The Institution of Social Science
The Olympic Games –
An Instrument for Environmental Political
Change.
- A case study exploring the Environmental Political approaches of the
Olympic Games – with special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games
in Beijing.
Lukas Karlsson
Master Essay, 15p
University of Kalmar
Autumn 2009
Tutor: Gunnar Hansson
The Institution of Human Sciences
Social Sciences 61-90p
UNIVERSITY OF KALMAR - SWEDEN
The institution of Social Science
Project: Master Essay 15points
Title: Olympic Games – An instrument for Environmental Political
Change?
-A case study exploring the Environmental Political views of the Olympic Games – with
special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games in Beijing.
Author: Lukas Karlsson
Tutor: Gunnar Hansson
ABSTRACT
The essay´s aim was to explore the complex political environmental opinions and
opportunities to use the Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political
changes, with special focus on the 2008 summer Olympics Games in Beijing.
In the light of two environmental political theories (The Green Business and Critical
Ecology Theories) The International Olympic Committee's (The IOC) third pillar, the
environment, the Beijing Olympic Committee 's motto (BOCOG) “Green Olympics”
and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO:s) such as Greenpeace and their motto
“Green Games” have been reviewed. The aim was to see the organisations aim to use the
Beijing Olympics as a tool for environmental political changes.
The study involves six qualitative interviews, one group interview, one written
questionnaire and participating observations, during an eight week field study, during
the Beijing Olympics in 2008.
The conclusion of the study demonstrates that the Olympic Games can be used as
important instrument to address the organisations environmental work toward a
“Greening” of Olympic cities with firstly technical measures under political control.
The Olympics are also used as an instrument to raise the environmental awareness of the
public in Beijing and China.
The City of Beijing was seen as a showcase of green standards hopefully to be spread
nationally. The “Greening of Olympics” is still though a complex social and scientific
matter. Countries and cities have different conditions, knowledge, interests and
ambitions. Universal standards are not always universally understood.
Keywords: Green Olympics, Green Games, Beijing Olympics, The Olympic Games,
The International Olympic Committee, Environmental Political Theories.
CONTENTS
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................ 5 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 6 1.1 PROBLEM DISCUSSION AND PURPOSE ................................................ 8 1.1.1 How can the Beijing Olympic Games be used as an Instrument for
Environmental Political Changes? ............................................................................ 8 1.2 Environmental Political Theories .................................................................. 9 1.2.1 The Development of Environmental Politics – a Modern Historic
Overview?.................................................................................................................. 9 1.2.2 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................... 10 1.2.3 The Green Business Theory ........................................................................ 10 1.2.4 The Criticism of the Theory ........................................................................ 12 1.2.5 The Critical Ecology Theory ....................................................................... 12 1.2.6 The Criticism of the Theory ........................................................................ 13 1.2.7 The theoretical Framework as Guidance ..................................................... 14 1.3 Method ............................................................................................................ 14 1.3.1 The Case Study Method .............................................................................. 15 1.3.2 Yin´s Method as Guidance .......................................................................... 15 1.3.3 The Preparation and the Carrying out of the Case study ............................. 16 1.3.4 Selection of Participators ............................................................................. 16 1.3.5 Literate Research ......................................................................................... 19 1.3.6 The Interviews ............................................................................................. 19 1.3.7 The Participant Observations....................................................................... 21 1.3.8 Method Discussion ...................................................................................... 21 2 BACKGROUND: THE OPINIONS OVER A GREEN OLYMPICS .............. 23 2.1 The International Olympic Committee ....................................................... 23 2.1.1 The International Olympic Committee and its Ideals.................................. 23 2.1.2 Olympism and Cultural Differences ............................................................ 25 2.2 The Third pillar of the Olympism, the Environment ................................. 25 2.2.1 Former Olympic Games Environmental Initiatives, a Brief Review .......... 26 2.2.2 IOC and its Environmental Guidelines........................................................ 27 2.2.3 The Environmental Approach in the Applicant Process for The Olympic
Games. ..................................................................................................................... 28 2.2.4 The Introduction of the Term “Green Games” ............................................ 28 2.2.5 The IOC Environmental Approach – a Conclusion: ................................... 30 2.3 China and its Environmental status – a Modern Historical Overview. ... 31 2.3.1 Future Challenges for China ........................................................................ 33 2.4 Beijing Olympics - “Green Olympics”........................................................ 34 2.4.1 Beijing’s Application and the Transformation toward a “Green Olympics”.
34 2.4.2 Beijing’s Bid and its Political Views........................................................... 35 2.4.3 The “Green Olympics” Process and Participators ....................................... 36 2.4.4 An Overview of Beijing’s Plan of the “Greening of the Olympics” ........... 37 2.4.5 Conclusion over the BOCOG “Green Olympic and Action Plans. ............. 38 2.4.6 The NGO:s Perspective Toward the Beijing Olympics .............................. 39 2.4.7 The Result of the “Green Olympics” - and the Work Beyond the Olympics
40 3 ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS TOWARD GREEN
OLYMPICS.................................................................................................................... 44 3.1 Environmental Changes in the Combination with the Organisations´
Culture and Interests. ............................................................................................... 44 3.1.1 The Vision of an Impressive Olympics ....................................................... 45 3.1.2 The Observations ......................................................................................... 46 3.1.3 Analysis and Interpretation.......................................................................... 46 3.2 “Green Olympics” – Who shall have the Political Control? ..................... 47 3.2.1 Observation - The Political Control ............................................................ 49 3.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation - Green Olympics and the Political Control .... 49 3.3 Technical improvement under Political Control ........................................ 50 3.3.1 Observation- Technical Improvements ....................................................... 51 3.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation of Technical Improvements ............................ 51 3.4 Peoples Olympics – The Olympic Games as an Instrument for Public
Awareness, toward an Ecological Lifestyle! ............................................................ 52 3.4.1 Observation - Raised Awareness ................................................................. 53 3.4.2 Analysis and Interpretation - Awareness ..................................................... 53 4 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 55 4.1 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 58 4.1.1 Own Reflections .......................................................................................... 61 4.1.2 Suggestions for Future Research ................................................................. 62 4.1.3 Weaknesses in the Result ............................................................................ 62 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 63 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………...65
TABLES
Table 1: Analyse schedule: The theoretical Framework as Guidance ............................14
Table 2: Table based on Yin´s case study structure………………...………………….15
Table 3: A summary over the organizations aims, goals and environmental
political discourse………………………………………………………………………55
APPENDIX
Interview guide
PREFACE
In May 2007, I spent ten days in Beijing and the nearby areas during my holiday.
Buildings, subways and sport arenas were under construction for the upcoming
Olympics. One year later, in the summer of 2008, I had the big honour of coming back
to China to conduct a Minor Field Study (MFS) - an eight week field study aiming to
shed a light over whether and who the Beijing Olympics were used as a political
instrument for environmental progress.
I must thank all participants and friends in China. The conducting of the field study in
the right context have left me with many memorises and interesting knowledge that will
follow me during a long time.
Respondents:
Ms Amy Chang, Greenpeace China, Beijing, Ms Zee Zee Zhang, Roots and Shots ,
Shanghai, Mr Liajian Zhen, Fuping Development institute, Beijing.
Ms Michelle Lemaitre, The International Olympic Organisation.
Mr Zhang Jun, Lenovo group, Beijing.
Jim, volunteer leader and the volunteers Sunny, Memory, Karen, Ivy, Sunrise,
Beijing. Mr Ola Wong, Correspondent, Svenska Dagbladet, Sydsvenska Dagbladet,
Shanghai
Informants:
Ms Marie Carlsson, Sinologist, University of Gothenburg.
Ms Annika Siewert, SIDA consult, Beijing
Ms Linda Andersson, International Office of Kalmar.
Ms Maria S Jonsson, Swedish Church in China.
Ms Gunilla Lindberg and Mr Stefan Lindeberg Swedish Olympic Organisation.
Mr Gunnar Hansson, tutor, University of Kalmar.
Friends
Chu Ly – for your hospitality when taking care of a confused and nervous foreigner
when he first arrived to China!
Peter Carlsson, for taking your precious time, guiding me through the jungle of English
grammar. You are a good friend and superb English teacher!
....And Jenny, for your support and patience during this busy period with a full time
work and essay writing!
Thank you all for your assistance and helpfulness during this essay. Without your
help this study could not have been written. Thank you!
5
1
INTRODUCTION
In 1987, The Bruntland report was released. The report was concerned over the situation
where the struggle for economic growth did not take environmental protection under
enough consideration. The importance of simultaneously combining the environment
and its natural resources and with economical, social and political development,
particularly linked to the benefit of the poorest members of society must be raised.
Many undeveloped countries saw the report as an instrument in their process toward
western standards. 1 Environmental concerns and the debate concerning international
commitments to solve these matters are very important questions on the International
political agenda. Environmental politics is though a very complex social and scientific
matter, where different countries have different knowledge, concerns and goals.
The Olympic Games is a large event which during the years has grown to become one of
the worlds must powerful events. The International Olympic Committee with its main
display, The Olympic Games has acknowledges environmental questions. During the
mid 1990ties the philosophy of Olympism with its two pillars, Sport and Culture was
joined with another pillar, the Environment. According to The IOC, the Olympic Games
shall be arranged in balance with the environment. It shall not have a negative impact; it
should instead give opportunities to provide sustainable environmental legacies. These
positive legacies must remain after the games, not only for the host cities but also for the
whole country. 2 The Olympic Movement wants to use the Olympic Games as a
instrument for positive environmental legacies. Former Olympics such as Los
Angeles(1974) and former Olympics in the Asian region, in South Korea(1988) and
Japan(1960) have shown that the Olympics, can be an effective mechanism for reaching
economic and political goals, such as economic growth, increasing the image of the host
city and legitimacy for the government hosting the games. 3
But it is not only the IOC that puts the environmental questions on the agenda.
Campaigning host cities have since the mid 1990ties been forced to emphasise the
environmental perspectives in their application. In 2001, the City of Beijing won the
battle to host the 2008 years Summer Olympic Games. In Beijing’s application the
environmental aspect played an important role. Beijing’s bidding committee declared
that the Olympic Games would make a positive change on China's environmental status.
The Beijing bidding committee claimed that their environmental plans and actions will
leave “The greatest Olympic Games Environmental legacy ever.” 4
However, the media, different organisations and athletes criticised the environmental
status in China, such as the high level of pollution, which could seriously harm the
1
Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press.
The International Olympic committee ( 2007) Going Green. Olympic Review Magazine. Internet:
www.olympic.org/upload/news/olympic_review/review_20071030115557_UK.pdf The IOC(2007) Olympic Charter. Internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf
3
Horne, J – Manzenreiter, W (edt 2006) Sports mega-events : social scientific analyses of a global
phenomenon . Blackwell Pub./Sociological Review.
4
UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An environmental Review. Internet:
http://www.unep.org/sport_env/Documents/BeijingReport07/Chapter1.pdf, p 4
2
6
athletes’ health during the Olympics. 5 Despite the criticism of the environmental status,
Beijing and its environmental approach towards a “Green Olympics” gained a strong
support from the IOC and the evaluation commission.
Beijing currently faces a number of environmental pressures and issues, particularly air
pollution. However, it has an ambitious set of plans and actions designed and
comprehensive enough to greatly improve overall environmental conditions. 6
One though, has to consider that China's economic growth, from a very poor
undeveloped country to a richer country, has not been achieved in balance with the
environment development. China is only ranked at place number 133 of 146 on the
environmental index for durable development. Concerns such as air pollution, water
waste and lack of rechargeable energy consumption are growing problems for China and
the government. 7 The Chinese government is currently well aware of these problems
and has made some reforms to improve the situation. 8 The Beijing Olympic Games and
its motto “Green Olympics” and “greening of the city of Beijing”- can be seen as one
way to put the environmental concerns on the agenda.
The Olympic Games is a large and powerful event that since the mid 90ties embraced an
environmental approach. This study will focus on different organisations and their
environmental approach. Firstly, The International Olympics Committees (The IOC) and
their third pillar of Olympism, the environment. Furthermore, the study also will focus
on the Beijing Olympic Committee's (BOCOG) and Non-Governmental Organisation's
(NGO:s, Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots, Shanghai and Fuping Development
Institute, Beijing) works and polices towards a “Greening of the Games”.
The analysis will be carried out on political theories concerning the environment. The
study includes a literary research, participant observations and formal interviews with
participants with knowledge of the “Green Olympics” and its environmental approach.
5
Telegraph UK Internet: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3311716/Beijing-pollution-stillmajor-Olympic-concern.html, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/sports/othersports/11olympics.html,
6
UNEP 2007, p 2
7
SIDA(2009) Internet. http://www.sida.se/sida/jsp/sida.jsp?d=540
8
Sweden aboad(2007) Kinas miljö – situationen och utmaningarna . Internet:
http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/Miljoerapport_070427.pdf
7
1.1
PROBLEM DISCUSSION AND PURPOSE
The environmental status in the world is under pressure. Different reports have criticised
the lack of simultaneously combining the environment and its natural resources with
economic, social and political development. In the globalised world countries,
organisations and the public has become more aware of these problems. The
environment affects us all around the world. The environmental concerns are though put
on the agenda. The awareness has been raised by governments, companies and
organisations which now proudly are proclaiming their responsibilities for the
environment. The political environmental work is though a very complex matter when
different actors are processing this political question from different perspectives,
knowledge and visions. Andrew Jamison equalises environmental political theories to
other political theories. It operates with different interests that translates or interprets
global doctrines in its context (local- national).9 Actors have different interests and
goals with their environmental work.
The Olympic Movement with its main display, the Olympic Games is an important actor
in the International sphere, which since the mid 90ties acknowledges and invited in the
environment as the third pillar of Olympism. The Olympic Games hosted at different
location and countries can therefore be used by different participators as an instrument
for environmental political changes. In 2008, The city of Beijing hosted the Olympics.
The IOC:s choose to let a rapidly growing city, in a rapidly growing country, host the
Olympic Games was discussed. The environmental perspectives of the Olympics,
Beijing’s and Chinas environmental concerns were now highlighted. The essays purpose
is to review whether and how the Beijing Olympic Games are used as instrument for
environmental political changes.
The case study will put focus on The International Olympics Committees(The IOC),
Beijing Olympic Committee's (BOCOG) and Non-Governmental Organisation's
(represented by Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots, Shanghai and Fuping Development
Institute, Beijing) works and polices towards a “Greening of the Games”. The analysis
will be carried out of the two political theories, The Green Business Theory and the
opposite theory, the Ecological Resistance theory (Critical Ecology theory).
1.1.1
How can the Beijing Olympic Games be used as an
Instrument for Environmental Political Changes?
The study attend to explore the different views of political environmental discourses,
exemplified by The IOC, The BOCOG and NGO:s organisations, which are used in the
accordance to the Beijing Olympic Games. The Analysis will be carried out in the light
of the political theories, The Green Business theory with its three discourses; Nature
Capitalism, EcoEffiency and Ecological Modernism discourse. And the opposite pole
Ecological Resistance (Critical Ecology) with its three discourses Local Activism,
Professional Activism and Personal Activism (All theories are explained further in
chapter 1.2.2).
9
Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press.
8
The International Olympic Committee´s third pillar, the environment, The Beijing
Olympics Committee´s motto “Green Olympics” and Non-governmental Organisations,
represented by Greenpeace, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development Institute will be
reviewed in the light of environmental political theories. To limit the length of the
research, the following questions have been used as guidance.
•
What environmental political views are apparent in the three category groups’
environmental approaches to use the Beijing Olympic Games as an instrument
for environmental political changes?
•
As a result from the analysis of question one, can any conclusions be drawn if
and why the groups have different views, concerning the Beijing Olympic
Games as an instrument for environmental political changes?
1.2
Environmental Political Theories
The content of this chapter is to explore the environmental political theories that will
work as a theoretical framework and guidance in the analysis of the case studies results.
1.2.1
The Development of Environmental Politics – a Modern
Historic Overview?
Two different poles concerning the world of environmental politics will be used as a
theoretical framework. The first theory (pole) is The Green Business theory with its
three different discourses, ecoefficiency, nature capitalism and ecological modernism.
The other theory (pole) is The Ecological Resistance or Critical Ecology with its
different activisms such as local, professional, military and personality activism. In the
end of the chapter a summary and an analysis schedule over the theoretical framework
will be introduced. At first, an overview of the historical process of environmental
politics and the term sustainable development will be illustrated.
