Joseph Roisman
Translations by J. C. Yardley
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Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander
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Blackwell Sourcebooks in Ancient History
This series presents readers with new translations of the raw material of ancient history. It
provides direct access to the ancient world, from wars and power politics to daily life and
entertainment, allowing readers to discover the extraordinary diversity of ancient societies.
Published
The Ancient Near East
Edited Mark W. Chavalas
The Roman Games
Alison Futrell
Alexander the Great
Waldemar Heckel and J. C. Yardley
The Hellenistic Period
Roger Bagnall and Peter Derow
Ancient Greek Religion
Emily Kearns
Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander
Joseph Roisman; translations by J. C. Yardley
In Preparation
Sexuality in the Classical World
Holt Parker
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Ancient Greece from
Homer to Alexander
The Evidence
Joseph Roisman
Translations by J. C. Yardley
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
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This edition first published 2011
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Translations © 2011 John Yardley
Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s
publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical
business to form Wiley-Blackwell.
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John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ,
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For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how
to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at
www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.
The right of Joseph Roisman to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
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All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks,
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on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services.
If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent
professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Roisman, Joseph, 1946–
Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander: the evidence / Joseph Roisman.
p. cm. — (Blackwell sourcebooks in ancient history)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4051-2775-2 (hardcover: alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-4051-2776-9 (pbk.: alk.
paper) 1. Greece—Civilization—To 146 B.C.—Sources. 2. Greece—History—To 146
B.C.—Sources. I. Title.
DF12.R65 2011
938–dc22
2010025066
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Set in 10/13pt Stone Serif by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India
1
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Contents
List of Illustrations
xxix
List of Maps
xxxi
Preface and Acknowledgments
xxxii
How to Use This Book
xxxiv
Abbreviations
xxxv
Glossary
xxxvii
Greek Weights, Measures, Coins, and the Athenian Calendar
Timeline
xlii
Introduction: The Evidence for Greek History and Culture
I
II
III
The Archaeological Evidence
I.1
Pottery
Coins
The Written Evidence
III.1 Investigation of Sources and Fragments
of Lost Historians
III.2 Herodotus
III.3 Thucydides
III.4 Xenophon
III.5 Diodorus of Sicily
III.6 Plutarch
III.7 The Attic Orators
1 The World of Homer
1.1 A Funeral Scene on a Dipylon Vase
1.2 The Homeric Household (Oikos)
1.3 Women and the Homeric Household
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CONTENTS
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
Slaves and the Homeric Household
The Measure of Happiness
A Household in Trouble
Households and Community
Homeric Leaders
Kings, Council, and Assembly
A Trial Scene
Homeric Values: Honor and Excellence
Reciprocity and Guest-Friendship (Xenia)
A Bust of Homer
2 The World of Hesiod
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
41
Individual, Communal, and Divine Justice
Women and Pandora’s Jar
Household and Marriage
The Value of Labor
Hesiod
2.5.I
Slaves in Hesiod
2.5.II Hesiod on Competitiveness
2.5.III A Bust of Hesiod
The Orientalizing Period
42
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3 The Early Greek Polis (City-State) and the Ethnos
48
2.6
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
The Homeric Polis
A Walled Homeric Polis
An Early Settlement on Andros (Zagora; ca. 700)
Links to Andros and the Azoria Project
Ancient Views of the Origins of the Polis
3.5.A Theseus’ Unification of Attica
3.5.B Aristotle on the Evolution of the Polis
Ethnos: The Ionians
3.6.A Ion’s Ancestors
3.6.B Ionians in the Peloponnese
3.6.C The History of the Ionians
Links of Interest
4 Settlements Across the Sea: Greek “Colonization”
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
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Greek Settlements in the Western Mediterranean
The Settlement at Pithecoussae (ca. 750)
4.2.A The Settling of Pithecoussae
4.2.B The “Nestor Cup”
Livy on the Settlement of Pithecoussae
The Foundation of Cyrene (631)
Herodotus on the Foundation of Cyrene (631)
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4.5.I The Delphic Oracle
4.6 Mother-City and Colony: Corinth, Corcyra,
and Epidamnus (435)
4.7 Settlers and Locals
4.8 Selinus (651/0?)
4.9 Links of Interest
5 Aristocratic Power and Attitudes
5.1 Aristocratic Power and Offices in Athens
5.2 Kings by Merit
5.3 Aristocratic Exclusiveness
5.3.A The Unworthy
5.3.B Do Not Marry a Commoner
5.4 Aristocratic Anxiety
6 Archaic Tyranny
6.1 How Tyrants Attained Power
6.2 The Birth and Rescue of Cypselus
6.3 Cypselus’ Tyranny in Corinth (ca. 650–625)
6.3.A Cypselus’ Harsh Tyranny
6.3.B Cypselus’ Mild Tyranny
6.4 Periander’s Tyranny in Corinth (625–585)
6.5 Additional Information on Tyranny in Corinth
6.6 A Failed Attempt at Tyranny in Athens: Cylon (632)
6.7 Herodotus on Cylon
7 Archaic and Classical Sparta
7.1 Thucydides on the Spartan City
7.2 The Messenian Wars (735–650) and the
Conquered Population
7.3 The Helots
7.3.A Tyrtaeus on the Helots
7.3.B The Helot System
7.4 Eliminating Helots
7.5 The Krypteia
7.6 Lycurgus’ Regulations
7.7 Early Sparta
7.7.I
Crises in Early Sparta
7.7.II Early Economic Disparity in Sparta
7.7.III Lycurgus’ Identity
7.8 The Spartan Government and the Great Rhetra
7.8.A Tyrtaeus on the Spartan Government
7.8.B Plutarch on Lycurgus’ Rhetra
7.9 Spartan Kingship
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CONTENTS
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21
7.22
7.23
7.24
7.25
7.26
7.27
7.28
7.29
7.30
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Xenophon on Spartan Kingship
The Spartan Gerousia (Council)
The Ephors
The Ephors and Theopompus; Aristotle on
the Spartan Government
7.13.I The Ephors and King Theopompus
7.13.II Aristotle on the Spartan
“Mixed” Constitution
State and Family: The Scrutiny of Spartan Babies
The Schooling of Boys
Xenophon on the Schooling of Spartan Boys
Girls’ Education and Rituals
7.17.A Girls’ Education
7.17.B Spartan Maidens and Rituals
7.17.C A Female Spartan Runner
Plutarch on Spartan Girls’ Education and Rituals
Spartan Marriage
Wife-Sharing
7.20.A Xenophon on Wife-Sharing
7.20.B Polybius on Wife-Sharing
Sayings of Spartan Mothers
The Common Messes
7.22.A Xenophon on the Common Messes
7.22.B Plutarch on the Common Messes
Aristotle on the Common Messes
Spartan Equality: Ideology and Reality
7.24.A Lycurgus’ Egalitarian Measures
7.24.B The Similar Ones (Homoioi)?
