UU CP English 12
West Liberty-Salem High School
Rhetorical Appeals and
Devices Handbook
Second Edition
Section One: Rhetorical Appeals
Greek philosopher Aristotle, in the 4th century B.C.E. wrote On Rhetoric
where he discussed his thoughts on how to persuade people. His ideas
are now the backbone for what we call Rhetoric, or defined as the art and
study of speaking or writing effectively in a formal manner to influence
people. Understanding how someone composed a piece of writing starts
with the basics that Aristotle defined.
Logos
Logic, reasoning, proof
Ethos
Credibility, Trust
Pathos
Emotions, Values
1. Logos
Appeal to Reason – (Greek for 'word') refers to the internal
consistency of the message--the clarity of the claim, the logic of its
reasons, and the effectiveness of its supporting evidence. The impact
of logos on an audience is sometimes called the argument's logical
appeal.
How is this done:
Examples:
2. Ethos
Authority appeal: (Greek for 'character') refers to the trustworthiness
or credibility of the writer or speaker. Ethos is often conveyed through
tone and style of the message and through the way the writer or
speaker refers to differing views. It can also be affected by the
writer's reputation as it exists independently from the message--his or
her expertise in the field, his or her previous record or integrity, and so
forth. The impact of ethos is often called the argument's 'ethical
appeal' or the 'appeal from credibility.’
How is this done:
Examples:
3. Pathos
Emotional Appeal – (Greek for 'suffering' or 'experience') This is when
a writer or speaker attempts to persuade an audience to act or agree
with his or her views by appealing to the audience’s emotions.
Although frequently abused, the emotional appeal is a legitimate
aspect of rhetorical argument, for a speaker wants her or his audience
to care about the issues being addressed.
How is this done:
Examples:
Section Two: Reading for Understanding
Basic Understanding of a Text
Understanding a written work starts with basic categories for analysis.
Most of these are obviously familiar to you, and they are the basic starting
points for reading and decoding a text. Making sense of a text also
includes your ability to reiterate the meaning, so having a language to
evaluate or describe the convention is equally important. When you look at
a text try using these evaluator words which will help clarify your
understanding.
Purpose: Main idea behind a written work. Often not stated, it is the goal of the writer for
the reader. This is usually expressed as a thesis/proposition and developed through claims
(main points). Some basic evaluator words would center around how the writer fulfilled
his/her purpose: clear, plain, evident, complete, sharp, muddled, lacking, etc. When looking
at a purpose, however, this is usually judged through the conventions of writing.
Detail: the author’s use of anecdotes, stories, narratives, generalizations, examples,
description (imagery), observations, and outside sources/research (facts/stats, studies to
support his point. Some evaluative words would revolve around the extent of the detail like:
thorough, complete, full, intensive, exhaustive, lacking, incomplete, scant, meager, sparse
Organization: the manner in which a written work is constructed. In nonfiction, this is usually
achieved through a paradigm, a logical method inherent to reasoning. Inductive and
deductive are the most common approaches to prove a claim; however, many nonfiction
structures are employed. When looking at organization think in terms or flow ideas and
evidence. Organization can also include the use of opposition arguments. Some evaluative
words would include: sprawling, disorganized, plain, solid, jumbled, chaotic, abrupt,
journalistic, logical
Style: Broad category that includes many areas of analysis, including diction, figurative
language, syntax, sentence structure, conventions, tone and voice, etc. The main goal is to
look at the author’s style to see if it fits the purpose. Some evaluative words would include:
flowery (wordy, ornate, elaborate), obfuscating (obscure, ambiguous), explicit (fully
expressed), succinct (precise), rambling, mellifluous (rich flow, lyrical, musical), bombastic
(pompous), incisive (clear/sharp), or laconic (concise, terse), Erudite (knowledgeable),
esoteric (understood by select few), dry, simple (plain, unadorned, commonplace), whimsical
(playful),
Section Three: Rhetorical Devices
Part 1: Basic Devices
Understanding how a writer composes a work means breaking down the
text beyond the basic meaning. After determining the purpose and the
degree of success in achieving this through the use of details and an
understandable organization and style, looking at the writer’s tools can
provide a more thorough understanding. These tools are called Rhetorical
Devices. In this part, most of these categories and terms should be
familiar; however, some of these will be expanded in later parts.
1. Rhetorical modes - This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions,
and purposes of the major kinds of writing. At it’s most simplistic the three
main modes of writing can be determined by the purpose: to inform, to
entertain, or to persuade.
2. Diction: the type of words an author chooses. Like syntax, think of the effect
of words on the reader. For instance, a writer presenting an argument about a
national problem like terrorism may use a myriad of dark, fearful words.
3. Figurative language: language used in a figurative, non-literal way.
Examples: simile, metaphor, hyperbole, understatement, conceit,
personification, etc.
4. Figures of Speech: besides standard figurative language, this also includes
such devices as apostrophe, irony, oxymoron, and paradox.
5. Tone: the attitude of the writer towards the subject. In nonfiction this can
also include the ‘point of view’ of the writer. For instance the tone of a writer
could be humorous, playful, serious, formal, somber, pedantic (bookish),
sarcastic, didactic (instructional), emotional, etc. In some writing, especially
satire and parody, the tone is better understood by looking at Persona.
Persona is the voice or ‘figure’ of the author presenting the discourse, but may
or may not share the same values of the actual writer.
Part 2: Syntax
Syntax: how an author joins words, phrases, clauses and sentences. While diction
focuses on individual words, think of syntax as groups of words. The manner in which a
speaker or author constructs a sentence affects what the audience understands. The
inverted order of an interrogative sentence cues the listener or reader to a question and
creates a tension between the speaker and the listener. Similarly, short sentences are
often emphatic, passionate, or flippant, whereas longer sentences suggest the writer’s
more deliberate, thoughtful response. Very long sentences give a rambling or meditative
tone.
There are four basic functions of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogative,
declarative; and, there are four basic types of sentences: simple, compound, complex,
compound-complex. When analyzing rhetoric, however, it is more effective to look at
the syntax structure of a sentence to determine the strategy of use.
Analyzing Sentence Syntax:

Loose sentence: Makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending.
Here the main or independent clause is first followed by dependent clauses or phrases.
The effect is informal, relaxed or conversational writing.
Ex:

Periodic sentence: Makes complete sense only when the end of the sentence is reached.
Here the main or independent clause is at the end of the sentence preceded by clauses
or phrases. The effect is to add emphasis and variety.
Ex:

Natural order of a a sentence:
 Constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate

Ex:
 

Inverted order of a sentence:
Constructing a sentence so the predicated comes before the subject
Ex:
Analyzing Sentence Structures:
1. Antithesis:
Figure of balance in which two contrasting ideas are intentionally juxtaposed, usually
through parallel structure; a contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent phrases, clauses, or
sentences. Antithesis creates a definite and systematic relationship between ideas.
Ex:
2. Anaphora: (uh-naf-er-uh)
One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated at
the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.
Ex:
3. Asyndeton:
consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. This can give
the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, of an extemporaneous rather than a labored
account. Asyndetic lists can be more emphatic than if a final conjunction were used.
Ex:
4. Parallelism: Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure. It refers to the
grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give
structural similarity. This can involve repetition of a grammatical element such as a
preposition or verbal phrase. Parallelism is used to draw a reader’s attention but it also
provides organization and rhythm.
Ex:
5. Polysyndeton:
Figure of addition and emphasis which intentionally employs a series of conjunctions (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so) not normally found in successive words, phrases or clauses; the
deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions in successive words or clauses. The effect is a
feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up – a persistence or intensity.
Ex:
6. Repetition - The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language,
such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern for rhythmic or
rhetorical effect.
Ex:
Analyzing Sentence Questions:
1. Hypophora:
raising one or more questions and then proceeding to answer them, usually at some length.
A common usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that
paragraph to answer it. This is an attractive rhetorical device, because asking an appropriate
question appears quite natural and helps to maintain curiosity and interest.
Ex:
2. Loaded question:
a question that presupposes some unwarranted assumption
Ex:
3. Rhetorical Question:
a question with either no answer or an obvious answer designed to emphasis a
point, to create thought, or to appeal to common sense.
Ex:
Part 3: Meaning in Usage
Writers use rhetorical devices to help frame their ideas in new ways for a reader’s
understanding. Furthermore, they also use devices in strategic ways in order to
persuade and win favor. For instance, a writer may use a metaphor comparing the
violence in America today to the old west. In describing the drug epidemic in America, a
writer could allude to opium dens (a reference to recreational Chinese parlors in the
15th century). Some devices are used to have an emotional impact on the reader,
positively or negatively. Whatever the reason, the following devices are some of the
most utilized, but they require readers not only to understand the definition but analyze
how and why they are being utilized by the writer. In this way, the context of how the
device is used will affect it’s meaning.
1. Allusion:
a brief reference to a person, place, event, or passage in a work of literature or the
Bible assumed to be sufficiently well known to be recognized by the reader
Ex:
2. Analogy:
A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An
analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity
to something more familiar.
Ex:
3. Dysphemism:
a term with a negative association that is substituted for one with a positive or
neutral association Ex) rebel/ insurgent Ex) shacking up/ living in sin
Ex:
4. Euphemism:
Substitution of a milder or less direct expression for one that is harsh or blunt. For
example, using "passed away" for "dead."
Ex:
5. Hedge Words:
an expression used to protect a claim by weakening it
Ex:
6. Innuendo:
an implicitly critical suggestion (i.e., criticism “ between the lines”)
Ex:
7. Litotes:
Form of understatement in which the negative of the contrary is used to achieve emphasis
and intensity. For example, "She is not a bad cook." Or "No man ever followed his genius
until it misled him." Thoreau
Ex:
8. Metonymy:
A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name.” Metonymy is a
figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely
associated with it. A news release that claims “the White House declared” rather that “the
President declared” is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more
potent emotional response.
Ex:
9. Sententia:
quoting a maxim or wise saying to apply a general truth to the situation; concluding or
summing foregoing material by offering a single, pithy statement of general wisdom
Ex:
10. Stereotype:
an oversimplified generalization about every member of a certain category
Ex:
11. Synecdoche:
is a type of metaphor in which the part stands for the whole, the whole for a part, the