According to Corel & Söderberg one can summarise the environmental political process
in three important conferences about the environment. Firstly, In 1972 - Sweden took an
initiative for an international conference about the Environment and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in Stockholm. 113 countries declared
their collective responsibility for the world’s environment using “Only one earth” as
their motto. The mission of the UNEP was to coordinate environmental questions in the
UN and to take initiatives in the international work. In Stockholm Indira Gandhi, the
prime minister of India - made a famous and important statement when she declared
that the undeveloped countries have to develop their economy before they can consider
to protect the environment. The Stockholm conference raised the international awareness
of the environmental questions. 10
10
Correll, E – Söderberg, H(2005) Från miljöpolitik till hållbar utveckling – en introduktion. Liber .
Malmö.
9
The report “Our common future” was released in 1987 and the idea of sustainable
development had its breakthrough. 11 The report is also known as The Bruntland Report
described that in the future; “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” 12 The
development shall give long-term preservations of our environment and our lifestyle.
The report also described the importance of simultaneously combining the environment
and its natural resources with economic, social and political development, particularly
linked to the benefit of the poorest members of society. The idea of “Sustainable
development” has both had its faults and praises. It has been criticised for being a weak
term, meaning all or nothing – but others have praised the idea for being all embracing
and its use in political contexts. Many undeveloped countries saw the report as a way for
all countries to succeed in their process to western standards. Hence, the report became
very important. Sustainable development can as Corell & Söderbergh describes be seen
as a goal for how the society should strive to improve our living conditions. 13
The Bruntland report was the ignition key to the Agenda 21 agreement in Rio de Janeiro,
the 2nd conference, in 1992. Agenda 21 was an agreement of action to be taken globally,
nationally and locally by organisations such as the UN, governments, and local groups in
areas where humans have impact on the environment. In Johannesburg, the third
conference the international society reviewed the implementation of the Agenda 21. The
perspective had changed from initially focusing on human environment, to concentrating
on the connection between environment and economic growth. Correl & Söderberg
describes the period 1992-2002, as a time when attempts were made to combine the
handling of resources in a sustainable matter in the practical implementation. Energy and
money were spent on environmental and developing matters
These three conferences (Stockholm, Rio de Janeiro, and Johannesburg) resulted in the
perspective of today, where the three pillars environment, social and economic factors
and importance of cooperation, were established. All these must function together. 14
1.2.2
Theoretical Framework
Andrew Jamison equalises environmental political theories to other political theories, as
it operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its
context (local – national). Jamison is discussing two opposite poles concerning the world
of environmental politics. He discusses the theory of Green Business and the opposite
theory, the Ecological Resistance or Critical Ecology. These two opposites will be
described below and used as guidance in the analyses of in the result chapter. 15
1.2.3
The Green Business Theory
The green business theory seeks to redirect environmentalism into a profit-making
direction. Sustainable development is important in the process of global corporate
11
Ibid
United Nations World Commission on The Environment and Development (1987)Our common future.
Internet: http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm
13
Correll – Söderberg, 2005
14
Ibid
15
Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press.
12
10
expansion. The green business theory has transformed from the change of peoples´
involvement in environmental questions. Jamison explains these changes in the
environmentalism as a “positive- sum game”. Economic growth can be combined with
or even strengthen by means of environmental improvements. A term as “natural
capitalism”, where economic activity can be adapted to ecological laws and principles
are nowadays more common. Companies and other global participators are proudly
proclaiming their environmental measures and how they take their responsibility to
create a sustainable development. The green business theory approach is often
summarizes in three different discourses, ecoefficiency, nature capitalism and ecological
modernism. 16
The Ecoeffiency
The companies' approach is to combine environmentalism with the company’s culture.
The strategy is not to change too much. Instead the product process shall be more
environmentally friendly with help of technical measures and most of, a higher
efficiency concerning energy and resource consumption. 17
Nature Capitalism
In the nature capitalism, the strategy is to reduce the pressure on the environment.
Technical solutions are not enough, a new economic and industrial structure must
develop in order to succeed. The schools spokesman are talking about the “factor-ten”,
where the resource and energy consumption will be reduced by ten percent from the
current level. Changes must proceed in many spheres and the result can not be achieved
by only technical improvements. 18
The Ecological Modernism
The ecological modernism is quite similar to the ecoefficiency discourse. The discourse
is promoting smaller changes rather than radical. But the idea is also open to add
responsibility to governments and public authorities. Ecological modernism was initially
founded in Europe. The strategy was to give public support to technical improvement
combined with political control and policy instruments. Taxes should not be used in a
proactive way, where tax coming from non-environmental activities should be invested
in sustainable development investments. The discourse is nowadays more open for
cooperation between the governments, researches and the business world. 19
Andrew Jamison's research of the organisation GIN (Greening of industry production)
showed that focus has changed towards changes in the organisation structure rather than
technological changes. Jamison is furthermore talking about the change towards a
development of an unholy alliance between different participators where decision
making is reduced to negations and governments are reduced to governance. The
importance of creating dialogues, cooperations, communications and entrepreneurs are
often mentioned. The term “greening” is also often used in modern ecologism. Greening
16
Jamison, 2002
Jamison, Andrew(2003) Miljö som politik. Studentlitteratur. Lund
18
Ibid
19
Ibid
17
11
can be seen as the industrial world's version of sustainable development. Jamison
describes that the ambition of “greening” more have turned into a discussion about
business terms such as environmental management, green business economy, sustainable
product development and product responsibility working towards the original idea of
sustainable development. 20
1.2.4
The Criticism of the Theory
Many corporate officials and business leaders have, according to Yummiest,
acknowledged the need to focus more on environmental questions. The importance of
sustainable development is acknowledged but it is reduced to those activities that can
turn a profit. The competition and marketability makes participators choosing economic
development rather than environmentalism. 21 Another perspective is that organisations
are dependent on changes to the wider socio-economic system in which the organisation
works. The Organisations can have problems to fully adhere to a green business
discourse of sustainability, not being influenced by the socio-economic system 22
Andrew Jamison also equalises environmental political theories to other political
theories, as it operates with different interests that translates or interprets global
doctrines in its social-context (local – national).
1.2.5
The Critical Ecology Theory
The theory developed as discourse criticising the Green business theory has recently has
been reviewed. Some ideas have a more aggressive tone, for example to re concur the
animal's rights – like a global right movement. Other ideas are talking about the agenda
and that it has to transform from civilisation and a consumer society. The realists and
reformists are still fighting to establish the society to be more environmentally friendly.
23
One discourse in the Critical Ecology discourse, the militant activism, that are
discussing “equality between different species” will not be used as a theoretical
framework, and will therefore not be used in the analysis.
The Local activism
Through research and empiric knowledge, the activist wants to transform the politics and
the agenda. The activism argues in favour of technical changes, with the help of
evidence from research. The local activists still believe in the democratic ambitions to
argue and effect. Today, the groups work on local level to counteract environmental
damages and to create alternative solutions for environmental friendly processes in the
local society. Jamison sees the local activists as science groups on the local level that
gives information to the local society. This will result in participation and social
innovations that will both raise the level of democracy in the society and create a better
environment. In different projects, such as for example Agenda 21, the local activists
have found ways to effect the decision making. According to Jamison, the problem with
the discourse is the temporary efforts on specific targets. The local activism has
20
Ibid
Jamison , 2003
22
Wendy Stubb, Chris Cocklin (2006) An ecological modernist interpretation of sustainability. Internet:
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112718277/abstract
23
Jamison , 2003
21
12
difficulties to remain as an important role in the society. When the goals are fulfilled or
when the money has run out, the local activism has a tendency to disappear. 24
The professional activism
The professional activism is often described as lobbying organisations. According to
Jamison, it is difficult to generalize the different groups but some similarities can be
seen. They are often NGO:s (Non-Government-Organisations) that have employed staff
that produces knowledge about the environment. They have experts working in different
fields such as; juridical, administrative, scientist, commercial or pedagogic. The
organisations are depending on external support to finance their expert knowledge’s.
The professional organisation wants to be an important participator; therefore their
growth and survival are important factors in the choice of subjects and methods to work
with. The organisation works with subjects not recreating other's work or competing
with actors that can do the work much better. This special focus can be a problem if the
coordination between activities is not working. Other critical views are that there is
often no quality control over the knowledge the organisations are producing and that
they are only to be responsible in front of its own board of directors. 25
Their work can be divided in to three different branches. It can involve reports about
special environmental questions. The other type is creating material for the public practical tips on how to be more environmentally friendly both for the public and for
companies. The last type of product is to combine different approaches, discusses new
strategies or new directions. This group exists on an individual level but they still see
themselves as part of a movement. The experts want to increase the awareness and
therefore shows their opinions and political proposals as professional experts, often
employed in a organisation, institute or earning their living on their writing and lectures.
Their different participators are often cooperating on different levels and with different
participators within media, business world, international organisations and NGO:s. 26
Personal activism
The activism tries to make the political matters transform to individual level where
efforts to take action and act in an environmental way are in focus. The ecological
lifestyles have changed since the 1960s with new age philosophy through the 1990s and
ethical discourse about genetic modified organisms. According to Jamison, it is hard to
make any conclusion from this type of actions. But it is ascertained that the personal
standpoints and activism will continue to develop.
1.2.6
The Criticism of the Theory
The problem with the discourse is the different participators and their different views.
All groups are fighting for their standpoints, acknowledgement and economic resources.
The different views of activism must sort out the different opinions. According to
Jamison there is a dynamic relation between the different groups. They are in way
competing and in other ways cooperating.
24
Jamison, 2003
Ibid
26
Ibid
25
13
1.2.7
The theoretical Framework as Guidance
The new environmental political agenda can according to Jamison be described as two
opposite poles. Below I have tried to summarise the green business and Critical ecology
discourses in an analyse schedule.
The Green Business Theory
A
I
M
M
E
T
H
O
D
The Critical Ecology Theory
The Ecoeffiency
Nature Capitalism
The Ecological
Modernism
The Local
Activism
The Professional
Activism
Personal Activism
-Small
environmental
changes
in combination
with the
company’s
culture.
-Reduce the pressure
on the environment.
-Sustainable
development.
-Effect the
political agenda
towards a better
environment
-Raise the
awareness. Produce
knowledge’s about
the environment
-Political matters
on individual
level.
-“Greening”
-Informative
-Lobbying
-Ecological
lifestyle
-Technical
measures, reduce
the energy and
resource
consumption
-The system and
structure must
transform to be
more
environmentally
friendly.
-Increasing
responsibility for
governments/publ
ic institutions.
-Technical
changes
-Science Reports
-Personal activity
-Practical tips
-Take action
-Factor ten solutions
concerning energy
and resource
consumptions.
-Support technical
improvements
with political
control.
-Counteract
environmental
damage, create
alternative
solutions.
-Cooperation’s in
different spheres
-Cooperation,
environmental
managements,
sustainable
product
development, and
product
responsibility.
Table 1; Analyse schedule, summarising the environmental political theories that will work as guidance in
the analysis of the thesis from the literature research, interviews and observations.
1.3
Method
Robert K Yin's book “A Case Study Research – Designs and Methods” 27 – has been
used as guidance in the process of this research. The method is a process or record of
research into the development of a situation - and in this case different participant’s
environmental political approach to use the Olympic Games as a political instrument,
with special focus on the summer Olympics in Beijing in 2008. The chapter will explain
how the study has been processed, which methods and respondent that have participated
to form the case studies results. Finally, a discussion about the case studies validity and
reliability will be discussed.
27
Yin, Robert K(2003) Case study research – design and methods third edition. Sage publication. USA
14
1.3.1
The Case Study Method
The Study; An instrument for environmental political change is a comparative case
study exploring the opportunity to use the Olympic Games as an instrument for political
environmental change, with special focus at The Beijing Olympics.
Yin describes five important components for the comparative case studies design. At
first, the problem and the questionnaire are very important; Yin explains that the “how”
and “why” questions are preferable in a case study. Secondly, the study must have
suggestions to answer the questions for the study’s research. Only if you are forced to
state some suggestion one will move in the right direction, according to Yin. Thirdly,
Yin means that the unit of analysis can be a problem when one defines what the case
really is. The study's questions and propositions are very important to make the study
easier and not so extensive. The fourth and fifth components, linking data to
propositions and criteria for interpreting the findings, are according to Yin the least well
developed components in the case studies. One promising approach is the idea of pattern
matching, where several pieces of data can be related to some theoretical proposition. 28
1.3.2
Yin´s Method as Guidance
The Schedule below explains Yins guidance and the column to the right, is a short
overview of this case studies approach designed to match Yins structure. Furthermore,
all the terms will be explained during this section. Finally, a discussion concerning the
choice of method and a reflection over how the procedure worked and how mistakes
could have been avoided will be included.
Test
Case study tactic
Construct validity
-Use multiple sources of
evidence
Internal validity
External validity
Reliability
→
- Establish chain evidence →
-Have key informants
→
review draft case study report
- Do pattern-matching
→
- Do explanation-building
→
-Address rival explanation →
-Use logic models
→
- Use theory in single case →
studies
data collection
composition of
report
data analysis
data analysis
data analysis
data analysis
research design
- Use case study protocol
-Develop case study
Database
data collection
data collection
→
→
Table 2. Table based on Yin´s case study structure.
28
Phase of research
in which tactic
occurs
data collection →
Ibid, p 33
15
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
The Research
Literature research,
Observations &
Interviews.
Different sources.
Tutor & Contacts in
field.
Different sources
match in different
patterns.
Environmental
political theories are
used in the analysis.
- Question guide,
recorded - transcribed
interviews and
reviewed scripts from
respondents.
Observation diary.
1.3.3
The Preparation and the Carrying out of the Case study
In may of 2007, I visited Beijing. The city and the country were preparing for the
Olympic Games. People were proud to have the chance to host one of the most
respectably events in the world. The slogan; “One world – One dream” were printed all
over the city. Within the slogan and in the preparation work, the “Green Olympic”motto were truly involved. One could still though, feel the pollution, and the blue sky
were still in absence.
As an upper secondary school teacher teaching the subjects Social Science and Physical
Education, the Olympic Games and its impact surely match my profession, but also my
interests. During the spring of 2008 I applied for an SIDA financed, Minor Field Study
Scholarship, in order to carry out a field study in China. From the ending of June to the
middle of August, during the culminating of the Olympic Games, I took part of the
Olympic and Chinese spirit and culture during my field study, involving qualitative
interviews and participant observations.
During the mandatory preparation course in Gothenburg I had a meeting with Ms Marie
Carlsson, Sinologist at Gothenburg University. Throughout the discussions with Marie
Carlsson I decided to emphasize on the Olympic Games, its “Green Olympic” motto and its environmental impact, as an instrument for environmental political views. The
environmental issues are very important topics in the world and especially in China. The
Beijing Olympic Committee and the regime also included the “Green Olympics” motto,
in the overall plan for the 2008 Olympic Games. The preparations now proceeded in
finding contacts in field.
My first contact in field was Ms Maria Jönsson, working at the Swedish Church in Hong
Kong. Luckily Marie worked in Beijing during the Olympics and had an extensive
network both in China and contacts with The Swedish Olympic Committee. These
contacts later preceded to members in the IOC, with knowledge of the research
questionnaires. Ms Annika Siewert, who worked as SIDA-coordinator at the Swedish
Embassy also helped me to get in contact with different NGO:s in Beijing. The NGO:s
participating in the research were contacted via email.
1.3.4
Selection of Participators
The studies participators were chosen for different reasons. At first the respondent must
as Yin explains, be relevant to the study. 29 In this case, this meant having knowledge of
the work concerning the “Greening of the Games”. As mentioned earlier, the Olympic
Movement is a large movement - with many members and participators. According to
Yin, a case study can use different respondents with different perspectives to make the
investigation more interesting. 30 The aim respondents were initially members of the
Olympic Organisation (IOC), Beijing Olympic Organisation Committe (BOCOG) and
environmental Non Governmental Organisations’ that were working in China and had
connections to the Olympic Games.