Courage and Cowardice in Sparta
The Peloponnesian League and Spartan Alliances
7.26.A The Spartans’ Agreement with Tegea
7.26.B The Spartans’ Treaty with Olynthus
Sparta, Arcadia, and Corinth
7.27.I
Sparta Obtains the Bones of Orestes
7.27.II The First Corinthian Opposition
to King Cleomenes I (506)
7.27.III The Second Corinthian Opposition
to King Cleomenes I (504)
King Cleomenes, Plataea, and Athens (519)
King Cleomenes
7.29.I
Cleomenes’ Birth
7.29.II Cleomenes and Argos (494)
7.29.III Cleomenes and Aegina
7.29.IV Cleomenes and Demaratus (491/0)
7.29.V Cleomenes’ Downfall (490–489)
Links of Interest
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CONTENTS
8
Hoplites and Their Values
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
9
Hoplites and Their Weapons
Standing in a Phalanx Formation
Hoplite Battles
Hoplite Ideals
8.4.A Do Not Flee But Stand Your Ground
8.4.B The Worthy Man in War
The Battle of Champions
The Spartan or Hoplite Ideology
Hoplites and Politics
Links of Interest
Archaic Athens From Draco to Solon
9.1
9.2
9.3
Draco’s Law of Homicide (621/0)
Draco’s Harsh Laws
The Background to Solon’s Legislation
9.3.A The Situation Before Solon’s Archonship
9.3.B Solon’s Election
9.4 Solon’s Middle-of-the-Road Policy (594)
9.5 Solon’s Rejection of Tyranny
9.6 Solon’s Economic Regulations: Land and Debts
9.6.A Solon’s Regulations Concerning Debts
9.6.B Solon on His Regulations
9.7 Solon’s Economic Regulations: Export and Trade
9.8 Solon’s Political Regulations
9.8.A Solon’s Classes and Their Respective Offices
9.8.B Solon and Election to Offices
9.9 Solon’s Judicial Regulations
9.10 The Solonian Polis
9.11 A Link to a Bust of Solon
10 Tyranny in Athens
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Solon and King Croesus
Athens after Solon
Rivalry for Power
Peisistratus’ First Attempt at Tyranny (561/0)
Peisistratus’ Second Attempt at Tyranny, His Exile
and Return (556–546)
10.5.A Peisistratus Marries Megacles’ Daughter
10.5.B Peisistratus’ Exile
10.6 Peisistratus in Exile
10.7 Peisistratus’ Tyranny (546–528/7)
10.8 Peisistratus’ Rule; Athenian Coinage
10.8.I Peisistratus’ Mild Rule
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CONTENTS
10.8.II Early Athenian Coins and the City
of Athens Under the Tyrants
10.9 Tyranny and the Athenian Elite: The Archon List
10.10 The Athenian Tyrannicides (514/3)
10.10.A Drinking Songs Honoring the Tyrannicides
10.10.B The Statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton
10.11 Thucydides on the Athenian Tyrannicides
10.12 The Expulsion of the Tyrants (511/0)
11 Cleisthenes and Athenian Democracy (508/7)
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
Cleisthenes and His Opposition
Cleisthenes’ Reforms (508/7)
11.2.A Cleisthenes’ Measures
11.2.B Athenian Demes
Cleisthenes Enfranchises Athenian Residents
Membership in the Deme
Ostracism (Ostrakismos)
11.5.A Trial by Potsherds
11.5.B Ostraka
Ath. Pol. on Ostracism and the Dating
of Its Introduction
Generalship
Athenian Public Building ca. 500
12 Archaic Society and Culture: Gender,
Sexuality, Banquets, and Competition
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
Manly Youth: A Kouros
Homoerotic Couples
Courting Men and Women
Cretan Lovers
A Law Against Courtship of Free Boys by Slaves
Sex, Power, and the Eurymedon Vase
Love and the Symposion
12.7.I Proclaiming Love
12.7.II Symposion, Wine, and Self-Control
12.8 The Banquet (Symposion)
12.9 Competition and the Rewards of Victory
12.9.A A Prize in the Panathenaic Games
12.9.B A Victory Ode
12.10 Greek Games and a Dissenting Voice
12.11 Archaic Women: Sappho on Love
12.11.A “She Left Me”
12.11.B What is Beauty?