genus for the species, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made, or in short,
any portion, section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself (or vice versa).
Ex:
Part 4: Argument Devices
A final category for rhetorical devices are those that influence an argument. Typically,
most writers compose in order for their ideas to be accepted by the reader. When
composing arguments, writers will utilize the basics of argument, such as stating a
proposition and claims, employing a structure to the claims, appealing to reason, and
presenting evidence, but there are some other devices employed as strategies.
1. Procatalepsis:
anticipating an objection and answering it. This permits an argument to continue
moving forward while taking into account points or reasons opposing either the train of
thought or its final conclusions. Often the objections are standard ones:
Ex:
2. Proof Surrogate:
an expression that suggests evidence without actually citing it
Ex:
3. Rhetorical Definition:
a definition designed primarily to affect beliefs, attitudes, or behavior, not to articulate an
accurate meaning
Ex:
4. Syllogism
A. is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the firs one called
“major” and the second, “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. B. Deductive
reasoning; or C. Extremely subtle, sophisticated or deceptive argument.
Ex:
Rhetorical Devices
Practice 1
Directions: Identify the following rhetorical device definitions or examples using the listed terms
available. In each part, one term will not be used.
Part 1 word bank:
A. Anaphora
D. Syllogism
B. Hedge Words
E. Analogy
C. Stereotype
F. Innuendo
______1. an oversimplified generalization about every member of a certain category
______2. A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between
them; can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing
out its similarity to something more familiar.
______3. One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is
repeated at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.
______4. a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the firs one called
“major” and the second, “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. B.
Deductive reasoning; or C. Extremely subtle, sophisticated or deceptive argument
______5. an expression used to protect a claim by weakening it
Part 2 word bank:
A. Hypophora
D. Litotes
B. Procatalepsis
E. Metonymy
C. Dysphemism
F. Asyndeton
______ 1. “We cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground.”
______ 2. Before they were married, they had an apartment together living in sin.
______ 3. What behavior, then, is uniquely human? My theory is this . . . .
______ 4. After his trial he was sent to the big house.
______ 5. Some may say that this whole scandal is just political posturing, but if you look at the
issues surrounding it, you will see it’s importance.
Rhetorical Devices
Practice 2
Directions: Identify the following rhetorical device examples using the listed terms available.
One term will not be used.
word bank:
A. Litotes
E. Sententia
I. Hedge Words
B. Polysyndeton
C. Loaded Question
D. Analogy
F. Anaphora
G. Euphemism
H. Synecdoche
J. Rhetorical Question
K. Dysphemism
L. Metonymy
______1. The assassin was not unacquainted with danger.
______2. "Being in politics is just like playing golf: you are trapped in one bad lie after
another."
______3. The captain cried, “All hands on deck!”
______4. If you spend too much time planning on tomorrow, how can you live for today?
______5. I bought a pre-enjoyed vehicle yesterday.
______6. It was just a mistake, remember “to err is human but to forgive is divine. . .”
______7. If we draw your name, you’ll get an all-expenses-paid trip to New York City.
______8. I loved Thanksgiving dinner. I ate the turkey, and the stuffing, and the cranberries,
and the mashed potatoes, and the rolls and the pumpkin pie.
______9. These terrorists were out all night protesting, angry at the cop who shot the black teen.
______10. So when will this candidate stop his war on women’s health?
______11. “The true nature of man, his true good, true virtue, and true religion are things which
cannot be known separately.” --Pascal
Rhetorical Devices Review
1. Each group will create an example of an assigned rhetorical device and then write it on a half
sheet of paper folded once. Do not write the answer, group number or anything else but the
example on the paper. Write the group and assigned words on the board.
2. Facilitators will then bring papers to be combined and mixed up.
3. Facilitator will then randomly select a piece of paper. After sharing with the group, the
members will decide on the right answer. The Reporter will read the example to the class and
then share the group answer. The original group who created will then answer yes/no. If the
answer is no, the group must find a new answer (although they will now know which group had
the word since they are on the board).
Assigned Words
Group 1: Allusion, Euphemism, Procatalepsis
Group 2: Analogy, Hedge Words, Metonymy
Group 3: Anaphora, Hypophora, Proof Surrogate
Group 4: Antithesis, Innuendo, Rhetorical Definition
Group 5: Asyndeton, Litotes, Sententia
Group 6: Dysphemism, Polysyndeton, Synecdoche
Extra: Each member will write a periodic or loose sentence on another half sheet of paper.
These then are distributed in a clockwise fashion to the next group. The group will identify on
the paper the sentence type. The original group will confirm.
Challenge: These sentence must be over 40 words long and still be grammatically correct.
Notes