29
30
Yin, 2003
Ibid
16
In the prepatory work and during the field study represents of the BOCOG, different
NGO:s, such as World Wildlife Found and Conservation International, were contacted to
participate in the study. The NGO:s candidates kindly declined to participate, partly due
to lack of time. In the matter of BOCOG – the mail enquiry to different participants
within the organisation were not responded. The validity of the study would have been
increased if the questionnaires had been tested with a qualitative interview or written
questionnaire, with a representative of the BOCOG organisation. The analysis in the
essay was based upon the BOCOG:s applications contracts, Olympic action plan and the
research concerning the Beijing Olympic motto, “Green Olympics”.
The validity had also increased if a qualitative interview with a participator from the
International Olympic Committee had been possible. Unfortunately an interview was not
carried out during the field study. Via Ms Marie Carlsson, I got in contact with Mr
Stefan Lindeberg and Ms Gunilla Lindberg at the Swedish Olympic Committee, who
helped me to get in contact with Ms Michelle Lemaitre who works as a IOC:s project
manager on Games operations. The thesis from the literature study has therefore instead
been questioned through a written questionnaire, with IOC representative Ms Lemaitre.
The Greenpeace, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development institute are representatives
of the NGO perspective. However, even more participators could have raised the
validity.
The following respondents have participated in the case study:
•
Ms Amy Chang - Greenpeace China
Greenpeace China is a Non-Governmental Organisation that has been involved
in the work toward a “Green Olympic”. Ms Amy Chang is also one of the
authors to the Greenpeace report -”China after the Olympics: Lessons from
Beijing.”
•
Ms Zee Zee Zhang - Roots and Shoots
Ms Zee Zee Zhang, works as an operative director at Roots & Shoots a Nongovernmental Organisation that also has been involved with special projects
related to the “Green Olympics.” The Organisation was sanctioned by the
government to promote education for environmental improvements, for examples
in schools.
•
Mr Liajian Zhen - Fuping Development institute (FDI)
Fuping Development Institute is a Non- Governmental Organisation stationed in
Beijing. FDI aims to promoting social innovation, social equality, to alleviate
poverty and encourage sustainable development, thus promoting the
establishment of a harmonious society.
•
Ms Michelle Lemaitre – The International Olympic Organisation
Ms Michelle Lemaitre works as International Olympic Committees project
manager on Games operations. The Games operation is in charge of the
17
organising committee’s environment and sustainable development function. Ms
Lemaitre participated through a written questionnaire, which was sent by mail.
During the field studies process, new respondent have been involved to give the case
study more perspectives. All of the respondents and their profession have some kind of
involvement in the Olympic family or knowledge about the Chinese society and
environmental questions concerning the “Greening of the Olympics”. Respondent in this
category are:
•
Mr Zhang Jun – Lenovo group
Mr Zhang Jun works as a senior designer at the Olympic Partner Programme
(TOP-sponsor) Lenovo Group, whom was the biggest sponsor for the Beijing
Olympic Games. Mr Zhang Jun worked in the designing team that designed the
Olympic Torch for the Olympic torch relay.
•
Mr Ola Wong
Mr Ola Wong is working as correspondent in China for Swedish newspapers,
Svenska Dagbladet and Sydsvenska Dagbladet. Mr Wong is also an author and
has written different books about the Chinese Society.
During my field study I also meet university students who were working as volunteers
for the Olympic Games. I decided to use them in my study during one group interview,
also known as a focus interview. As volunteers for the Olympic Games, the volunteers
were trained for their mission. Secondly, they are all young (20-24), students at Beijing
University and their generation is the future of China. The participators are named by the
English given name.
•
Group interview – Volunteers
Sunny(21 years), Memory(20), Karen(23), Ivy(21) and Sunrise(21) all students
working as volunteers during the Beijing Olympic Games.
•
Volunteer team leader - Jim
Jim is a 20-year-old student that during the Olympic Games worked as a team
leader for the interviewed volunteer group (above), for the benefit of the Beijing
Olympic Games.
I have also had two informants during the study, whose interesting views on the social
and cultural life in China, have made the preparations and the ongoing work during the
field study much easier.
•
Ms Annika Siewerts – Swedish International Developing Apartment (SIDA)
Ms Annika Siewerts worked as a correspondent for SIDA at the Swedish
Embassy in Beijing during my field study. Our meeting developed into
interesting discussions about her work as a correspondent, the culmination of the
Olympics and development of the ongoing field study.
18
•
Marie Carlsson – University of Gothenburg
Ms Marie Carlsson works as Sinologist at the department of Social Studies at
Gothenburg University. Ms Carlssons knowledge of the Chinese society was of
great importance during the preparation course.
1.3.5
Literate Research
The construct validity proposes different sources for data collection. This research will
use three kind of different sources; literate research, interviews and participant
observations.
The literature research is divided in two parts. Further on in Chapter 2, the IOC:s ,
BOCOG:s and the NGO:s approach and work toward a “greening of the games”, have
been reviewed. This preliminary literature research proceeded in to different thesis about
the IOC:s, BOCOG:s and the NGO:s environmental political approach. Secondly, the
literature research has also been used as a complement in the result chapter. The thesis
from the literature research has been analysed with the questionnaires and the theoretical
framework, and their validity has been questioned through qualitative interviews and
participating observations.
According to Yin, the most important uses of documents is to corroborate and augment
evidence from other sources. As Yin explains the investigator must be careful in his/her
analysis. Yin reminds the researcher that every document is written for some specific
purpose and some specific audience. 31 The limitation to investigate the participators
environmental political approach toward a “Green Olympics” made the study more
focused. Formal reports about the Olympic movement and statements from different
participant are also important documents that will be researched. Once again, the thesis
from the literature research (chapter 2) will be questioned throughout the interviews and
observations.
1.3.6
The Interviews
The respondents were informed through email, including a PM about the research, its
meaning and purpose. It also contained a short information about the researcher and the
significance of the scholarship. The Respondents also had the opportunity to know the
questions in advance, which all respondent excluding the volunteers used. This worked
both as a benefit and disadvantage. The respondents had the opportunity to study the
questions to find the “right answers”. This research required this alternative, in order to
get the respondents to cooperate in interesting discussions. Some of the respondents
were also representing an organisation and their ideals; thus, sending the questions in
advance have in my opinion not been a weakness in this research. On the contrary, it has
worked as key benefiting discussions during the meetings. The PM also gave the
respondents the alternative to be anonymous or just to be “quoted” as a member in an
organisation. The interviews were taped and transcribed. All participants have also had
the opportunity to review the script before it has been used in the analyse.
31
Yin, 2003
19
The interviews were structured in a way that Yin name as “focus interviews”, where the
respondents were interviewed approximately 45 minutes. The interview usually took
place in the respondents’ office. Three interviews were made in restaurants during
lunchtime, this due to the fact of the busy time schedule. All interviews were in English
excluding the interview with Mr Ola Wong, which was in Swedish. The interviews were
not hindered by language barriers, as the respondents had extended skills in the English
language.
The interviews corroborated certain facts that according to Yin, one already thinks have
been established. 32 A question sheet worked as guidance. The Questions were of an
open character and they were careful worded so the interviewer appears genuinely naïve
about our topic. If one asks leading questions the purpose of the interview will not be
served. As an investigator one have, according to Yin, two jobs during the interview.
Firstly, to follow your own line of inquiry, as reflected by ones case study protocol and
secondly to ask actual questions in an unbiased manner. 33
The first interview was with Ms Ola Wong, the Swedish journalist – after this interview
some minor alterations were made. The opening questions were now changed with the
aim to explore the participators’ perspective of the Olympic movement and the Olympic
Games. These question were meant as an opener that also could be reflected and
matched against former reports, such as Michael Payne’s study investigating The
Olympic - DNA. 34 The introduction should also lead forward to the core of the
research, the participators views about the Olympic Games as an environmental political
instrument. The interview guide was also used as a questionnaire folder to the IOC –
participator Ms Michelle Lemaitre.
The respondents in this study have different professions and therefore the interviews
sometimes took different ways during the discussions, the key questions in the question
guide still worked as a guidance throughout all interviews.
The focus/group interview took place in a small and quiet restaurant. The group included
three male and three female respondents. The Question guide worked as guidance and
the author as a moderator, to provide the word to different respondents in the group. The
respondents did not want to use a recorder and therefore the interview was written. The
interviews were transcribed, and reviewed by the respondents before it was used in the
analysis. Wibeck states that the focus interviews shall be used as a tool in order to
explore how a specific group views a special question, in this case this studies
questionnaire. The interviews can be seen as a meeting where different people meet and
share opinions. 35
32
Yin, 2003
Ibid
34
Payne, Michael. (2006)Olympic turnaround : how the Olympic Games stepped back from the brink of
extinction to become the world's best known brand. Westport conn.
35
Wibeck,Victoria. (2000). Fokusgrupper: Om fokuserade gruppintervjuer som undersökningsmetod.
Lund. Studentlitteratur.
33
20
According to Wibeck the group shall be constructed of at least four and at most ten
people. Wibeck also suggests three – five focus groups to a small study. In this study,
only one group was established because of the studie's duration. The participants know
each other since before, in their work as volunteers. They have also been trained for their
mission. Therefore one could presume that the participators had the same thoughts and
ideas. From the group interview I also used the opportunity to proceed to more extensive
discussions with one of the volunteers. The participator (Jim) was chosen for his work as
a team leader for a small group of volunteers and for his knowledge and opinions.
According to Wibeck it can be interesting to do a follow-up on the group interviews to
explore the respondents’ true opinions. The interview with Jim was recorded, transcribed
and reviewed by respondent before it has been used in this analyse. 36
1.3.7
The Participant Observations
The case study also used participant observations as a source. The observations with
correct behaviour and environment conditions – is according to Yin an important
perspective in its collaborations with the literature research and the qualitative
interviews. The observer wants to explore the actual society and culture. These
observations can be used as an important source if they are representative for the study’s
purpose. It is important to match the key respondent’s perspective with discussions with
people and observations in the normal way of living in the community. The observations
have been documented in a diary during or near the “meetings”, in order to recall the
“meeting” accurately. If one waits with this procedure, one can build up a false picture
which decreases the validity. 37
1.3.8
Method Discussion
As have already been mentioned, Yin explains that everything is written for a special
purpose and audience. In this case study the ambition has been to review the
environmental political visions from the participants, with former researches. The
empirical data, thesis from the literature research have been matched with the qualitative
interviews and the observations to gain internal validity so that the conclusions can be
durable. If the patterns match the study’s validity will increase. 38
The external validity will increase if a theory is used. A single case often offers a poor
basis for generalising. This study will be an analytic generalisation. According to Yin,
the investigator is striving to generalise a particular set of results to some broader
theories, to increase the external validity. 39
The thesis from the literature research (chapter 2) has been matched with the qualitative
interviews, written questionnaires and participating observations. The data have been
read several times and categorised throughout the questionnaires. The results have been
interpreted and analysed to the theoretical framework and former reports.
36
Ibid
Yin 2003
38
Ibid
39
Ibid
37
21
Reliability is discussed in the perspective to use the right measurements in the
investigation. It’s important to notice that situations change and that the interviews with
“open-ended” character maybe will turn into different direction. The participants in this
case study had different professions, knowledge and interests. The interviews therefore
have turned in various directions. Still, the Questionnaires have worked as guidance in
all interviews. According to Yin both the validity and the reliability increases if one use
different qualitative methods in the case study, which the case study has acknowledged.
40
The following circumstances must also be taken into recognition:
•
The results have mostly been analysed only by the author from a “Swedish
perspective”. The cultures and the political perspectives are different. According
to Yin, the validity rises if key informants review the process of the study
including the results. 41 All interviews were in English and all respondents have
also been given the opportunity to review the script before it was used in the
analysis. The respondents have also had the opportunity to review the study
before its final print.
•
During this period many of the respondents have had a busy schedule that can
have influenced the interview. Though all interviews were guided by a question
guide and the respondent have had the time to review the script and I have had
the opportunity to ask further questions via email if necessary.
•
Different reports such as Greenpeace (2008) and UNEP (2006, 2008) 42
highlights of the lack of independence in the Chinese system. All environmental
information is according to these reports not available for third parties to review,
which also can have an affect on this actual case study.
•
As recently explained, more participators could have increased the validity.
However, a case study is not aiming for representative results and it can be
difficult to make generalising conclusions. This research has only investigated
the participator's view of the sited questionnaires. According to Yin, the studie's
validity increases if the results are accurate to former researches and theoretical
frameworks. 43
41
Yin. 2003
UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An environmental Review. Internet:
http://www.unep.org/sport_env/Documents/BeijingReport07/Chapter1.pdf
43
Yin, 2003
42
22
2
BACKGROUND: THE OPINIONS OVER A GREEN
OLYMPICS
The result from the introducing literature research will lead up to the case study´s result
and the interpretation and analysis.
2.1
The International Olympic Committee
The International Olympic Committee is a big organisation with its main display the
Olympic Games. This paragraph will only give a brief introduction to the organisation,
their fundamental principles leading up to their mission concerning environmentalism.
The International Olympic Committee was officially established 1894. Pierre de
Coubertin took the first initiative to start an organization with the vision that through
sport and education create a better and more peaceful world. 44 From a legal standpoint,
IOC is an independent organisation with non-governmental and non-profit ambitions. 45
2.1.1
The International Olympic Committee and its Ideals
The environmental approach is only one of the Olympic Organisations pillars and must
therefore be seen in a wider perspective. The International Olympic Committee's work
and cooperate with all participants must be in accordance to the Olympic Charter and in
the spirit of Olympism. 46 According to Coubertin, Olympism consisted of five
principles; a spirit of harmony, self improvement, amateurism, a link with sporting
principles (fair play) and peace. Olympism often describes this with the three leading
pillars; sport, culture and environment. 47 The Olympism goes beyond the Olympic
Games; the education should be on-going, according to Coubertin 48
The Olympic charter is based on six fundamental principles. Fundamental principle
number one explains:
1.
Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities
of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to
create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and
respect for universal fundamental ethical principles. 49
The fundamental principles are principles which all participants belonging to the
Olympic movement must acknowledge. 50 The Olympic movement's missions and roles
45
The IOC website (2009) Internet.
http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/ioc/organisation/index_uk.asp
46
The International Olympic Committee(2007) “The Olympic Charter” Internet:
http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf
47
The Olympic Charter(2007)
48
Michael Byaruhanga Kadoodooba ( 2005) Implications for Olympic education and training through
Olympism in Africa. Internet: http://www.coubertin.ch/pdf/PDF-Dateien/129-Kadoodooba.pdf
49-57
The Olympic Charter, 2007
50-58
The International Olympic Committee (2007) Factsheet – Olympic Truce. Information center.
[email protected]
23
is to fulfil their overall goal: to create a better and peaceful world through the education
of sport. The IOC explains their role:
In this the third millennium, the IOC is more convinced than ever of the positive role that
sport can, and must, play as a catalyst in our society. It unites and teaches about respect and
tolerance, two values that are essential in today’s world. 51
The President of the IOC, Mr Jacques Rogge describes that the sport movement in
general have a social responsibility – to provide access to sport practice, and in so doing
to spread the values of sport to all sections of society. 52
This responsibility is not something IOC can fulfil on their own. The IOC should also
according to the Olympic Charter, “cooperate with the competent public or private
organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity
and thereby to promote peace”. 53 The Olympic Movement must promote a positive
legacy from its movement to the host cities and host countries. 54
In 2006, the former marketing manager for IOC, Michael Payne released a study called
The Olympic Turnaround, How the Olympics Games Stepped Back from the Brink of
Extinction to Become the World’s Best Known Brand. 55 In the report, Payne wanted to
investigate and discover what he calls the Olympic DNA. The comprehensive study
involved interviews and focus groups including 5500 people in 11 countries. The study
also involved 250 interviews with key media, the Olympic family and sponsors.
Payne's results were concluded in to four key propositions. The Olympic Brand offers
hope for a better world by using sport without discrimination. Through the Olympics,
participants want to fulfil dreams and therefore find inspirations to fulfil their mission.
The Olympic Games endures power to inspire humanity to achieve dreams. The
Olympic Games also provides friendship and fair play that can overcome political,
economic, religious and racial prejudices through the values inherent in sport. Finally,
the Joy in effort, to do one’s best, regardless of the outcome. Through the honour and
dignity in competition, Olympic athletes teach lessons to the society.