12.12 Sappho, Aphrodite, and Phrasiclea
12.12.I Sappho’s Invitation of Aphrodite
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CONTENTS
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
12.12.II A Female Youth
Seducing Maidens
Anacreon’s “Thracian Filly”
Portraits of Wives
Sappho, Andromache, and Agariste
12.16.I Sappho’s Poem on Andromache’s
Arrival in Troy
12.16.II The Marriage of Agariste
13 Archaic Law
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
The Law of Dreros
The Gortyn Law on Sexual Misconduct
The Gortyn Law on Division of Property
Solon’s Laws Concerning Inheritance, Dowry,
Women Outdoors, Parental Support,
and Sexual Misconduct
A Treaty Concerning Seizure of Men Abroad
Changing the Law
14 Archaic Greek Religion
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
Herodotus on Homer and Hesiod’s Contribution
to Greek Religion
Athens Purifies Delos (426/5)
Worship
Greek Temples and the Mysteries
of Demeter in Eleusis
14.4.A The Mysteries and Hades
14.4.B The Macron Cup with Triptolemus
The Hymn to Demeter
The Decree of Offering First-Fruits
in Eleusis (420s)
Links of Interest
15 The Ionian Revolt: Persians and Greeks
15.1
15.2
15.3
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King Croesus
15.1.I Croesus’ Kingdom
15.1.II Croesus and Delphi
Persia and the Ionians
Ionians, Greeks, and Persians
15.3.I
Herodotus on the Ionians and Their
Response to the Persian Occupation
15.3.II Cyrus the Great and Sparta
15.3.III Cultural Exchange between Greeks
and Persians
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CONTENTS
15.4
15.5
The Greek Tyrants at the Bridge (ca. 513)
King Darius I and His Administrative
Reforms
15.6 The Causes of the Ionian Revolt (499–494)
15.6.A Aristagoras’ Naxian Campaign
15.6.B Aristagoras Banishes Tyrants
15.7 Aristagoras’ Rebellion and Histiaeus’ Message
15.8 Aristagoras’ Quest for Help in Greece (500)
15.9 Aristagoras in Sparta
15.10 The Fall of Miletus and Phrynichus’
Capture of Miletus (494)
15.11 The Change of Persian Policy in Ionia
16 The Battle of Marathon (490)
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
Darius Demands Surrender
The Spartans’ Attempt to Atone for
the Killing of Persian Envoys
The Persian Expedition and Athens’ Request
for Help (490)
16.3.A The Persians Arrive at Marathon
16.3.B Athens Requests Help from Sparta
The Battle of Marathon (490)
16.4.A The War Council Before Battle
and the Fighting in Marathon
16.4.B The Persian Cavalry
16.4.C Monuments of the Battle of Marathon
An Attempt to Capture the City with
Alcmeonid Aid?
The Fame of Marathon and Its Commemoration
16.6.A An Elegy on Marathon
16.6.B Aeschylus’ Epitaph
16.6.C The Mound at Marathon
After Marathon
16.7.I
A Link to an Image of a Greek
Soldier Fighting a Persian
16.7.II Aristophanes on the Warriors
of Marathon
16.7.III Miltiades after Marathon
16.7.IV Darius’ War Plans after Marathon
17 The Persian War (480–479)
17.1
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Greek Perspectives of the Persian War
17.1.A The Bridging of the Hellespont
17.1.B Punishing the Hellespont
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CONTENTS
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9
17.10
17.11
17.12
17.13
17.14
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Greeks’ Views of Persians
17.2.I Aeschylus on the Persian Defeat
and Humiliation
17.2.II Plato on Persian Royal Education
and Decadence
Themistocles and His Naval Program
17.3.A Themistocles’ Plan
17.3.B Themistocles’ Naval Project
Herodotus on Themistocles’ Building
of the Athenian Navy
The Athenian Trireme
17.5.A The Lenormant Relief of a Trireme
17.5.B Olympia at Sea
Explanatory Comments on the Athenian Trireme
Greek Responses to Xerxes’ Invasion
Themistocles Initiates the Return
of Ostracized Athenians
The Hellenic Alliance Against Persia
17.9.A The Greeks’ Decisions About the War
17.9.B The Greek Command
The Greek Retreat from Thessaly
and its Aftermath (480)
17.10.A Retreat from Thessaly
17.10.B The Greeks’ Lines of Defense
The Battle of Thermopylae (480)
17.11.A Leonidas’ Plan
17.11.B Leonidas Decides to Stay
17.11.C Commemorating the Spartans
of Thermopylae
From Artemisium to Thermopylae
17.12.I
Herodotus on the Battle
of Artemisium
17.12.II Themistocles Encourages the Ionians
and the Carians to Desert Xerxes
17.12.III Demaratus Informs Xerxes about
the Spartans
17.12.IV The Spartans’ Last Stand
at Thermopylae and Leonidas’ Fate
The Evacuation of Athens
17.13.A The Athenians Ask for a Second Oracle
17.13.B Themistocles’ Decree
17.13.C A Faulty Peloponnesian Strategy
Athens’ Choice
17.14.I
The First Athenian Consultation
of Delphi About Continuing
the War Against Persia
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CONTENTS
17.14.II
17.15
17.16
17.17
17.18
17.19
17.20
17.21
17.22
The Areopagus Helps in the
Evacuation of Athens
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The Battle of Salamis (480)
233
17.15.A Themistocles’ Plan of Battle
234
17.15.B The Persian Movements
235
17.15.C The Battle Plan of Salamis
235
17.15.D Aeschylus’ Description of the Battle
of Salamis
236
The Greeks in Salamis
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17.16.I