The study also noted a paradox, according to Payne, commercial goals could possible
undermine or even pose a threat to the realisation of non-commercial goals. Sponsors
and broadcasting contracts generate the most of Olympic Movement's turnover. The
total income during the period 2001-2004 was 4,189,000,000 US/dollars. The
broadcasting turnover consisted of 53% of the IOC.s incomes, compared to
sponsorships 34%, ticketing 11% and licensing and other revenues 2% 92% percent of
this income was distributed to Organising Committee for the Olympic Games
59
60
The Olympic Charter, 2007
Payne, 2006
24
(OCOG:s), International Federations (IF:s) and National Olympic Committees (NOC:s)
The remaining 8 % were distributed to the administrations and operations of the IOC. 56
2.1.2
Olympism and Cultural Differences
Payne and Susan Brownell, author to the book, Beijing's Games : what the Olympics
mean to China 57 argues that Olympism is dynamic rather than fixed and static. Payne
and Brownell both states; that the Olympics must adapt to the cultural differences of
non-western countries, such as China and Sub- Sahara Africa. The Western Ideals are
not universally understood. According to Brownell the Chinese culture is different,
compared to the western perspective. 58 Brownell further explains that The Beijing
Olympics will be a global event where eastern and western culture meets and the
Olympic movement can be seen as a transcultural, transethnic, transnational and global
cultural system. 59
From Michael Payne's research one can conclude that the environmental field is not seen
as a main focus for the philosophy of Olympism. This is in contrast to the IOC
standards, which clearly puts the environment as a vital part of the Olympic spirit. At the
Lausanne Conference in 2005 the participants once again acknowledged the direct link
between peace, security and the protection and sustainable management of the
environment. 60 According to Payne the IOC:s the Olympic Games raise both nations and
individuals, athletes and spectators to a higher plain. Just like former South Africa
president Nelson Mandela described;
Sport reaches areas far beyond any sphere of political influence and has probably done
more to unify nations that any politician has been capable of. 61
2.2
The Third pillar of the Olympism, the Environment
In 1996 The IOC added the paragraph on environmental protection into the Olympic
Charter as they recognised the importance of environmental and sustainable
development. The IOC describes their role as;
The IOC:s role to environment is to encourage and support a responsible concern for
environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the
Olympic Games are held accordingly 62
56
International Olympic Committee (2008)Olympic Marketing fact file . Internet
http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_344.pdf
57
Brownell, S (2008) Beijing's games : what the Olympics mean to China. Rowman & Littlefield.
England
58
Ibid
59
Bale, J – Christensen, M_K (Edt, 2004) Post-Olympism? – Questioning Sport in the Twenty-first
century. Berg. Oxford.
60
United Nation.(2009)Sport as a tool for development and peace. Internet:
http://www.un.org/sport2005/resources/task_force.pdf
61
Former South Africa president Nelson Mandela, Quoted in Payne 2007, p 3
62
The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development.
Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) [email protected], p 1
25
The President of The IOC, Mr Rogge sees the Movement as a leader in environmental
debate. The Athletes, they need clear and healthy condition to develop in their sports.
Damaged environments can pose a huge threat to future sport and the Olympic Games.
Furthermore, Rogge describes that the second issue is the impact that sports and
especially the Olympic Games can have on the environment. The Olympic Games and
practise of all sport should not have any negative effects on the environment. On the
contrary, sport gives opportunities to provide sustainable environmental legacies. 63 The
IOC has set up different kinds of working groups and guidance to provide these
sustainable environmental legacies, such as the sport and environment commission.
Steven Mass describes in the Olympic review magazine that IOC has been one of the
leader sport organisations to acknowledgment sport's impact on environmental issues. 64
2.2.1
Former Olympic Games Environmental Initiatives, a Brief
Review
The Winter Olympics in Lillehammer 1994 are commonly mentioned as the first
Olympic Games with an environmental approach. With education of the public, recycled
energy from different arenas and activities and co-operations with nature protection
groups regarding locations for buildings, the Lillehammer Olympics started a modern
development for the Olympic Games with more focus on environmental questions and
co-operation between OGOC: environmental authorities and volunteers. 65 Nagano in
1998 followed in Lillehammer’s spirit. In Sydney (2000), the environment initiatives
though increased to a bigger scale. The key achievements included increased public
transport, the use of solar power, recycling of construction waste, energy and water
conservation and wetland restoration. The Organisation Committee and the Olympic
Coordination Agency for the Sydney Olympics won the 2001 United Nations
Environment Programmes, global 500 Roll of Honour Award for their environmental
efforts. 66
When the Summer Olympics arrived home to its homeland in Athens 2004, Greece
planted over a million large bushes, 290 000 trees and 11 million small trees throughout
Athens. Environmentally friendly materials and new energy technology were used.
Environmental friendly vehicles and the creation of the Olympic Environmental
Alliance to support effective co-operations with all bodies and the parties were carried
out Finally, eco- excursions to educate the public promoting the protection of the
environment were important decisions made in accordance to sustainable environment.
Winter Olympics in Turin became the first hosting city to involve both an ISO 14001
international environment standard certification and an EMAS certification for its
environmental systems and programmes. 67
63
The International Olympic Committee, Olympic Review (2007) Going Green. Internet:
http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/athens2004/home/full_story_uk.asp?id=2499
64
Ibid
65
The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development.
Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) [email protected].
66
Ibid
67
Ibid
26
In 1994, the IOC also made an agreement with the United Nations Environmental
Programme (UNEP) to implement different activities that will educate people on
environmental matters in sport. Since then, the UNEP has been a co-operation partner to
the IOC and the hosting cities/countries including, Athens 2004, Turin 2006 and Beijing
in 2008. The UNEP have also been participating in the IOC World Conference on Sport
and Environment along with other important representatives such as governments,
international-nongovernmental organisations, companies, research institutes and media.
The IOC sees this congress as an opportunity to discuss the result of sport and
sustainable development. The aim is to increase further developments of, environmental
policies in sport. 68 In this matter The IOC:s wants to ensure that the Olympics are held
in “conditions that demonstrate responsible concern for the environment.” 69
2.2.2
IOC and its Environmental Guidelines
The IOC is the head of the organisation and sets guidelines. But the day to day work is
handled by the National Olympic Committees´, International Federations and Olympic
Organisations for the Olympic Games. This meant that every member of the Olympic
movement had to change its perspective and work to implement standards toward a
sustainable environment. The IOC therefore established itself as an authority to provide
guidance and support to its members. Different sports and arrangements impact the
environment differently. Different guidelines such The Olympic Agenda 21, The Guide
on Sport, Environment and Sustainable Development and Guidelines for the Olympic
Applicants have therefore been established to encourage and support members to create
different action plans. 70
The Olympic Agenda 21 and guidelines
In 1999 the Olympic Session decided to accept their own Olympic Agenda 21 based on
the Earth summit of Rio de Janeiro and on its own Olympism. The idea was to place
sport at service for harmonious development of man in a peaceful society with the
protection of human dignity. 71 The aim was to encourage its members to “…participate
actively in sustainable development.” 72
In 2005 a wider guide was published based on Agenda 21. A 200-page document called
“The Guide on Sport, Environment and Sustainable Development” 73 was produced in
cooperation with all 35 IF:s, for practical guidance such as concrete action programmes
to provide the theory to practical changes and behavioural changes. This was to be used
by all the members of the Olympic Movement, from big organisations, down to small
organisation and all the way to individual level. The program's aims were to educate
people in the global challenges and the needs for “environmental protection considering
The Guidance once again fully promoted the environment as an important issue. The
Olympic Movement and The IOC saw themselves as important participators for the
local specification coming from diverse geographical, socioeconomic, cultural and sport
68
Ibid
The International Olympic Committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development. p 2
70
The International Olympic Commitee. The Olympic Review(sept 2007) Nr 64, Going Green
71
Ibid
72
Olympic Agenda 21, 1999
73
Olympic Review 2007, p 35
69
27
context. 74 Environmental protection and sustainable development, thus ensuring that
present and future sport activities are held in a healthy and natural environment. The
manual also stated that the contribution of the Olympic Movement must be a
complement, the main responsibility to protect the environment are still lying with the
Governments. 75
2.2.3
The Environmental Approach in the Applicant Process for
The Olympic Games.
In 1999, the IOC adopted a two-phase procedure for awarding an Olympic Games to a
city. The cities must describe their current environmental conditions and the ongoing
work. The selected candidate cities then create a “Candidature file”, with guarantees and
undertakings to the IOC. The File is according to IOC the central element in the
development of a “Green Games”, involving details regarding geographical features,
public authorities, environmental management systems, venue constructions and
development projects. Furthermore, details requested air quality, protection areas, public
authority roles and responsibilities, environmental Impact Assessment and construction
work are also elements included in the file. In addition, the work with NGO:s,
cooperation with suppliers and sponsor, features and actions, should also be included in
the candidature file. 76
The Organising Committees shall also work with government authorities to fulfil the
goal, ”… to implement nation-wide policy's and program developments and actions
outlined in the Bid needed for a city to fulfil it Host city contract obligations.” 77 The
IOC, UNEP and external expertise from NGO:s and media are consulting in these
actions, based on expertise and knowledge from past Games, all to “ensure maximum
fulfilment of commitments and maximum use of the opportunity to improve
environmental conditions and practices”. 78
2.2.4
The Introduction of the Term “Green Games”
Starting in 1992, Greenpeace promoted viable environmental solutions for Sydney’s
Olympic bidding campaign, the so called “Green Games” approach. Environmental
guidelines helped Sydney to win the right to host the Summer Olympic Games 2000.
After the Summer Olympic Games in Sydney, Greenpeace updated their Olympic
Environmental Guidelines, to ensure that the Sydney’s green games shouldn’t be a onceonly effort. The “Green Games” should according to Greenpeace, work with
environmental questions in the Olympic Games such as transportation, energy, waste
disposal, refrigeration and constructions options, ozone depletion, habitat protection,
74
Manual on sport and the environment, updated 2005
Ibid
76
IOC Guide on sport, environment and Sustainable development. Internet:
http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_1109.pdf
77
The official website of the Olympic movement. “ Promotion of sustainable development” Internet:
http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/missions/environment/environmental_protection/planning_uk.asp
78
Ibid
75
28
pollution (air, water and soil) and water conservation. 79 The IOC have acknowledge the
work toward “Green Games” in Sydney and have some commitment that the Organising
Committee and other participants involved in the Olympic preparations must
successfully implement: “…a range of environmental and sustainability standards,
management systems, practices, policies and actions which minimise adverse effects,
maximise benefits and create lasting, sustainable legacies” 80 to fully be considered a
Green Games. These standards should improve the environmental actions in both city
and country. According to IOC the Olympic preparation cannot in any way affect the
environment; it should instead help to ensure that positive legacies are left for the Host
City, as region and Country. 81
Greenpeace called on the IOC to establish the guidelines as a formal set of rules, to
ensure that all future Olympic events should work hard for solutions to global
environmental problems. The Guidelines must be non-negotiable and they need
according to Greenpeace to be backed up by national law in the host country. Any
violations to these laws must be severely punished. These environmental data must be
open to the public to ensure credibility. 82 According to Greenpeace, the IOC has the
responsibility that the Olympic Games has a minimum impact on the environment and
also to leave a positive legacy. Furthermore the opportunities given by creating the
games as a showcase for environmental solutions should be used. IOC should directly
put pressure on bidding and hosting cities to fulfil the environmental commitments. Host
cities should develop their own detailed guidelines; environmental specific issues should
be settled to each game. The guidelines should also in accordance to Greenpeace
corporate with Olympic partners such as sponsors, suppliers and agencies. 83
Stephanie Beyer discusses in her article “The Green Olympic Movement: Beijing 2008”
that in one way the Olympics shall work as a catalyst for sustainable development. As t
the entire world turns its attention to the hosting city and country during the culmination
of the Olympics, the Games can be seen as a catalyst for environmental, social and
political chance. However, Stephanie Beyer also is questioning the Olympic Games as
creating numerous environmental problems such as; resource consumption, waste
accumulation and shortage in transportation capacity. Beyer therefore raises the
question, whether the environment will actually benefit at all from the Olympics? 84
Beyer clearly states that the concept of “Green Games” must be placed in a broader
context of sustainable development. Firstly, because of its multibillion-dollar business
79
Greenpeace (2000 ) Environmental Guidelines :
http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/australia/resources/reports/general/greenpeace-olympicenvironment.pdf
80
The official website of the Olympic movement. “Operations and legacies” Internet:
http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/missions/environment/environmental_protection/operations_uk.a
sp
81
Greenpeace 2000, p 2
82
Ibid
83
Ibid
84
Stephanie Beyer (2006) ”The Green Olympic Movement: Beijing 2008”, Chinese Journal of
International Law Advance Access. Internet: Http://chinesejil.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/5/2/423
29
with competing interests involved. But also for its highly mobile affairs, were the
Olympics are hosted in different locations and the difficulties it brings of the
implementation of universal standards in different cultures and hosting countries. Host
cities are proclaiming themselves to be “greener” or “greenest of them all”. 85
In 2003, the IOC:s released the Olympic Games Impact study. The study contained over
a hundred different indicator categories in the three spheres, economic, socio-cultural
and environmental. The study aims to indicate if and how the Olympic Games have
acted as a catalyst, leaving a lasting mark on the host city and country. 86 The study
declares that different cities have different needs and priorities, different collaborations
from government and organisations. Therefore, what matters according to IOC is that
each organising committee, in collaboration with a wide range of stakeholders, does
whatever it can to improve the environment in which it operates and sets an example for
future Games and for the sport community in general. 87 At present three studies
exploring Beijing, Vancouver and London Olympics are under construction.
2.2.5
The IOC Environmental Approach – a Conclusion:
The spirit of Olympism initially started as a sport and cultural exchange. In the mid
1990:s the Environment became the third pillar of Olympism. One of IOC:s biggest
responsibility is to ensure that all athletes have the opportunity to perform their sport. In
addition, IOC wants to make sure that the activity can be performed in a healthy
environment both for athletes and spectators.
In the third millennium the environmental questions are one of the big challenges in the
strive to accomplish a better world. The IOC sees themselves as a movement having a
social responsibility and the Olympic Games as its main display. It shall work as a
catalyst in our society, or as IOC puts it; “It unites and teaches about respect and
tolerance, two values that are essential in today’s world.” 88 On a global scale, the IOC
wishes to promote educational programmes for the Olympic family and strives to work
with environmental challenges as new opportunities for sport communities to be
associated to sustainable development. 89
If one explores the International Olympic Committee’s role and ideal with special focus
on the third pillar, the environment, one can explore some key responsibilities and ideals
that the Olympic movement wants to promote:
•
The Olympic Games shall be arranged in balance with the environment. It shall
not have a negative impact; it shall instead give opportunities to provide
sustainable environmental legacies, by successfully implementing a range of
85
Ibid
The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development.
Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) [email protected], p 1
87
Ibid
88
The international Olympic committee – factsheet, The Olympic truce. Lausanne. Switzerland (2007) p 1
[email protected]. Internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_839.pdf
89
The International Olympic Committee (updated 2005)Manual on Sport and the environment
http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_963.pdf
86
30
environmental and sustainability standards. The positive legacies shall remain
after the games, not only for the host cities but also for the whole country.
2.3
•
The athletes need clear and healthy conditions to improve in their sport. The
Olympic movement considers themselves as an important participator for
environmental protection and sustainable development for future generations of
athletes and Olympic Games.
•
The IOC shall promote and through sport educate people in healthy
environments and also set good standards. Mr Rogge describes the organisation
“as a leader in environmental stewardship”. Different contracts and guidelines
such as; Olympic Agenda 21, The Guide on Sport, Environment and Sustainable
Development and Host-City contracts are used to set these standards. The IOC is
an authority that provides guidance and support to its members in environmental
questions, rather than environmental contracts that are binding. The IOC also
cooperates with different groups and organisations.
•
The Olympic Movement wants to harmonise the development of sport with the
environment, to the cause of sustainability - though the basic responsibility to
protect the environment is on a governmental level.
China and its Environmental status – a Modern
Historical Overview.
According to the IOC:s OGI reports approach, all cities have different needs and
priorities. According to Jamison, the green business discourse and its environmental
approach in many ways are dependent and influenced by changes in the wider socioeconomic system, in which the organisation works. As this case study sheds a light over
the Beijing Olympics and the Greening of the Olympics, a short review describing
China’s environmental status and environmental politics is necessary.
In 1949, leader Mao and his party, The Communist Party of China, announced the
People's Republic of China. The Communist party took a firm grip over the Chinese
Society. During 1967-1977, Mao introduced the Culture revolution. This ideological
struggle have afterwards been criticised and called the “Ten years of catastrophe”. In the
revolution, Mao and his partners removed dissidents. Political actions reimbursed
education and many highly educated citizens had to work in the agricultural field for
many years. 90
The open door reform
In 1977 chairman Mao died and the Cultural Revolution that had been going on for ten
years was over. Deng Xiaoping became the new leader. In a reform called the “The
open door” Deng Xiaoping started to open China to a market oriented economy –
90
Fang, T. (1999). Chinese Culture and Chinese Business Negotiating Style. Linköping: Department of
Management and Economics. Sweden
31
however still under a strong communistic leadership. It was during this period China
made its first step to become the economic superpower as they are today. 91
Industries, factories and foreign investors started to establish themselves in China. Deng
Xiaoping and the regime wanted to lift people up from poverty and aimed to build a
strong, stabile and harmonic society. The sooner, the better. 92 The Chinese economic
growth has from 1979 increased by over 90percent. During the period 1990 to 2008, the
growth was still around 9-10 percent per year. The Chinese development in terms of
economy has improved in some fields. In 1981, 49 percent of the people lived with less
than 1 US/dollar per day. In 2002 that figure had changed to 6,9 percent. However,
China’s fast development has not worked in balance with the environment. 93
1990-2000 and the environment perspective
The most visual growth indicator in China is the manufacturing industry. The
industrialism started to grow about 15 years ago and consequently the environment
started to suffer. Mr Pan Yue, the vice president of SEPA (State Environment Programthe Chinese Government adviser) describes the situation: “The economic growth, that
took the western world over one hundred years to develop, succeeded China to achieve
in less than thirty years”. 94 Ten years ago the Chinese leadership started to take bigger
notice of the environment and its problems. Different rules and laws were settled. In
1979, an overall environmental law was settled which has been rewritten several times.
In 2002, the work for a sustainable development was also printed as a part in the overall
goals aiming to stabilise the Chinese economic growth. This will help China in their
strive to become developed country by the year 2049. The goals are:
•
•
•
•
•
The energy efficiency shall increase by twenty percent until 2010.
The recycled energy consumption shall by 2020, be increased from 5 percent to
fifteen percent.
The air and water pollutions shall be decreased by ten percent until 2010.
The service sector shall develop, thus decreasing the energy consuming
manufacturing industry.
The prize of environment friendly products and the import tax on environmental
technique shall be reduced. 95
91
Ibid
Sweden Abroad (2007) Miljörapport. Internet:
http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/Miljoerapport_070427.pdf
93
Swedish international development cooperation agency(SIDA) Internet:
http://www.sida.se/sida/jsp/sida.jsp?d=540
94
State Environmental Protection Agency respondent – quoted in the Swedish Embassy report “ Kinas
miljö- situationen och utmaningarna”, 20070427, Authors translation.
95
Sweden Abroad(2007) Miljörapport. Internet
http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/Miljoerapport_070427.pdf
92
32
2.3.1
Future Challenges for China
Even though the awareness from Chinese authorities has increased, the environmental
problems are becoming worse by every year. According to OECD 96 - 16 of the world’s
20 most polluted cities are located in China. Over 30 percent of the water areas in China
are seriously polluted. In the southern China, over 300 million people do not have water
supply, and in the north it is the water pollution that is the worst problem. OECD have
also estimated that 50 percent of the community waste - and 80 percent of the industrial
waste are wasted in a not controlled or registered. The biological diversity is also
threatened. China is world leading coal producer and has the third biggest coal resources
in the world. The coal industries are currently the most important energy resources for
China’s growing. It seems as China will become the world’s biggest green house gas
polluter, some reports claim they already are. 97
In Beijing the air can reach levels of 300-400 hundred on indexes that score particle
density. Car emissons from almost 3 million cars in Beijing and coal burning factories
are some circumstances to the high levels. This in comparison to European Standards,
where index 50 and over is considered as unhealthy. 98
OECD and the Swedish Embassy report, point at some problems and challenges that the
Chinese government are up against. These challenges concluded from the reports are
collected and summarised by below. 99
•
The political reforms must be more effective and include the cooperation
between government, local governments and institutions. The laws and
regulations are accomplished in theory, but not in reality. Economic incitements
are suggested as catalysts to changes for both the local governments, as well as
for the population to be more environmental. Furthermore, according to OECD,
The Government must also operate the law system so that breaking the rules will
have consequences. Nowadays it costs more to change the techniques and
systems towards a more environmental-friendly construction for the companies,
than to pay the fines.
•
The low price on fuel, electricity and water is also a problem. These resources
are over consumed. This is a problem for the Chinese government as the low
prices are set to help the poorest regions in their developing. If the regime will
raise the prices to much – protests will held in the rural areas and the people in
these areas with low-class conditions are in majority in China.
•
In other countries, different environmental organizations (NGO:s) have made
changes with its environmental lobbying work. In China this work is much more
difficult. Some organisation has been founded in the last years, but they do not
have as great lobbying influence as in other countries. The awareness and
96
OECD report, Internet: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/23/37657409.pdf
Ibid
98
Ibid
99
Sweden Abroad(2007) Miljörapport, OECD report(2006)
97
33
knowledge about the environment must improve in order to stop the unknown
human factor.
•
The growing Chinese middle class, with more money and a “consumerist
identity” are pressuring and - will pressure the environmental status. The
awareness of an ecological lifestyle must increase among the public.
China has an open opinion about environmental concerns such as, their carbon
pollutions and the climate changes. They are against regulated norms and see them self
as a developing country which has the right to step aside from some rules in order to
make way for the economic growth. The Chinese leadership points to the fact that some
of the developed countries, such as the US and Australia, do not sign these regulations,
so why should China? 100 One also has to have in mind that the western world is a part
of these problems. Companies have since the open-doors reform established their
production in China, for its low-priced production and the products are mostly exported
back to the western world consumers. Foreigner companies, most of them from Europe,
are according to the British foreigner ministry institute (Chatman House) standing for
half of the Chinese foreign trade. 101
2.4
Beijing Olympics - “Green Olympics”
As recently been reviewed China have some environmental challenges to struggle. The
environmental questions are though put on the agenda. The “Green Olympic” motto can
in one be seen as a way to address these questions. This chapter will try to explore the
“Green Olympic” message. The contents of this section (2.4) are:
-
2.4.1
A review of the environmental fields in the bidding process which leads forward
to a review over the Beijing Olympics' application and their “Green Olympics”
action plan.
A review of the NGO:s' approach toward a “greening of the Olympics” – with
special focus on The Beijing Games.
Beijing’s Application and the Transformation toward a
“Green Olympics”.
As earlier explained the environment became the third pillar in the philosophy
Olympism, in the mid 90s, and therefore became an import part in the bidding process.
According to Beyer, Sydney won the bid in 1993, because of superiority in comparison
to the Chinese application, even though all economic factors spoke in favour of Beijing.
102
The country of Australia made the sustainable development plan as a vital part of its
application. With a two-vote margin, Sydney became the first city to win the Olympic
bid with a set of coherent environmental criteria’s attached to its application. China
learned a lot from the defeat. After a couple of year’s preparation and by integrating a
100
China Daily 20080317, 2008071
The Swedish institute of international affairs : Internet http://www.ui.se/default.aspx?country_id=81
102
Beyer, 2006
101
34
comprehensive environmental programme, Beijing was now again ready to apply for the
Olympic Games. 103
2.4.2
Beijing’s Bid and its Political Views
The motivation behind the Government's second application was similar to the first in
1993. The Olympics should be seen as a development catalyst for Beijing and the
surrounding areas, but it would also increase China's status as a domestic and
international member. According to Ryan Org, The Olympics would be an important
opportunity for the regime to achieve many goals simultaneously, such as infrastructure
and environmental goals. 104 Heidi Østbø Haugen describes the Beijing’s application as
a mission to achieve “world class” status. Entrepreneurial goals were in focus to restore
Chinese national greatness and gain international respect in order to gain investors and
favourable images of China abroad. 105
Furthermore the environmental field came to play an important role. In China’s overall
motto, “One world, One dream”, the “Green Olympics” motto became together with
“High-tech and people Olympics” the mantra for the Olympics. But the environment
field could have posed a weakness for the Chinese application. Different organisations
and media reported that one of the weaknesses were the cities pollutions problems. 106
Haugen describes though, how China’s big problems with environmental issues went
from being a weakness, to becoming an advantage “ At the IOC conference on the
legacies two years later (2002) environmental concerns were repeatedly cited as a major
reason for granting Beijing the right to host the Olympics.” 107 The Evaluations
Commission describes:
Beijing currently faces a number of environmental pressures and issues, particularly air
pollution. However, it has an ambitious set of plans and actions designed and
comprehensive enough to greatly improve overall environmental conditions. 108
According to Hauge, Beijing tried in its application to see itself as a tool to for the
Olympic Movement to reach its environmental goals. The Beijing application gained a
strong support from the government and the Chinese people. 109 BOGOC stated in its
own bidding material:
An enduring goal for the XXIX Olympic Games will be to popularize the notion that the
environment is the third pillar of Olympism and that sport can be a powerful force in
raising awareness about sustainable development at local and global levels” 110
103
Beyer, 2006
Org, R “New Beijing, Great Olympics: Beijing and its Unfolding Olympic Legacy:
http://www.stanford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal42/china3.pdf
105
Haugen, H-Ø(2003) The construction of Beijing as an Olympic City. SUM Dissertations & Theses No.
05/2002. Internet: http://www.sum.uio.no/publications/pdf_fulltekst/dt2003.05.haugen.pdf
106
Ibid
107
Ibid, p 58.
108
The Evaluations Commissions (2001) Internet:
http://moscow2001.olympic.org/en/pdf/rapport_commission.pdf, p 1
109
Ibid
110
Haugen 2003, p 59
104
35
Furthermore, the Evaluations Commission stated that the results will be a major
environmental legacy for Beijing and the awareness among the population. 111 China
turned itself into an object that needed to be changed and the Olympic movement would
work as catalyst for these changes. Therefore Hauge concludes; “The bid material
thereby reinforces the Olympic Movement’s image as an engine for modernisation and
progress while making the case for giving Beijing the right to host the Olympic Games”
112
According to IOC:s evaluation Commission, Beijing’s application was strengthened by
the government and Beijing’s Municipal Governments support. Their investments and
co-operations with the Beijing Sustainable Development plan, costing 12,2 billion
dollars during the period 1998-2007, including 20 key projects and anti-pollution
measures. For the Olympic Games actions the OCOG had a budget consisting of 118
million US dollars spread over different departments. 113
Haugen labels Beijing’s bid as an ecological modernist bid - because of its relationships
between the environment, the economy and state intervention. The key features were the
mutual benefits of economic development and environmental protection, the role of
markets dynamics, innovators and entrepreneurs in ecological reform. Technological
and organisational improvements are in focus to show environmental legacies of the
Beijing Olympics. 114
The Beijing application committee claimed that their environmental plans and actions
will leave “The greatest Olympic Games Environmental legacy ever.” Many goals are
not specifically linked to the Olympics but according to Evaluation Commission the bid
has provided, will provide and make environmental reforms go faster. 115 Both Hague
and the evaluations committee for the Olympic Games, described that it could be seen
that the BOCOG presents itself as an environmental leader and role model for
environmental processes in China.
2.4.3
The “Green Olympics” Process and Participators
After the election in 2001 the Beijing Organisation Committee for Organising the
Games (BOCOG) published a three-phase-plan for the Olympics and also an action plan
which outlined the committee’s strategic themes and its overall plan. In 2005, BOGOC
and UNEP signed an agreement for the commitment to host the “Green Games”. The
“Green Olympics” concept was launched by BOCOG and the Beijing Municipal
Government to promote the environment. BOCOG coordinated environmental issues in
the construction and venues across all cities and in the organization of activities. Beijing
Municipal Government handled city-wide environmental improvement efforts including
111
Ibid
Ibid p 85
113
The Evaluation Commission ,2001
114
Haugen, 2003
115
The Evaluation Commission , 2001
112
36
pollution control measures, renovation and expansion of public transport and the overall
greening of Beijing. 116
2.4.4
An Overview of Beijing’s Plan of the “Greening of the
Olympics”
The authorities in China invested 118 million US dollars on environmental projects for
the games. The games were included in the Beijing environmental master plan, an
environmental protection program for the period 1996-2015. The 12,2 billion dollars
that should be spend through Beijing’s master plan with its 20 key projects and antipollution measures, also had a big effect on the Olympic Action Plan. The plan's
integration into the application accelerated some deadlines. Originally planned to be
reached in 2010, they were now moved to 2008, the year of the games. 117
The Olympic Action Plan stated that priority will be given to environmental protection
in the preparations for planning, designing and constructing of Olympic venues and
facilities. Ecological standards and environmentally friendly systems shall be
established, such as protection technologies to promote environmental treatment. The
awareness among the public for green consumption should also increase. The key
indicators in the action plan can be divided in different factors such as, improvement of
air quality, water environment, ecological conservation and construction, industrial
pollution and solid waste management. Also educational programmes were established
mostly in cooperation with different NGO:s - to raise the awareness among the
population. 118
The main issuesof the action plan were:
- Air Quality, Increase the air quality by developing new technologies, such as
electrical automobiles. Implemented a new vehicle regulation, similar to The
European Unions automotive standard, by 2010. A “even – odd” number plate
reform. On certain days the Beijing population is not allowed to drive their car in
the Beijing area, depending on their licence plate number.
-
Industrial pollutions, a environmental management system, ISO4001 will be
introduced to all key enterprises, to practice clean production. The chemical
industrial zone and some 200 polluting enterprises within the fourth ring would
by 2008 be relocated. 119 The Capital Iron & Steel Plant should also reduce its
steel production by 200 million tons, and review its method toward more clean
production. Some heavy polluting industries were also meant to be closed.
-
Water Environment, By 2008, Beijing wanted to achieve the goal of water
quality in its area reservoirs as similar to national standards. Beijing also wanted
to resume function as a drinking water source in order to agree with the WHO
116
UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An Environmental Review. Internet:
http://www.unep.org/downloads/BeijingReport.pdf
117
Ibid
118
Ibid
119
Ibid
37
Guidelines. Furthermore water savings, agricultural pollution preventing and
urban wastewater treatment system improving stood on the agenda. 120
-
Ecological Conversation and Construction. The Beijing action plan goals were
to build the capital into a ecological city, with green hills, clear water, grass
covered ground and blue sky. By 2007, Beijing´s urban green coverage should
be raised around 50 percent. 121
The “Green Olympic”- impact can truly be seen in the Beijing Olympic symbols. The
Beijing Olympics have five mascots, four of them representing the natural elements.
According to the BOCOG homepage “the mascots promotes environmental awareness
and underline the Beijing’s commitments.”122
2.4.5
Conclusion over the BOCOG “Green Olympic and Action
Plans.
“Green Olympics” was integrated with the High-tech and people's Olympics and
worked as a motto toward the Beijing Olympics. The Olympic Action plan was also
integrated into the 12,2 billion dollars Beijing’s environmental master plan.
The leading words for the action plan, was to build an ecological and balanced city. In
integration with the High-tech Olympics and people's Olympics, the Green Olympic
motto was promoting environmental protection. Ecological standards and environmental
friendly systems were to be established, such as environmental technologies in the
construction of the Olympic Games venues and facilities. 123
Education programs in order to raise the environmental awareness throughout the whole
society were also a cornerstone of the “Green Olympic” motto. The public should be
encouraged to play an important role in the action aimed at ecological environment
improvement. 124
BOCOG coordinated environmental issues in the construction of venues across all
cities, and in the organisation of activities. Beijing Municipal Government handled citywide environmental improvement efforts including pollution control measures,
renovation and expansion of public transport and the overall greening of Beijing.
These organisations had the overall responsibility to fulfill their goal of “The greatest
Olympic Games Environmental legacy ever.” 125
120
UNEP 2007
Ibid
122
The official website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Internet
http://en.beijing2008.cn/spirit/beijing2008/graphic/n214068254.shtml
123
UNEP, 2007
124
Beijing Official website international. Internet:
http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Government/Mayor_office/Mayor_bulletin/t929893.htmIbid
125
UNEP 2007, p 24
121
38
2.4.6
The NGO:s Perspective Toward the Beijing Olympics
BOCOG and Beijing Municipal Government, (including Beijing´s environmental
Bureau), cooperated with different NGO:s, toward a “Green Olympics”. In UNEP’s
report Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An Environmental Review 126 three different
NGOs, Greenpeace, World Wide Fund of Nature (WWF) and Conservation
International (CI), reported their perspective toward the Beijing Games and the “Green
Olympics”. The case study NGO: representatives are Greenpeace China, Roots &
Shoots and Fuping Development Institute. Therefore this section will put focus on
Greenpeace China and their environmental view in the UNEP report.