Herodotus on the Battle of Salamis
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17.16.II Competing Claims for the Honor
of Fighting at Salamis
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The Battle of Plataea (479)
237
17.17.A Athens Declares Loyalty to the Greek Cause
238
17.17.B The Spartan Expedition to Plataea
238
17.17.C The Plataea Oath
240
Herodotus on the Battle of Plataea
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Commemorating the Battle of Plataea
240
17.19.A Simonides on the Spartans’ Departure
for Plataea
241
17.19.B Dedications to the Gods
241
17.19.C Those Who Fought in the War
242
Pausanias and the Fame of Plataea
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The Battle of Mycale (479)
243
Links of Interest
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18 The Athenian Empire
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
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Rebuilding Athens’ Walls (479/8)
Themistocles and Sparta
18.2.I Themistocles and the Fortification
of Piraeus
18.2.II Themistocles’ Opposition to Sparta’s
Plan to Punish Medized States
Pausanias of Sparta, Athens, and the Allies
18.3.A Pausanias’ Recall
18.3.B The Spartans Relinquish Their Command
18.3.C Aristides and the Ionians
Pausanias Seeks Support from Xerxes
The Formation of the Delian League (478)
18.5.A The Goals of the Delian League
18.5.B Liberating the Greeks
18.5.C Managing the League
18.5.D Establishing the Tribute
Comments on the Delian League’s Original
Annual Tribute and Structure
246
247
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250
251
251
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252
252
253
253
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CONTENTS
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
18.11
18.12
18.13
18.14
Cimon and the Athenian Empire: The Conquest
of Eion, Scyros, Carystus, and Naxos (477/6–465)
18.7.A The Capture of Eion
18.7.B The Capture of Scyros
18.7.C The Subjugation of Carystus and Naxos
Themistocles’ Exile; Cimon and Theseus
18.8.I Themistocles’ Ostracism and Exile
18.8.II Cimon and Theseus
Operations in Asia Minor and the Battle
of Eurymedon (469–466)
18.9.A Cimon’s Successes in Asia Minor
18.9.B The Battle of Eurymedon
18.9.C Eulogizing the Dead of Eurymedon
Cimon in Asia Minor; the Painted Stoa
18.10.I Cimon’s Operations in Asia Minor
(470–467/6)
18.10.II The Painted Stoa and Its Possible
Association with Cimon
Operations in Northern Greece (465/4–463/2)
Sparta’s Wars in the Peloponnese, the Great Helots’
Revolt, and the Mt. Ithome Affair (473–460)
18.12.A Sparta’s Peloponnesian Conflicts
18.12.B The Great Earthquake and the
Messenian Revolt
18.12.C The Debate in Athens over Helping Sparta
18.12.D The Spartans Send the Athenians
Back Home
Leotychidas’ Exile and Pausanias’ Second
Recall and Death
18.13.I
Leotychidas, Bribes,
and Exile (ca. 476)
18.13.II Pausanias’ Second Recall and Death
(ca. 470)
The Messenians Settle Naupactus
19 Empowering Athenian Democracy (462/1–445/4)
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
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Ephialtes’ Reforms (462/1)
19.1.A Ephialtes and the Areopagus
19.1.B The Areopagus after Ephialtes’ Reforms
Aeschylus and the Areopagus; Ephialtes’ Murder
19.2.I Aeschylus and the Areopagus
19.2.II Ephialtes’ Assassination
Blocking Illegal Decrees (Graphê Paranomon)
Examination of State Officials (Dokimasia)
Rendering Accounts (Euthynai)
xv
254
255
255
256
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257
258
259
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261
261
262
263
263
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267
268
268
269
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271
273
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CONTENTS
19.6
19.7
19.8
19.9
19.10
19.11
19.12
19.13
19.14
19.15
Expanding Eligibility to the Archonship
Pericles’ Democratic Measures
Democratic Mechanisms and State Salary (Misthos)
19.8.A Public Pay and Offices
19.8.B Public Wages
Criticism of State Salaries
An Elitist Perspective on Pericles’ Relationship
with the Demos
Pericles’ Citizenship Law (451/0)
19.11.A Philochorus on the Background
of Pericles’ Law
19.11.B Plutarch on the Background
of Pericles’ Law
Ath. Pol. on Pericles’ Citizenship Law
Pericles and Thucydides Son of Melesias
Pericles’ Building Program and Leadership
19.14.I
The Controversy over Pericles’
Building Program and the Ostracism
of Thucydides son of Melesias (444/3)
19.14.II Pericles’ Leadership
Links of Interest
20 War and Peace in Greece (461/0–437/6)
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
20.10
20.11
20.12
20.13
20.14
Roisman_ftoc.indd xvi
Athens’ Clash with Corinth Over Megara (461/0)
Athenian Pride in their Victory over Corinth
The Athenian Expedition to Egypt (460)
20.3.A The Egyptian Expedition
20.3.B Defeat in Egypt
Diodorus on the Egyptian Campaign (460)
Athens Campaigns on Several Fronts (460–459)
Thucydides on Athenian Campaigns in 460–458
The Long Walls (458)
Ancient Accounts About the Long Walls
The Battle of Tanagra (458)
Cimon and the Battle of Tanagra (457)
The Peace of Callias (450?)
Athenian Campaigns 453–451
20.12.I Athenian Campaigns in Western
Greece (ca. 453)
20.12.II Cimon’s Last Campaign (451)
The Peloponnesian Invasion of Attica (446)
20.13.A The Euboean Campaign and the
Peloponnesian Invasion
20.13.B Pericles Bribes the Spartans to Retreat
Pericles Punishes Euboea (446)
274
274
275
276
277
277
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279
279
280
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280
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283
284
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285
285
285
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287
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290
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291
292
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CONTENTS
20.15 The Thirty-Year Peace Between Athens
and Sparta (446/5)
20.15.A Athenian Concessions in
the Thirty-Year Peace
20.15.B The Arbitration Clause in
the Thirty-Year Peace
20.16 The Thirty-Year Peace and Argos’ Neutrality
20.17 Athenian Colonization and the Colony
of Brea (447–445)
20.17.A Athenian Foundations of Colonies
20.17.B The Foundation Decree of Brea
20.18 A Hippodamian City Plan
20.19 The Foundation of Thurii in Italy (444/3)
20.20 The Foundation of Amphipolis (437/6)
21 The Administration of the Empire
and the Athenian Tribute Quota Lists
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
22
The City of Athens
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6
22.7
Roisman_ftoc.indd xvii
The Cleinias Decree
The Tribute Quota List of 453/2
The Erythraean Decree (453/2)
Athens and the Allies
21.4.I Athens’ Intervention in
the Allies’ Affairs
21.4.II Athens’ Jurisdiction Over the Allies
The Samian Revolt (441/0–440/39)
Allies’ Attitudes Toward the Empire
21.6.A Athens’ Services to the Allies
21.6.B Allies’ Enmity Toward Athens
21.6.C A Pragmatic Attitude Toward
the Allies’ Conduct
Pericles’ Public Building
The Parthenon and Athena’s Statue
22.2.I The Statue of Athena Parthenos
22.2.II Pericles, Phidias, and Athena’s Statue
The Acropolis
22.3.I Building the Erechtheum
22.3.II The Athenian Acropolis
The City Dionysia: Religion, Drama, and the State
22.4.I The Dionysian Procession
Dithyrambic Performances
Selecting and Producing Plays
The Theater of Dionysus
xvii
293
293
294
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294
294
295
296
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298
300
301
303
304
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306
306
307
307
308
310
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CONTENTS
22.8
22.7.I
Honoring in the Theater
22.7.II The Theater of Dionysus at Athens
Links of Interest
23 The Sophists, Athenian Democracy,
and Democracy’s Critics
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
23.5
23.6
23.7
23.8
The Sophists’ View of Justice
Right and Might
Justice and Expediency
Sophocles’ Antigone and the Debate with the Sophists
Tyranny and Democracy in Euripides’
Suppliant Women
Democracy and Its Alternatives
23.6.I A Debate over the Merits of Democracy,
Oligarchy, and Monarchy
23.6.II Pericles’ Funeral Oration
Criticizing Democracy
Criticism of the Democratic Use of the Lot
24 The Causes of the Peloponnesian War
and the Athenian and Spartan Strategies
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
24.6
24.7
24.8
Roisman_ftoc.indd xviii
Thucydides’ View of the Causes of
the Peloponnesian War
The Epidamnus and Potidaea Affairs
24.2.I The Epidamnus Affair (436–433)
24.2.II The Potidaea Affair (433–432)
The Megarian Decree (432?), Corinthian Pressure,
and Spartan Demands
24.3.A Thucydides on the Megarian Decree
24.3.B Plutarch on the Background to
the Megarian Decree
24.3.C Corinth Urges Sparta to Go to War
24.3.D The Spartan Demands
Aristophanes on Pericles, Aspasia, and the
Megarian Affair
The Spartan (Archidamian) Strategy
24.5.A Spartan Estimates of the Athenian Reaction
24.5.B Greek Enmity Toward Athens
King Archidamus Advises the Spartans
About the War
The “Periclean Strategy”
24.7.A Pericles on the Athenian Strategy
24.7.B The Superiority of Naval Power
Athenian and Spartan “Characters”
and Strategies
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312
313
314
315
317
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318
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321
322
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323
323
324
325
326
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327
328
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328
329
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CONTENTS
Thucydides on the Spartan and
Athenian “National Characters”
and Their Impact on Strategies
24.8.II Comments on Problems of the
Spartan and Athenian Strategies
xix
24.8.I
25 The Peloponnesian War: The Archidamian War (431–421)
25.1
Athens and the Plague
25.1.A A Mass Grave in Athens
25.1.B Thucydides on Human Conduct
During a Plague
25.2 Pericles’ Conviction; the Plague
25.2.I Plutarch on Pericles’ Conviction
25.2.II Thucydides on the Plague in Athens
25.3 Pericles’ Political Successors
25.4 Athens Opens a Second Front in Sicily (427)
25.5 Nicias and Cleon
25.5.A Plutarch on Nicias
25.5.B Cleon and the Demos
25.5.C Aristophanes on Cleon
25.6 Nicias; Cleon; the Mytilenean Affair
25.6.I
Nicias’ Piety and Munificence
25.6.II Aristophanes’ Depiction of Cleon as
the People’s Watchdog
25.6.III The Mytilenean Affair (428–427)
25.7 The Pylos Campaign (425)
25.7.A Demosthenes’ Plan
25.7.B Sparta Offers Peace
25.7.C The Spartans’ Surrender
25.7.D The Impact of Sphacteria
25.7.E A Spartan Shield from Pylos
25.8 The Battle on the Island of Sphacteria
25.9 Brasidas
25.9.A Brasidas’ Impact
25.9.B Brasidas’ Speech to the Acanthians
25.9.C Athens Punishes Torone
25.9.D Brasidas’ Last Honors
25.10 Yearnings for Peace in Athens
25.11 The Peace of Nicias (421)
25.11.A Athens’ and Sparta’s Motives
for the Peace
25.11.B Selected Terms of the Peace of Nicias
26 Finances and Allies During the Archidamian War
26.1
Roisman_ftoc.indd xix
A Spartan War Fund
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331
332
333
334
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334
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335
336
336
337
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338
338
339
341
341
342
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343
344
345
345
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346
347
350
351
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CONTENTS
26.2
26.3
26.4
26.5
26.6
Athenian Finance: Raising the Property Tax (Eisphora)
352
Raising the Tribute: The Thudippus Decree
353
Cleon and the Allies’ Tribute
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Special Treatment: The Methone Decrees
355
The Athenian Coinage, Weights, and Measures Decree
357
27 The Uneasy Peace and the Sicilian
Expedition (421–413)
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
27.8
27.9
27.10
27.11
27.12
27.13
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Alcibiades
27.1.A Alcibiades at the Olympic Games
27.1.B Alcibiades’ Ambitions and the Athenians’
Attitudes Toward Him
27.1.C Alcibiades and Melos
27.1.D Alcibiades and the Ostracism of Hyperbolus
The Battle of Mantinea (I); the Melian Dialogue
27.2.I The (First) Battle of Mantinea (418)
27.2.II The Melian Dialogue
Egesta and the Origins of the Sicilian Expedition (416)
27.3.A Egesta Requests Help
27.3.B The Decision on the Sicilian Campaign
The Egestans Trick the Athenian Fact-Finding
Mission
The Athenians’ Goals in Sicily
27.5.A Alcibiades Describes the Athenian Goals
and Strategy
27.5.B Athenian Enthusiasm for the Campaign
27.5.C The Athenian Armada
Nicias and Alcibiades Debate the Sicilian
Campaign (415)
The Herms and Mysteries Affairs
27.7.A Andocides on the Plot
27.7.B The Plotters Gather (?)