Greenpeace guidelines were provided to increase BOCOGs of the organisations
standards. Greenpeace commented and supported BOCOG in their work toward a Green
Olympics. Greenpeace highlighted different important environmental areas to alert
BOCOG to carry out improvements. Areas such as forest protection, food safety,
improvement of Olympic Sponsors commitments, strengthen the dialogue between the
BOCOG, NGO:s and media, as well as the raise of public awareness were issues for the
Greenpeace lobbying. 127
All Organisations describes in UNEP:s report Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An
Environmental Review, that the work were heading toward a positive result and that
Beijing Committee in many perspectives showed interest to take part in the
Organisations expertise.
Still, all the Organisations also reminded the Olympic Movement and BOCOG in
different important fields. In the report Greenpeace reminds The IOC of the importance
to make environmental standards a requirement rather than an option. Violators breaking
these roles should be punished. 128
Greenpeace also suggests that sponsors and contractors who have the best environmental
practises should be rewarded missions. Information and all environmental data must be
available in order to let third parties review the environmental wins and losses of all
Olympic Games. Third-party stakeholders should also be consulted while developing
environmental guidelines. 129
Furthermore Greenpeace concludes that the long-term legacies beyond the Beijing
Olympics, are depending on whether the Chinese Government learns from the Olympics
to integrate environmental concerns in the overall development policy. These knowledge
and awareness must also increase among the Chinese population in order to engage
environment protection. Finally Greenpeace “...urges BOCOG to use this opportunity
given by the Olympics to spark a new era for sustainable development and to
demonstrate environmental leadership globally.” 130
126
Ibid
UNEP 2007
128
Ibid
129
Ibid
130
Ibid, p 4
127
39
2.4.7
The Result of the “Green Olympics” Beyond the Olympics
and the Work
Presently, (Autumn 2009), the Beijing Olympics and Paralympics is over. Other
questions such as the global financial crisis have taken the spotlight in the international
debate. However, the Olympics last in our memories. Over seven years of planning
resulted in one of the biggest Olympics ever with 1,7 million volunteers, 11,468
Olympic athletes, 6,7 millions spectators and 4,7 billion TV-viewers. 131 The Olympic
Games truly provided an opportunity for Beijing to think about its developmental
priorities. But how “Green” was in fact the Beijing Games?
In the waiting for the IOC:s OGI-study that are under construction, studies from
UNEP 132 and The NGO, Greenpeace International 133 will form this section (2.4.9) in
the aim to shed a light on the Beijing Olympics – “green Olympic” – motto and its
profits and missed opportunities. The reports will be reviewed and match to the
BOCOG aims according to Green Olympic Action plan.
Air Quality
BOCOG have according to their action plan achieved some mission concerning the air
quality. These actions include vehicles been replaced with natural gas and Euro
standards, industries having switched from coal-fired energy generation toward less
polluting fuels and industries with sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide have also been
reduced. UNEP notes that, “Significant efforts before and during the games were
focused on improving Beijing’s air quality, and that the air quality improved
significantly.” 134 The number of blue sky days (days with an Air pollution index of 100
below) rose from less than 180 in 2000 to 274 in 2008. 135
UNEP reports though some remaining concerns. Still over 1000 new cars being daily
registered. And with Coal still working as a key energy fuel, some key pollutants
remain high. Beijing’s location, surrounded by mountains, makes the air standing still.
During the spring of 2006, eighteen dust storms endured the city. 136 Another big
concern is missed opportunities to reduce the greenhouse gases. 137 Greenpeace salutes
BOCOG:s hard work toward better air quality, but the temporary measures, such as
reducing vehicle and shutting down industrial production to meet standards during the
Games does not result in any long-term legacy. Greenpeace concludes that clean
131
UNEP (2008) Independent environment assessment – Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Internet:
http://www.unep.org/publications/UNEP-eBooks/BeijingReport_ebook.pdf
132
UNEP 2007, 2008
133
Greenpeace(2008) China after the Olympics – a lesson from Beijing. Internet
http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/china/en/press/reports/green.pdf
134
UNEP 2008, p 29
135
Ibid
136
Ibid
137
UNEP, 2006
40
production measures should have been used more widely across and the standards were
not meet during the whole year. 138
Water and Waste
Investments in different system concerning water, sewage treatment and rainwater
harvesting and intelligent irrigation systems have given a positive effect. The minimized
water use and maximized efficient use of existing water resources and protection of the
water ecosystems could be used as an international example. China should according to
UNEP continue with these achievements in other venues and constructions. 139
The BOCOG have also set a target to recycle at least 50 percent of the waste (paper,
metal, plastics at venues). UNEP commends the test run, during the World Softball
Championships in 2005, were over 90 percent of the waste was recycled. According to
the report organisers has also achieved an extraordinary effort by avoiding chemicals
that damages the Ozone layer. 140
Both UNEP and Greenpeace were still though concerned by the fact that the main focus
was on waste processing rather than waste minimisation. Greenpeace regarded the fact
the Games were not used as an opportunity to move toward a zero-waste policy as a
missed opportunity. 141
Ecological conversation and construction
Both UNEP and Greenpeace describes that the city has become greener. The 900
hectare Olympic green area with its rare species and drought resistant species, covers a
lot of the total 1.160 hectare. An Olympic park, with 580 hectare forest in the city has
also been opened during the Olympics and will serve as a green lung after the Olympics.
The Olympics also made it easier for the government to implement future sustainable
transport initiatives. Furthermore, new subways and eco-friendly buses were
established. 142
Education
The government ministries, the city councils, environmental groups, schools, the private
sector and local communities (NGO:s) have all been spreading the “Green Olympics”
message. Activities such as “reserve a barrel of water this summer“Green Home
campaigns “Close to the nature hand in hand with Fuwa exhibition” - travelling ,
“bring your own plastic bag” and “bring our on chopsticks” are some examples of
environmental friendly activities. However, UNEP still feels that more can be done
concerning the environmental awareness generated in the whole country and for visitors
attending to the Olympics. 143 Greenpeace commends the BOCOG:s dialogue with
138
Greenpeace 2008
UNEP, 2008
140
UNEP, 2008
141
UNEP, 2008, Greenpeace 2008
142
UNEP, 2008
143
Ibid
139
41
NGO:s as a positive step toward collaborations between government and the Chinese
community. 144
Concluded profits
The BOCOG and the Beijing municipal government have according to Greenpeace
created a positive legacy for the city of Beijing. Both UNEP(2006) and Greenpeace
(2008) commends BOCOG work in areas covering:
•
•
•
•
•
Waste management
Cleaner transport systems
Water treatment
The phazing-out of ozone delegating chemicals,
Provision of energy effiency and green-energy techniques at buildings and
sport venues.
The UNEP report described:
UNEP believes the variety of clean energy and energy saving solutions being employed by
venue designers in Beijing provides a positive showcase and an inspiration for future games
organizers. 145
The UNEP report from 2006 stated that the games were proving to be a catalyst for an
increase of environmental improvements across the city of Beijing. The executive
director of UNEP, Achim Steiner, declared that many promises toward a Green Games
were accomplished. “They have fulfilled the promise of a Green games in many areas
including public transport, waste treatment and Green Olympics venues. “ 146
In addition, the UNEP report stated that Beijing raised the environmental bar and the
games left a lasting legacy for the city. The Olympics were also arranged in a rapidly
developing city, in a country with development problems. These circumstances make
the achievement even more impressive. 147
Missed opportunities
According to Greenpeace the lack of openness have made it hard to verify whether
BOCOG:s set of guidelines were achieved. 148 UNEP also describe a lack of information
such as methology and reliable figures made it difficult to assess the carbon footprint of
international flights. 149
Although Greenpeace commend the positive step of cooperation between government
and NGO:s , Greenpeace noted some concerns:
144
Greenpeace, 2008
UNEP 2006, p 57
146
UNEP 2008. Press release. Internet:
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=562&ArticleID=6086&l=en
147
UNEP, 2008
148
Greenpeace, 2008
149
UNEP, 2008
145
42
“China still has a long ways to go in engaging with civil society as true partners. Chinese
official governing bodies could have worked more with environmental NGOs to further
efforts to green the Games as well as to further engage the public if more open, regular and
transparent communication had been established. Currently, there is still limited
communication between NGO groups and government. Environmental information needs
to be more transparent and easily accessible to ensure third party assessment and scrutiny
all Olympic Games.” 150
Another missed opportunity was insufficient cooperation with non-governmental
organizations in order to benefit from their expertise on areas such as cutting the
Olympic and Paralympics games carbon footprint. 151
Beijing had in 2006 not openly declared any commitments to reduce the green house
gases. 152 According to UNEP, Beijing continues to rely on coal for 40 per cent of its
energy consumption. UNEP suggested that the supply of clean and renewable energy
must increase. 153 Furthermore, UNEP describes that more could have been done
concerning the environmental awareness generated in the whole country and for visitors
attending the Olympics. The short-term solutions such as closing down industries and
reducing car use (number plate campaign) have given effect, now they have to further
develop into long-term solutions. 154
Greenpeace once again establish, in addition, that the International Olympic Committee
has an important role to play in ensuring that all Olympic host cities meet some minimal
environmental standards. 155
The UNEP and Greenpeace reports finally concluded that the interesting part is to see
how the profits can develop into long –term legacies. “The challenges are now how
Beijing and China, consolidates the achievements of the games and turn them into green
legacy in the long term.” 156
150
Greenpeace 2008, p 43
UNEP, 2008
152
UNEP, 2006
153
UNEP, 2008
154
UNEP, 2006
155
Greenpeace, 2008
156
UNEP 2008 press release. Internet:
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=562&ArticleID=6086&l=en
151
43
3
ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENT
TOWARD GREEN OLYMPICS
OPINIONS
The collected material from the interviews, written questionnaire and observations will
be categorised first and then analysed and interpreted, in the light of environmental
political discourses and former reports.
3.1
Environmental Changes in the Combination with the
Organisations´ Culture and Interests.
All the respondent were asked how they viewed the Olympic Movement, The Olympic
Games and third pillar of Olympism, the Environment. The same type of questions were
also asked about the Beijing Olympics and the ”Green Olympic” motto.
Generally all the participators at first described the Olympic movement and the Olympic
Games as a sporting event that proclaims peace, cultural exchange and friendship.
I think it is every four years – a special moment for all humans. The Olympic joy and
peace. In this time every war must be stopped. So, only for the Olympics – I think that not
anything else can do this – only the Olympics. (Volunteer leader Jimmy 2008)
The senior designer, Mr Zhang Jun, at the Top-sponsor Lenovo-group explained the
Chinese saying, that “ The Olympics is coming to our house”. Both Mr Zhang Jun and
the volunteers in the group interview described the Olympic Games as a big party where
different cultures and countries are integrated.
The environmental perspectives of the Olympic Games are explained as an approach
working in collaboration with the Olympism two originally pillars, sport and culture and
Olympic fundamental principles. The IOC respondent Ms Michelle Lemaitre describes
that the education of the fundamental principals through sport is still in centre : “...in a
spirit of excellence, friendship and respect”. Ms Lemaitre further explains that the
environment is the third pillar of Olympism. “This means the Olympic Movement has a
responsibility to address environmental issues”. The respondents viewed the IOC as a
movement that takes responsibility.
The IOC care about the environment – they see the environment challenges faced by all
human beings in the global world. In this matter point they have a sort of connection, and
the IOC wants to play an active role and they influence some other big operations to take
social responsibility. (Mr Liajian Zhen, Fuping Development Institute 2008)
Ms Lemaitre summarises the IOC:s environmental goals and responsibilities, as two
sided. Firstly, IOC must ensure that the Olympic Games are held in conditions in
accordance to environmental issues. According to Ms Lemaitre major efforts have been
accomplished in the cooperation with organising committees, UNEP and NGO:s. The
valuable experiences from past and future Organising Committees are collected in
transfer programmes, the experiences must not be lost from one game to another.
44
The second goal is according to Ms Lemaitre more on a global scale. The IOC promotes
its educational programmes in this field among the members of the Olympic family. The
Guidance shall according to Ms. Lemaitre turn the general principles of sustainable
development, as Agenda 21 serves, into specific actions and programmes for the
organisations within the Olympic Movement.
The participators representing the NGO:s - Greenpeace China, Fuping Development
Institute and Roots & Shoots, are all describing the Olympic Movement and the
Olympic Games initially as a sporting event with the mission to create peace and
friendship. But the Olympic Games is a big event that includes different perspectives.
The NGO:s describe that the Games can be used to create certain ideals, in this case for
sustainable effects. The Greenpeace representative describes:
I think pre dominantly it is a sport event, that’s what it is...I think it though is certain, the
Games can be used in certain ideals for example, sustainable probabilities and issues like
that....but i think if we don’t have binding targets or binding rules these remain ideals and
the cities can use the Olympics, to whatever they want. (Ms Amy Chang, Greenpeace China
2008)
3.1.1
The Vision of an Impressive Olympics
The respondents acknowledge that China and Beijing have environmental challenges to
face. The environmental questions have been put on the political agenda.
As you know because of the fast development of the economy - we have some problems. I
think that’s not our future. Sometimes we have to have fast development – two hundred
years ago the western culture develops their economy by using other countries resources –
but we can’t. We have some problems but we want to change these. You will find some or
our product that are environmental friendly. Green is the future. In China the people start to
think that this is more and more important.(Mr Zhang Jun, Lenovo Group 2008)
The Beijing Olympic motto “Green Olympics” is viewed as a way for the Government
to address environmental questions. Firstly, it is seen one important instrument in the
overall goal, aiming to host an impressive Olympics.
...in China it’s about national pride, we say; we will host an excellent – the best Olympics
ever, everybody wants to do something to make it happen. So, if the government says; to be
more environmental will help and do your part to help the Olympics, people will think, all
right, I will do it. It’s a good opportunity for us to green the whole country. (Ms Zee Zee
Zhang , Roots and Shoots 2008)
Volunteer leader Jimmy explains these matters further when he describes the Beijing
Olympics as a catalyst for modernisation.
Before the Beijing hold the games is hard to imagine how the City can be rebuild so quickly
in seven years. So the Olympics for us, is a change to let our people live more modern
more soon. I didn’t say Beijing not will had been modern anyway. I just want to say that the
Olympics give us a chance to live more modern sooner than before.(Volunteer leader,
Jimmy 2008)
45
Secondly, some of the respondent also agreed in the matter of integration between the
Olympic Movement and the Beijing Olympics environmental approaches. Beijing stated
in its own Olympic bidding material:
An enduring goal for the XXIX Olympic Games will be to popularize the notion that the
environment is the third pillar of Olympism and that sport can be a powerful force in the
raising awareness about sustainable development at local and global levels. 157
The Green Olympic motto showed that both sides, IOC and BOCOG, care about the
environment and the questions are on the agenda. The Greenpeace respondent explains.
I think that the thinking at that time(bidding process 1993) was not to given the Olympics
to Beijing because Beijing will become the Greenest city - but maybe it gone help to
encourage certain environmental initiatives, in a developing country especially, to take
place. Because the Olympics is a huge event and invests a lot of money – so why not invest
it in areas where it can push the city to developing more sustainable grades. (Ms Amy
Chang 2008)
Shoots & Roots respondent explains this matter further:
So, I think, people now associate the Olympics with the environment and this is not a bad
thing for IOC, because right now global warning and climate changes are such hot topics, it
doesn´t hurt for the IOC to have this Green topic. It is probably proper for them. (Ms Zee
Zee Zhang 2008)
The Swedish Journalist Ola Wong, stationed in China, views the Olympic Games as an
event that wants to grow in importance. He states that the decision to let Beijing host
the Olympics was one example of this aim. The choice was further a result of the
Chinese economy and its status in the international sphere.
3.1.2
The Observations
During my field study I also had the opportunity to travel to the southern parts of China.