27.7.C The Confiscation of the Plotters’ Property
Thucydides on the Herms and Mysteries Affairs
Alcibiades Escapes to Sparta
The Athenian Strategy in Sicily; Alcibiades’ Recall
27.10.I
The Initial Athenian Strategy in Sicily
27.10.II Alcibiades’ Recall and the Impact
of His Defection to Sparta
Sparta Enters the War
Athens Sends Reinforcements to Nicias in
Sicily (414)
The Athenian Defeat in Sicily
27.13.A The Athenian Retreat from Syracuse
27.13.B The Massacre at the Assinarus River
360
361
361
362
363
364
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366
367
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368
369
370
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372
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378
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The Fate of Those Captured and
Thucydides’ Review of the Expedition
27.14 Syracusan Naval Tactics Prior to the Arrival of
Athenian Reinforcements (414)
27.15 Links of Interest
xxi
27.13.C
28 The Peloponnesian War: The Decelean War (413–404)
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
Roisman_ftoc.indd xxi
The Spartan Occupation of Decelea (413)
28.1.A Harm from Decelea
28.1.B The Thebans’ Gains
Sparta’s Maritime Strategy and Persia
28.2.A The Persians Offer an Alliance
28.2.B A Spartan–Persian Treaty (412)
28.2.C The Persian King’s Aegean Policy
28.2.D Athenian Anti-Democrats
Contact Alcibiades
Alcibiades in Sparta and Asia Minor
28.3.I Alcibiades’ Affair with Queen Timaea
28.3.II Alcibiades’ Advice to the
Satrap Tissaphernes
The Athenian Oligarchy of 411
28.4.A A Motion to Limit Political Rights
to 5,000 Citizens
28.4.B A Decree Concerning Public Offices
and the Council
28.4.C Unpaid Offices and the Powers of the
5,000 and of the Council of 400
28.4.D Demophantus’ Decree and the
Restoration of Democracy
The Four Hundred Regime and Its Fall
28.5.I
Comments on the Leaders
and Supporters of Overthrowing
Athenian Democracy in 411
28.5.II A Board for Designing a New
Government for Athens
28.5.III The Fall of the Four Hundred
and Athens’ New Constitution
Ransoming Captives and the Selymbrian Decree
(408–407)
28.6.A Ransoming Captives
28.6.B The Selymbrian Decree
A Third Spartan–Persian Treaty; Alcibiades’ Return
28.7.I The Third Spartan–Persian Treaty (411)
28.7.II Alcibiades’ Return and Athenian
Views of Him (407/6)
380
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383
383
384
385
385
386
386
387
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388
389
389
390
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392
393
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CONTENTS
28.8
28.9
28.10
28.11
28.12
28.13
Cyrus the Younger and Lysander of Sparta
28.8.A Cyrus’ Post
28.8.B The Battle of Notium
Cyrus in Asia Minor; Alcibiades’ Exile
28.9.I Cyrus the Younger’s Mission in Asia
Minor (407/6)
28.9.II Alcibiades’ Second Exile
The Arginusae Affair (406/5)
The Battle of Aegospotami (405)
Athens’ Defeat and the End of the Peloponnesian
War (405/4)
28.12.A Lysander Changes the Governments
of the Allies
28.12.B The Samian Decree
28.12.C Sparta Refuses to Destroy Athens
and Her Terms of Surrender
28.12.D Lysander Sails into Piraeus
Honoring the Victor
28.13.A A Dedication in Honor of Lysander
28.13.B Lysander’s Extraordinary Honors
28.13.C An Athenian View of the Defeat
29 The Rule of the Thirty, the Athenian Amnesty,
and Socrates’ Trial
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
29.5
29.6
29.7
29.8
The Establishment of the Rule of
the Thirty (404)
The Thirty Tyrants
The Fall of the Thirty (403)
Critias’ Grave Monument (?)