In the city of Guilin, I meet Lei, an physical educations teacher at Guilins University.
Lei had had the honour to run with the Olympic torch on its arrival to his hometown. Lei
was very proud and discussed about the Olympics as a opportunity to show China and its
true face and he welcomed all visitors to embrace the Chinese culture and to exchange
joy and happiness. Lei´s pride to parade his homeland during the Olympic weeks was
generally seen over all the places I visited during the summer of 2008. The message was
to welcome all foreigners to collect their own view of cultures China, a country striving
for modernisation.
3.1.3
Analysis and Interpretation
In the participant´s answers one can still explore that sport and culture still are the two
central pillars that describes the Olympic Movement (The IOC) and the Olympic Games.
The participators views of the Olympic movements ideals and roles, match in many
ways the result from Michael Payne’s study, where he investigated the Olympic DNA.
157
Haugen , p 59
46
His four key prepositions; hope for a better world, fulfilling dreams, friendship and fair
play are also themes that can be viewed in the participants’ answers.
The Green Business discourse with its three poles, (The Ecoeffiency, The Nature
capitalism and The Ecological modernism) place the “growth” and environmentalism in
collaboration into a profit-making direction. Companies are proudly proclaiming their
responsibility and work to create sustainable development. The Olympic Movement and
the BOCOG organisation proudly proclaim their environmental approach. The third
pillar of Olympism, environment reaches other important areas in the international
sphere, where the Olympic Movement can be an important actor. The Olympics hosted
in a rapidly growing city/country can develop the Olympic spirit including the “green”
message. The government supported the “Green Olympics” as a way to address their
responsibilities and work, which according to the NGO:s participators is in accordance
to the Olympic Movement ideals.
Toward a EcoEffiency and Ecological modernism discourse
The respondent views are indicating that both BOCOG and the IOC shows similarities
toward an eco-efficient and ecological modern discourse. Their environmental
approaches are working in collaboration with the companies´/organisations´ original
culture and goals. The Olympic Movement´s sport and culture message is still in centre,
but the organisation wants to take environmental responsibility when these questions are
important on the international agenda.
The participators views BOCOG:s approach toward the “Green Olympic” as a way for
the government to address environmental questions. The goal to host an impressive
Olympics, strongly included the green message. The Olympics was also seen as a
catalyst for modernisation in Beijing and China. Haugen describes that the motivation
behind the governmental bid, was to see the Olympics as an engine for Beijing and
surrounding areas. Haugen states that entrepreneurial goal were in focus to restore
Chinese national greatness and gain international respect. The Olympics was from the
Chinese side an opportunity to achieve many goals simultaneously, including
environmental goals. 158
3.2
“Green Olympics” – Who shall have the Political
Control?
According to the IOC respondent, Ms Lemaitre, the Olympic Games shall be held in
conditions accordance to environmental issues. The IOC as the coordinator of the
Olympic Movement has according to Ms Lemaitre a leading position, and works close
relation to the UNEP, the leading international institution in the field of environment.
Commitments are made with cooperation with National Organising Committees, in this
case the BOCOG organisation. The IOC promotes educational programs. General
principles of sustainable development, such as Agenda 21, shall be specific to actions for
the Olympic family and the Olympic Games. The IOC is by the respondents seen as a
responsible organisation, which have acknowledged and established guidelines to work
158
Haugen , 2003
47
in accordance to the environment. In one manual, the Guide on Sport, Environment and
Sustainable development, the IOC states that the contribution of the Olympic Movement
must be a complement. The main responsibilities to protect the environment are still
laying with the Governments. 159
The respondents agree over that the governmental control and impact over the “Green
Olympic” process have been high. The Green Olympic motto is once again seen as a
way for the Government to address their work for environmental improvement.
So I think for our government to feature the environment for Beijing Olympics it also
demonstrates the need and resolution of our government to create a better environment to
improve the pollution in China, because it has become a big problem for the country and
our government needs to address it and this is one way for the government to say, it is on
our agenda, we are looking at it right now.( Ms Zee Zee Zhang 2008)
Beijings Muncipal Government had the overall responsibility for the city-wide
environmental improvement, including polluting control measures, public transport and
the “Greening of Beijing”. The NGO:s respondent explains that the Government are the
financier behind the green initiatives.
...they have invested a lot of money into green initiatives, they have also set aside various
plans to everything from dealing in air quality to raising emission standards in the city - to
building transportation infrastructure - to reduce the moving to effect our energy - so it is
really, its definitely a lot of achievements that Beijing has achieved. There are also thinks
could have be more force able about, but it have definitely been an encouraging toward
green awareness in the City.(Ms Amy Chang 2008)
In general the respondents describe that the Governmental uses its influence and power
in the work toward “Green Olympics. The government’s enthusiasm to address these
questions has given effect.
I think it is positive - when you say green Olympics it makes people think about the
environment they are in and it makes people see what they can do to be more
environmental. I think again – because it comes from the Government it is more effective
that way in terms of driving the media, press here, in terms of spreading the word, it is
much more effective than a small organisation like us, because it reaches out to a large
audience and cover the whole country. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang 2008)
The Greenpeace respondent proclaims higher responsibility from the IOC and the
hosting cities. The problem with the IOC:s Guidelines and sustainable ideas are the
guiding principle. Different cities can therefore create their own projects and targets.
The Greenpeace environmental guidelines see the IOC and Olympic Games as an
instrument in the work for solutions to global environmental problems.
Greenpeace actually dropped an environmental guideline at the Sydney Olympics. So, we
have specific criterias and things that we would like see the games accomplish in order to
be a Green Games. So there are 24 points on various things, everything from sponsor
159
The IOC: Manual on sport and environment internet:
http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report963.pdf
48
responsibility to public engagement – all various things that can be done for the
environment ( Ms Amy Chang 2008)
According to Greenpeace the IOC should put direct pressure on the hosting cities to
fulfil these guidelines. Greenpeace China’s respondent suggests that applying cities
should have environmental assessment factors, targets to be met, and if these targets not
are met, the hosting city should be considered incapable to host “Green Games”.
…but if it were to be binding, it would have stronger impact on cities. Especially if the IOC
could transform a specific system to compare the active fields in different cities and help
out carrying and take lesson we have learn forward to future systems.( Ms Amy Chang
2008)
Greenpeace environmental guidelines even support the fact that national laws and strong
penalties shall be available in order to implement the guidelines.
3.2.1
Observation - The Political Control
The Green Olympic motto was, as all other information about the Olympics, hot topics
in media, during the field study. In the media different positive environmental initiatives
from organisations, schools, citizens were highlighted, often in cooperation with
governmental participators. On train stations and in airports commercials were
informing the citizens how they could be more environmentally friendly. The
environment a popular topic on the political agenda, and the “green Olympic” was one
way to address these questions.
3.2.2
Analysis and Interpretation - Green Olympics and the
Political Control
In the respondents view one can see that the IOC and its main display, the Olympic
Games is an important instrument for environmental improvements. Ms Lemaitre views
the IOC as a coordinator, leading the work, closely to UNEP. The Olympic Movement’s
contributions is only one part of the work toward sustainable development, the main
responsibilities are still lying with the government.
The respondent’s view about the organizations shows similarities with the ecological
modernism discourse. Beijing Olympics was a integration between the state, the
economy and the environment. The “Green Olympics” motto was strongly supported
and financed by the government, as a way to address their environmental work.
Further, the Greenpeace respondent proclaimed is similarity to the Greenpeace
guidelines that binding targets should be established. In this case, the IOC control must
increase to put pressure on host cities to accomplish these targets. The lobbying for
national laws and penalties, are also increasing the political control over the work
toward “Green Games”. In addition, the IOC describes their work as a coordinator,
leading the work, but they also acknowledges that the main responsibility still is lying
with the Government.
49
3.3
Technical improvement under Political Control
The respondents all agree that one of the Beijing Olympics highest profits was the
investments in ecological constructions and systems. The “Green Olympic” theme was
collaborating with the people and high-tech themes as the Beijing Olympics mottos. Mr
Chen Jiliang at FDI, reviews the Green Olympic theme as a slogan to demonstrate Hightechnology. BOCOG stated that the Olympics should have minimized negative impact
on the environment. Resources were settled to be implemented in the preparation and
construction of Olympic venues. The government was viewed by the respondents as the
leading financier for these high-tech investments.
The volunteers highlights technical solutions, mentioning the solar and wind systems,
along with the recyclable methods, which according to the volunteers means less
pollutions and cleaner air. Ms Lemaitre at the IOC also describes the BOCOG:s efforts
to use green standards in the building of Olympic venues. Ms Lemaitre takes the
Olympic Village as one example. The village was awarded a LEED gold certification for
its green standards from the U.S Green Building Council.
The Beijing Olympic with its goals to build an ecological city, use environmental
friendly technology, is from the respondent views seen as a showcase for China in their
strive to develop nationally. Greenpeace respondent describes:
...if you talking about specific initiatives for the games a lot of them are very Beijing
focused just because the Olympics is taking place here, but actually one of the most
important things that could happen from the games is that...the Olympic Games are from
our perspective a kind of a opportunity for a city to introduce a lot of new technology that
could later be widely applied, in the case of China that are developing so quickly that are
lot of cities, just starting to get shape and its very important to them to introduce this new
technology into buildings constructions and policies inside cities to be more environmentfriendly. (Ms Amy Chang 2008)
The respondents are viewing the “Green Olympics” as a catalyst for
environmental improvement. The process has been sped up.
I think that the Olympics really have pushed a lot of, in terms of policies the Government
have sped up a lot of it Beijing 15- year plan and a lot of environmental work have been
pushed ahead. The introduction of the new emission standards have been pushed ahead two
years before the games - and I think it really have spread up…The process yeah, I think it’s
a catalysis for this changes but it is hard to say what happens, probably there are indicators
that these policies that are there, probably had take place but in longer terms. (Ms Amy
Chang 2008)
To summarise, the respondent acknowledges the long-term legacies of technical
improvements, such as infrastructures, transportation, and the new technology in
buildings.
...so in terms of pulling energy development, it would be really great - if all this new
technology in infrastructure could be mandated to be used in all new buildings to safe
energy. I guess that are positive indicators, there are more sustainable models that can take
place, and that’s definitely something that should be nationally. (Ms Amy Chang 2008)
50
According to Greenpeace, their guideline includes criterias toward sustainable
models, in order to be a “Green Games”. Ms Lemaitre explains that the IOC
encourages organising committees to maximize sustainability, in the constructions
of venues and infrastructure, but also to stage the games themselves. According to
Ms Lemaitre, BOCOG:s “Green Olympic” philosophy reflected this and will
leave a great legacy for China.
3.3.1
Observation- Technical Improvements
In 2007, I was in Beijing for a ten day vacation. In the summer of 2008, I returned and
during one year one could see many improvements. Beijing was definitely greener,
concerning more trees and bushes. The transportation had improved with new buses and
subway lines were in traffic. The air was fresher and a blue sky was appearing. When I
spoke to the locals, they were really happy about the development, firstly about that the
reduced air pollution, that really had made a big difference in their lives. Many
hotels/hostels had a more environmental touch, by using a recyclable system regarding
waste. They were also lobbying for the guest to use not so much water during showers.
During my visits to different events and venues, such as The Olympic Stadium/Birdnest
and Watercube (swimming arena) one could see top-modern venues. The government
had invested a lot of money, in top modern venues with “Green Standards”.
3.3.2
Analysis and Interpretation of Technical Improvements
In the respondents views the “Green Olympic” motto and its governmental investments
shows similarities with the Green Theory discourses (Eco-Effiency and Ecological
Modernism) discussing environmental technical improvements under political control.
The Government invests a lot of money to achieve different environmental standards.
The economic development, environmental protection and ecological reforms were
integrated in the Chinese government’s work toward sustainable development. Hauge
160
and Org 161 claimed that the motivation behind the governmental actions, was to see
the Olympic as a engine for Beijing and surrounding areas. All these new technology
can also be a step toward modernisation.
The “Green Olympic motto worked in collaboration with the High-tech motto, in order
to use new “green technology” in the constructions of the Olympic venues. The
participants describe just as the UNEP and Greenpeace report 162 that the Olympics
worked as a showcase and inspiration for the variety of clean energy and energy saving
solutions. The participators are lobbying for Beijing being used as a good example to be
nationally spread. A future challenge is to develop all these technical profits. It is still
the government´s responsibility and their political agenda if the modernization will be
spread nationally.
160
Hauge, 2003
Org, (Found 2009, http://www.standford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal42/china3.pdf)
162
UNEP 2009, Greenpeace 2008
161
51
3.4
Peoples Olympics – The Olympic Games as an
Instrument for Public Awareness, toward an Ecological
Lifestyle!
The respondents agree with the fact that the environment has been highlighted and that
the awareness among the chinese people have been raised. The volunteers’ participating
in the group interview described that people nowadays pay more attention to these
questions. The Green Olympics are an opportunity to talk about these questions.
Volunteer leader Jimmy explains:
So, every little thing we can do to make it greener so, yes thanks to the Green Olympic and
the spirit we all memorize. Yes we can actually do something for it, I think it’s more than a
motto it’s about a lifestyle (Volunteer leader Jimmy 2008)
The NGO:s respondents describes the Olympics as an opportunity to raise awareness
through different campaigns.
...so for Greenpeace the Olympics is really a good opportunity for us to get environmental
awareness. Basically we see it as a good opportunity to, for cities as a showcase, green
technology for instance, raise public awareness concerning environmentalism.( Ms Amy
Chang 2008)
The BOCOG cooperated with different organisations to implement education programs
in order to raise environmental awareness. The programs should also according to
BOCOG, encourage the public to play an active role for ecological environmental
improvement. The NGO’s also describe that their work got more attention from
governmental institutions.
I think for Beijing to host the Olympics is working towards our advantage. It is because our
government says we are going Green Olympics, That is coming for from the central
government and we do feel that the local government in Shanghai, they do pay more
attention to our work, and they will give us a call , so for The Green Olympics, what are the
activities/programs you are running. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang)
Ms Lemaitre at the IOC salutes the cooperations between BOCOG.s and local
environmental NGO:s. She also acknowledges BOCOG:s cooperation in their work to
reduce the environmental impact in preparations for the games. The Greenpeace
respondent acknowledges the cooperations but describes that their lobbying work still is
limited.
BOCOG, the Organisation Committee they have been more opened than previous
governments and agencies. But NGO:s in China still have a long way to go – previously
Olympic games for example, Turin Olympics definitely NGO:s had more improvement to
pushing the government to do something. Is kind of getting better but there are more to do.
(Ms Amy Chang 2008)
The NGO´s expresses that their environmental lobbying and ability in many cases
depend on the government’s willingness to embrace their expertise. The FDI
respondent, Mr Liajian Zhen describes that the environmental processes must go along
52
with the political reforms in China and he states that the real challenge is to change
people’s mindset.
Awareness is only one thing. It needs support policies. I have a friend that drove his car
everyday to his work. But now days his taken the subway – because he has a station nearby.
He even changed when the oil prices were very low. This is just a question about how
important it is to support environmental friendly policies. Make it easier. (Mr Liajian Zhen
2008)
The NGO’s were hoping that the successful campaigns toward environmental awareness
would continue even after the Olympics. But according to the NGO´s it is up to the
government how they want to take this question further.
…The Olympics can be the beginning for long-term environmental movement here in
China. But honestly I don’t know what’s on the governments agenda. But how much
resources is going to be allocated to drive the green moment here, or if laws will be in
place, the whole infrastructure and the institutions will be set up to reinforce environmental
law and regulations here. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang 2008)
3.4.1
Observation - Raised Awareness
In newspapers one acknowledged that the public welcomed the improvements in the
urban environment. China Daily 163 describes that parts of Beijing were now almost free
from pollutions comparing to earlier when smoke and pollution were the sign of
development. Western media showed a more sceptical view about the achievement,
concerning air quality and the appearance of a blue sky. The shut down of industries in
Beijing, with nearby areas and the car number plate campaign was mostly seen as
temporary measures to fulfil the standards to create suitable environments during the
Olympic culmination. 164 But the interesting part was the way the Chinese newspapers
described the citizen new demand, which also the Jim the Volunteer leader described;
“The Olympics is only a start of a marathon to catch up with the citizens new demands”.