The Spartans’ Grave at Athens
and the Athenian Amnesty (403)
29.5.A The Battle between the Peloponnesians
and Athenian Democrats
29.5.B The Spartan Grave in Athens
29.5.C The Settlement Between the Democrats
and the Oligarchs
29.5.D Counter-Suit (Paragraphê)
The Reaction of the Spartans and Their Allies
to the Thirty’s Appeal for Help Against the Exiles
Socrates’ Trial (399)
Socrates’ Trial and Image
30 Sparta After the Peloponnesian War: Politics,
Wealth, and Demography
30.1
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The Accession of Agesilaus II (400)
394
394
395
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397
398
399
400
401
401
402
402
403
405
406
407
408
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409
409
411
412
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416
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CONTENTS
30.2
30.3
30.4
30.5
The Cinadon Conspiracy (400/399)
Empire and Wealth in Sparta
Epitadeus’ Law (?) and the Shortage
of Men (Oliganthropia)
30.4.A Epitadeus’ Law
30.4.B Land Ownership and the Shortage
of Male Citizens
Princess Cynisca
30.5.A Cynisca’s Olympic Victories
30.5.B The Cynisca Epigram
30.5.C Agesilaus and Cynisca
31 The Spartan Hegemony, the Corinthian War,
and the Peace of Antalcidas (404/3–388/7)
31.1
31.2
31.3
31.4
31.5
31.6
31.7
31.8
31.9
31.10
31.11
31.12
31.13
31.14
Sparta and Persia
31.1.A Cyrus Requests Spartan Aid
31.1.B Spartan Aid to Cyrus
The Lessons of the Anabasis
Agesilaus’ Asian Campaign and Lysander’s Demotion
31.3.A Agesilaus’ Asian Campaign
31.3.B Agesilaus and Lysander
Lysander’s Alleged Plan to Reform
Spartan Kingship (396)
The Outbreak of the Corinthian War (395)
31.5.A The King Sends Money to Greece
31.5.B Greek Grievances Against Sparta
Criticism of the View that Persian Bribes Led
the Greeks to Fight Sparta
The Loss of Spartan Maritime Hegemony (394)
The Battle of Cnidus (394)
The Dexileus Monument
Peltasts and the Battle of Lechaeum (390)
Iphicrates’ Military Reforms
The Peace of Antalcidas (388/7)
Comments on the Significance of the Peace
of Antalcidas
The Call for a Panhellenic Campaign Against Persia
32 From the Peace of Antalcidas (388/7) to the Battle
of Leuctra and Its Aftermath (371)
32.1
32.2
32.3
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The Boeotian Federation in the Fourth Century
Greek Federations and the Boeotian Federation
Before the Fourth Century
Sparta Dissolves Greek Federations in the Name of
Autonomy
xxiii
417
419
420
421
421
422
422
423
423
425
426
426
427
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428
429
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430
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434
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441
442
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CONTENTS
32.4
32.5
32.6
32.7
32.8
32.9
32.10
32.11
32.12
32.13
32.14
32.15
32.16
33
Xenophon and Diodorus on the Union Between
Argos and Corinth (392–386)
Spartan Occupation of the Cadmea (Citadel)
of Thebes (382)
Views of the Spartans at the Cadmea
32.6.I Diodorus on the Spartan Occupation
of the Cadmea (382)
32.6.II Xenophon on the Spartans’ Fault
in Occupying the Cadmea
The Sphodrias Affair (379/8)
32.7.A Sphodrias Invades Attica
32.7.B Sphodrias’ Acquittal
Plutarch on Sphodrias’ Attempt to Capture Piraeus
The Formation of the Second Athenian
League (378/7)
32.9.A The Decree of Aristoteles
32.9.B Diodorus on the Second Athenian League
32.9.C “Contributions” to the League
Desiring Peace
The Common Peace of 371
32.11.A The Terms of the Common Peace of 371
32.11.B Epaminondas in Sparta
The Sacred Band
The Battle of Leuctra (371)
32.13.A Xenophon on the Battle at Leuctra
32.13.B The Spartan Reaction to
the Defeat in Leuctra
Plutarch on the Battle of Leuctra
The Foundation of Messene (370/69)
The Dissolution of the Peloponnesian League (365)
Jason of Pherae (?–370)
33.1
33.2
33.3
Jason’s Power and Plans
Jason’s Army
Jason’s Ambitions and Assassination
34 The Second Athenian League and Theban Hegemony
34.1
34.2
34.3
34.4
34.5
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Athens’ Treatment of Chalcis (Euboea)
and the Island of Paros (378/7–372)
34.1.A Athens’ Alliance with Chalcis
34.1.B Decrees Concerning Paros
Athens’ Colonization of Samos (365)
Athens’ Treatment of Arcesine (Amorgus; ca. 357/6)
Calls for Peace in Athens (ca. 355–350)
The Theban Hegemony: A Theban Common
Peace (367)
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CONTENTS
34.6
34.7
34.8
Thebes’ Treatment of Orchomenus (364)
Thebes in Achaea and on the Sea
34.7.I Thebes Intervenes in Achaea (366)
34.7.II Thebes’ Maritime Ambitions (364)
The Battle of Mantinea (II; 362)
34.8.A The Battle Lines in Mantinea
34.8.B Indecision in Mantinea
35 Running the Athenian Polis: Politics, Finances,
Grain, and Trade in the Fourth Century
35.1
35.2
35.3
35.4
35.5
35.6
35.7
35.8
35.9
35.10
35.11
35.12
35.13
35.14
35.15
35.16
36
Metics (Resident Aliens), Slaves, and Barbarians
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The Restored Athenian Democracy: Laws and Decrees
35.1.A The Greater Authority of Laws
35.1.B Tisamenus’ Decree
The Fourth-Century Assembly and Council
35.2.A The Assembly’s Agenda
35.2.B An Assembly Meeting
The Presidents of the Assembly and Their Duties
Fourth-Century Democratic Leadership
Plato on Athenian Speakers and Their Audience
The Jury Courts
35.6.A A Defendant’s Difficulties
35.6.B Jurors
State Revenues and Taxation
35.7.A Import Tax
35.7.B Property Tax (Eisphora)
35.7.C Paying the Property Tax
Athens’ Income and a Taxable Property
35.8.I Athens’ Annual Income (ca. 341)
35.8.II The Taxable Property of Demosthenes’
Father
Liturgies
Lightening the Burden: The Antidosis
The Theoric Fund
Financing Military Operations
35.12.A Iphicrates’ Financial Methods
35.12.B “Granting Favors”
The Grain Import
Athens and Grain
35.14.I Athens and Foreign Grain Producers
35.14.II Regulating the Grain Trade
and Its Products
A Law of Coinage Certification
A Maritime Contract
Definition of a Metic
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474
474
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479
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486
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CONTENTS
36.2
36.3
36.4
36.5
36.6
36.7
36.8
Useful Resident Aliens
36.2.I Good Metics
36.2.II Profitable Metics
Slaves and Their Occupations
36.3.I Slaves’ Occupations
36.3.II Bankers and Slaves
Public Slaves: The Scythian Archers
The Treatment of Slaves
36.5.I The Good, Useful Slave
36.5.II A Maid in Charge
Distinguishing the Free from the Unfree
36.6.I
A Slave’s Testimony Under Torture
36.6.II Free Persons Resembling Slaves
36.6.III Fear of Resembling Slaves
Aristotle on Natural Slavery
Contrasting Greeks With Barbarians
36.8.I
Greek and Barbarian Character
36.8.II Greeks, Barbarians, and Freedom
36.8.III War against the Barbarians
37 Masculine and Feminine Gender in Classical Athens
37.1
37.2
37.3
37.4
37.5
37.6
37.7
37.8
37.9
37.10
37.11
37.12
Manly Ideals: The Ephebic Oath
The Manly Body
The Unmanly Man
Aristophanes on Prostitution and Homosexuality
Violence and Men in Love
Artisans and Manual Laborers
Men, Women, and the Household
Wives and Mothers
A Woman’s Lot
Running the Household
A Woman and the Household’s Assets
Virtuous and Unfaithful Women
37.12.A A Woman of Virtue
37.12.B Female Propriety
37.12.C Homicide and Adultery
37.12.D The Killing of Eratosthenes
37.13 Citizenship and the Working Mother
37.14 The Courtesan Neaera
38 Philip II of Macedonia (359–336)
38.1
38.2
38.3
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502
503
504
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507
508
509
511
511
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513
514
514
515
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Philip’s Accession and Challenges to his Rule (359)
522
King Archelaus’ Military Reforms (413–399)
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523
38.3.A Phalanx Formations
524
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CONTENTS
38.4
38.5
38.6
38.7
38.8
38.9
38.10
38.11
38.12
38.13
38.14
38.15
38.16
38.17
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38.3.B Philip’s Coinage
Philip’s Court: Companions and Royal Boys (Pages)
38.4.A Philip’s Companions
38.4.B The Royal Boys or Pages
Philip’s Wives
Philip and the Third Sacred War (356–346)
38.6.A The Phocians Pillage Delphi
38.6.B Diodorus on the Battle of the Crocus Field
Justin on the Battle of the Crocus Field
Demosthenes’ War Plan Against Philip (352/1)
Philip’s Capture of Olynthus (348)
38.9.A Philip’s Capture of Olynthus
38.9.B Plan of an Olynthian House
Demosthenes on a Captive Olynthian Woman (348)
The Peace of Philocrates and the End of
the Third Sacred War (346)
On the Peace of Philocrates; Isocrates Appeals
to Philip
38.12.I On the Peace of Philocrates (346)
38.12.II Isocrates Appeals to Philip to Lead
a Persian Campaign (346)
Athens Proclaims War on Philip (340)
38.13.A Philip Seizes Ships to Athens
38.13.B Philip and Athens Go to War
Demosthenes against Philip; Philip on the Propontis
38.14.I Demosthenes’ Calls to Confront
Philip (343–331)
38.14.II Philip’s Siege of Perinthus
and Byzantium and Persian
Involvement (340)
The Battle of Chaeronea (338)
38.15.A Diodorus on the Battle of Chaeronea
38.15.B Polyaenus on the Battle of Chaeronea
38.15.C Plutarch on the Battle of Chaeronea
38.15.D Reconstructing the Battle
Philip, Elatea, and Chaeronea
38.16.I Philip’s Capture of Elatea in
Central Greece (339)
38.16.II The Monuments of Chaeronea
Philip and the Greeks after Chaeronea (338–336)
38.17.A The Corinthian League
38.17.B The Greeks’ Oath on a Common Peace
38.17.C Alexander’s Treaty with the Greeks
38.17.D The Philippeum
Demosthenes’ Eulogy of the Dead of
Chaeronea (338)
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526
527
528
528
529
530
531
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539
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546
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CONTENTS
38.19 The Murder of Philip II (336) and the Royal
Tombs at Vergina
38.19.A The Death of Philip II
38.19.B The Vergina Royal Tombs
38.20 Justin on Philip’s Assassination
38.21 Links of Interest
39 Alexander the Great (336–323)
39.1
39.2
39.3
39.4
39.5
39.6
39.7
39.8
39.9
39.10
39.11
39.12
39.13
39.14
39.15
39.16
39.17
39.18
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The Destruction of Thebes (335)
39.1.A The Theban Revolt
39.1.B The Punishment of Thebes
Alexander in Asia Minor (334–333)
39.2.A Alexander’s Invading Army
39.2.B Alexander and the Chian Decree
Alexander in Asia Minor
39.3.I
The Battle of the Granicus (334)
39.3.II A Copy of Lysippus’ Statue
of Alexander at the Granicus
39.3.III Alexander and the Gordian Knot
The Battle of Issus (333)
39.4.A Alexander’s Victory at Issus
39.4.B The Alexander Mosaic
Arrian on the Battle of Issus up to Darius’ Flight (333)
Alexander Visits the Oracle of Ammon at Siwa (332/1)
Foundations of Alexandrias
Fire in Persepolis (331–330)
Conspiracy in Court: The Philotas Affair (330)
Alexander Kills the Veteran General Cleitus (328)
39.10.A The Killing of Cleitus
39.10.B Legitimizing Cleitus’ Death
Alexander Turns “Asian”
Alexander’s Adoption of Persian Dress and Customs
Victory in India (326)
Alexander, the Macedonians, Iranians,
and the Opis Mutiny
39.14.A Resentment in the Army
39.14.B The Opis Mutiny and Its Aftermath
The Susa Mass Marriages
Alexander and the Exiles Decree (324)
Alexander’s Death
Alexander’s Last Plans
548
548
550
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556
556
557
557
557
559
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560
561
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565
567
568
569
570
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572
573
573
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576
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References
580
Index of Ancient Sources
613
General Index
618
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