The new demands are basic needs, to have clean air and fresh water. Because of the
“Green Olympics” many citizens took notice of the environmental work that different
NGO:s actually are doing. The Greenpeace represent explained that it is not for certain
that more citizens will take part and work active in organisations, as word to action is a
long process in China.
3.4.2
Analysis and Interpretation - Awareness
The BOCOG’s “Green Olympic” motto was according to the respondents once again a
way to address these questions. The BOCOG supported by the government wanted to
create an impressive Olympics. The public had an important role to play, in the
BOCOG:s aim to fulfil “the best Olympic legacies ever”. With the awareness
campaigns, BOCOG worked as a lobbying organisation, using campaigns and researches
to influence the public to embrace a personal activism, toward an ecological lifestyle. As
the Olympics were hosted in Beijing, obviously the city and its nearby surroundings
163
164
China Daily 20080804
Swedish newspaper : Dagens industri 20071023
53
were in the centre of these campaigns. But the campaigns were also spread to other parts
of China, in order to increase the public’s awareness about the environment.
The lobbying work, or what Jamison categorises as Professional activism are also seen
in the Olympic Movements campaigns and guidelines, such as manual on sport,
environment and sustainable environment. The manual serves practical tips for sports
and athletes in their day-to-day activities. The Beijing awareness campaigns were
collaboration with the IOC educational principles, to educate people toward a more
ecological lifestyle.
The UNEP and Greenpeace reports reviewing the “Green Olympics” and its impact,
acknowledged the cooperation and campaigns toward “Green Olympics”. The NGO:s
and their professional activism used the Olympics as a target and opportunity to spread
the organisations message. In general, the studies respondents are interested in how
these campaigns can develop after the Olympics and what the Government have on their
agenda. One can notice tendencies toward what Jamisons explains as the problem with
the local activism. Projects only have temporary effect on specific targets, it seem to
have difficulties remaining an important role in the society. In this case, how will the
profits in environmental awareness and cooperation continue to develop after the
Olympics
54
4
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the empirical data it can be established that the Olympic Games and Beijing
Olympics and its impact, is used as an instrument for political environmental
improvements. The organisations knowledge’s´, interests and methods to fulfill their
goals are in some way similar but is shows also many differences.
The table below concludes the organisations aims and methods toward Green Olympics.
The table will serve as a basis for discussion to conclude the most important results and
tendencies.
Aim
The IOC
The Beijing Olympics
The NGO:s
- A tool for the IOC to work with their
environmental responsibilities.
-Host impressive Olympics.
- Highlight the organisations
lobbying work and environmental
issues.
-Olympic Games must be held in
condition in accordance to the
environment.
-Sustainable development in and
throughout the education of sport.
-Raise the environmental awareness
Method
-Coordinating and supporting the work
toward these goals.
-Environmental Guidance’s such as,
Olympic Agenda 21, Manual on sport and
environment and host city contracts.
-Cooperation with the hosting country,
but also environmental expertise such as,
UNEP and NGO:s. Main responsibilities
toward sustainable development are
though lying with the governments.
Env.pol
view
-Ecological modernism tendencies.
Proudly proclaiming their environmental
responsibly, whose working in
collaboration with the organisations
original goals. Environmental protection
in accordance to the growth of the
Olympic Games.
-Coordinator, guidance and supports the
work toward, sustainable standards,
systems, policies.
-Add political control. Cooperation’s with
governments, who´s has the main
responsibilities.
-Reach different political goals
simultaneous to working toward
modernisation, including the
environment.
-Address environmental issues.
-Establish sustainable standards to
be used toward “Green Games”
-Raise the environmental
awareness.
-Raise the environmental
awareness
-Governmental support,
investments and control toward
environmental protection to create
an impressive Olympics.
-Awareness campaigns, guidance
and lobbying work.
-High-tech, Green and Peoples
Olympic themes for the
Olympics.
- Greenpeace also wants to add the
political control, using binding
targets, settle national laws and the
opportunities to raise penalties for
breaking the contracts.
-Limited cooperation with civil
environmental expertise, such as
NGO:s.
-Cooperation’s between
participators to raise the
environmental legacy.
-Ecological modernism
tendencies. The goal of hosting
an impressive Olympics included
environmental protection.
-A Professional activist, using the
Olympic Games for its lobbying
work. An important opportunity to
reach out with their campaigns.
-Technical improvements under
the governments control.
-Ecological modernism tendencies,
proclaiming environmental
protection in process toward the
Olympic Games. Protections such
as technical improvements, using
green standards and green
technology.
-The “Greening” of Beijing and
the Olympic games is the term for
the development toward
modernisation (growth) in
combination with environmental
protection.
- Professional activism,
- Professional activism. Raise the
-Professional activism aiming to raise the
Highlighting different campaigns to
environmental awareness, toward an
environmental awareness, in the
aim to host an impressive green
raise the environmental awareness
ecological lifestyle throughout the
of the people.(Toward personal
Olympics. (toward personal
education of sport. (Toward personal
Activism)
activism)
activism)
Table 3. A summary over the organizations aims, goals and environmental political discourse.
55
Both The IOC:s and BOCOG:s approaches show more tendencies toward two of the
Green Business discourses. The growth of the Olympic Games could as the green
business discourse explains be combined with or even strengthen by means of
environmental improvements. The Ecoeffiency and ecological modernism discourse are
combining environmentalism with the companies’ culture. In accordance to the
organisations’ culture and overall goals, the three groups are also proudly proclaiming
their environmental measures and responsibilities toward sustainable development.
The IOC saw the Beijing Olympics as a way to address their environmental approach.
The Beijing Olympics could be a catalyst for environmental improvements in China.
The IOC:s work and responsibilities concerning the environmental work could now
develop to a higher grade, considered that the Olympics were hosted in a rapidly
growing city with many environmental concerns.
BOCOG:s green message was supported and integrated into the governments
environmental work. The Olympics was seen as an instrument for the government to
address their environmental work. Technical and organizational improvements were in
focus to show environmental legacies, even from the start in Beijings application. The
result of the study shows that BOCOG and the government present itself, in what Hauge
labels, a role model for environmental processes in China. 165
All three groups are proclaiming technical improvements toward “Green Games”. All
groups have released different guidelines, campaigns and action plans to work toward
“Green Games”. The three groups agree toward an Ecological modernism discourse,
when they are open to add responsibility the host countries governments and public
authorities. The term greening is in the ecological modernism discourse a business term
working toward the idea of sustainable development. The three groups are showing
tendencies toward this business term. Technical improvements such as sustainable
product development and product responsibility are combined with the organisations
aims to create green games.
Furthermore, all the three groups partly cooperate to raise the environmental awareness
toward the public. Firstly the NGO:s are a professional activists, but also the BOCOG
and IOC:s work can be seen as professional activist, by using the Olympics
campaigning for an ecological lifestyle in different spheres.
All though many similarities, mostly toward an ecological modernism discourse are seen
in the organisations environmental political views, the methods toward their goals shows
differences.
All organisations are proclaiming their measures and responsibilities to create a “Green
Olympics” and work toward sustainable development. But as Jamison discuss, the
political views operates with different interests that translates or interprets global
165
Haugen, 2003
56
doctrines in its social context. In this case, the organisations aim to use the Beijing
Olympics show some differences. 166
The BOCOG:s goal was integrated into The Beijing Master Plan. The result from the
case study matches former reports exploring the Beijing Olympics as a way to address
the government’s environmental work. The “Green” message was one part of the overall
goal to host an impressive Olympic Games. Haugen and Org are describing the Beijing
Olympics as a way for China to achieve many goals simultaneously toward
modernisation and to gain international respect. The environment is one puzzle piece
toward this goal. 167
The result from the case study is showing tendencies toward Payen’s report, reviewing
the Olympic DNA. 168 The respondent firstly sees the IOC and the Olympic Games as a
sport organisation proclaiming the message of peace, friendship and culture exchange
throughout the education of sport. However, they also explain that the IOC takes
responsibility for the environment. The IOC:s environmental approach and
responsibilities were highlighted when the games were given to a rapidly growing city
and country with many concerns, that according to some participants were just in line
with the IOC;s ideals. The IOC also saw the chance that The Olympic Games could be
used as a catalyst toward environmental improvements.
The NGO:s, using a professional activism approach wanted to be an important
participator in the work toward green games. According to Jamison the professional
activist´s choice of subject and methods are important. The NGO:s approaches the
Olympic Games as an opportunity to highlight their lobbying work and campaigns. 169
All the members embrace a type of political control over the environmental work toward
the “Greening of Olympics”. Greenpeace have higher demands toward the goal of a
Green Games. Tendencies with the Green business theory are seen when Greenpeace
proclaims that Olympic Games and its growth must be adapted to ecological laws and
principles. Greenpeace states that IOC and the hosting governments control and
responsibility must increase, to fulfil these commitments. They have the main
responsibility to fulfil a green game. If not, laws and penalties shall be admitted. The
IOC sees themselves as a coordinator that precedes environmental guidance to its
members. They proclaim that that the main responsibility lays with the countries’
governments. The Beijing Olympics and the BOCOG organisation work was integrated
with the government’s political control toward environmental questions.
The Ecological modernism integrates public support for technical improvement. The
three groups are in many ways embracing an ecological modernism discourse by using
the term “Greening”. They all want to establish green standards and environmental
technical improvements toward the Beijing Olympics.
166
Jamison 2003
Haugen , Org 2003
168
Payne 2006
169
Jamison 2003
167
57
The IOC work is two folded. Firstly, The Olympic Games shall be held in accordance to
the environmental issues. Secondly, on a global scale, IOC promotes educational
programmes and guidance to turn the general principle of sustainable development. The
IOC is a coordinator that has acknowledged important fields in the ecological
modernism discourse, discussing the importance of cooperation’s between the
government, researches and business world. Jamison is discussing the importance in the
ecological modernism discourse by creating dialogues, cooperation’s, communications
and entrepreneurs. 170 All organisations more or less proclaim the ecological modernism
methods in their work toward the Olympics. Even though the NGO:s acknowledged a
higher interest for their work from the government, they want more cooperation and
dialogues. Former reports from OECD and Sweden Abroad describes the concern over
the limited cooperation and influence that the civil organisations in general have had in
the environmental political work in China. 171
The ecological modernism discourse is open to adding governmental support and
control. The political control toward a “Green Olympics” is both seen as an advantage
and a weakness. On one side, The Green Olympic influenced Beijing and China, by its
high investments in technical environmental improvements and lobbying work for an
ecological lifestyle, toward an impressive “Green Olympics, gained many profits. On
the other side, the Government’s strong leadership also limited the openness in the
management system and what Jamison calls the importance of dialogues, cooperation’s,
communications and entrepreneurs.
4.1
Discussion
The environmental status is under pressure and in the globalised world these challenges
are acknowledged. Countries, organizations and companies are aware of problems and
are in a higher grade proclaiming their responsibility to work with environmental
questions. An event that certainly is affected and influenced by this work is the Olympic
Games.
The result from the case study in Beijing shows that the Olympic Games is and surely
will proceed to be used as instrument for political environmental work. However, it can
be used in different ways actors have different knowledge, interest and goals.
In general, all the participants describe the Beijing Olympics as a type of catalyst toward
environmental changes. Former reports from UNEP and Greenpeace 172 states that the
technical improvements in areas such as clean energy and energy saving solutions
provided a positive showcase for China. Beijing had raised the environmental bar, and
according to UNEP 173 , the achievements were even more impressive concerning the fact
that the Olympics were arranged in a rapidly developing city. The Beijing Olympics
cooperation with organisations and environmental expertise to raise the awareness
170
Jamison 2003
Sweden Abroad 2007, OECD 2006
172
UNEP 2006,2008 – Greenpeace 2008
173
UNEP 2008
171
58
toward a more ecological life was also profits that have been acknowledged, both in this
case study and in former reports.
However, the ambition toward a “Greening of the Games” is more complex than to
describe it as just a showcase or catalyst for environmental changes. Stephanie Beyer
goes as far as to raising the question whether the environment actually will benefit at all
from the Olympics? The Olympics is a huge event and cities must be rebuilt to manage
to host an Olympic Games. The Olympic Games itself is according to respondent Ola
Wong and Beyer 174 creating numerous environmental problems, such as resource
consumption, waste accumulation and shortage in transportation capacity.
Secondly, Stephanie Beyer also states that the concept of “Green Games” must be
placed in a broader context of sustainable development. Firstly, because of its
multibillion-dollar business with competing interests involved, but also for the Olympics
highly mobile affairs. The Olympics hosted in different locations, brings, according to
Beyer, difficulties in implementing universal standards. 175 The western ideals that the
Olympics are transmitting are not, according to Michael Payne’s report, universally
understood. 176 Countries have certainly different knowledge, interests and goals.
Jamison further explains this matter by describing that political environmental politics
operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its
context(local or national) 177 The critics of the Green business theory states that
organisations are dependent on changes to the wider socio-economic system in which
the organisations work. According to the critics, the organisations can have problems in
completely fulfilling the green business discourse, not being influenced by the socioeconomic system.
These circumstances can in some cases explore the differences in the three categories
groups’ environmental approaches. One have to acknowledge that the green business
discourses were firstly established in Europe with western references, just like the
Olympic Movement and the third pillar of Olympism, the environment. During the last
thirty years China and Beijing have developed rapidly. Former reports such as OECD
and Swedish Embassy reports 178 are declaring that development has not worked in
balance with the environment.
The IOC closely cooperate with UNEP, and the NGO:s were using and hoping that the
Beijing Olympics could be a catalyst to implement ecological standards in a rapidly
growing city and country. The NGO:s and especially Greenpeace think that the IOC
support and work was not enough. They strongly proclaim universal standards, backed
up by laws and penalties if they not are fulfilled.
174
Beyer 2006
Ibid
176
Payne 2006
177
Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press.
178
Sweden Abroad , 2007 - OECD, 2006
175
59
The Beijing Olympics with its “Green Olympic” motto must be seen in a broader
context. The governmental support and control of the Olympics were seen as a way for
the government to address their environmental work, toward modernisations and
development. Environmental goals could be fulfilled simultaneously in this process. The
environment was also one area that had to improve if the goal to host the best Olympics
ever should succeed. The Green message was influenced by the socio-economic system
and the importance of economic growth in combination with environmental protection.
In the press release for UNEP report in 2008, the future development was highlighted;
“The challenges are now how Beijing and China, consolidates the achievements of the
games and turn them into green legacy in the long term.” 179
All organisations could toward the Beijing Olympics highlight and proclaim their
environmental responsibilities. All organisations proudly proclaim their work toward a
“Greening Of the Olympics” including ecological modernism tendencies such as;
technical improvements, green technology, cooperation with environmental expertise
and awareness campaigns. The Government in China is a strong leader and could
therefore influence the Olympics and the public toward ecological legacies, a catalyst for
environmental changes. Just like former reports from UNEP and Greenpeace 180 , the case
studies participants are talking of these ecological modernism tendencies as long-term
legacies both for the hosting city and country.
The Green Business theories are describing that technical solutions is not enough to
reduce the pressure on the environment. Changes must proceed in many spheres and the
result cannot be achieved only by technical solutions. Even though many profits have
been acknowledge by the creating of a “Green Olympics” - some participants are not
certain if this profits will develop into long-term legacies.
Firstly, it is up to government and what is on their political agenda. Once again different
reports describes that the “Green Games” must be place in a broader context. China still
sees themselves as a developing country with the economic growth and modernization
process as highest priority. The critical voices of the green business discourses describe
this matter that the importance of sustainable development is certainly acknowledged but
it is reduced to those activities that can turn a profit toward economic development.
Economic growth is often chosen before environmentalism. Other political questions
such as the financial crisis may have higher priority than the development of all
environmental profits from the Olympics nationally.
Secondly, former report such as OECD and Swedish Embassy 181 report discuss the
environmental challenges China face. The Political reforms must be implemented more
efficiently on different levels.
179
UNEP press release 2008, Beijing Olympics Get Big Green Tick. Internet:
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp ?DocumentID=562&ArticleID=6086&l=en
180
UNEP 2006, 2008 - Greenpeace 2008
181
Sweden Abroad 2007, OECD 2007
60
Thirdly, The NGO:s participating in this study describe just like in former reports, that
the lack of NGO’ influence in the environmental work in China is a problem. The
NGO:s were stimulated by the fact that their work was highlighted by the government
during the Olympics. But, they are all concerned over the groups’ limited influence and
if and how their lobbying work will develop after the Olympics.
The term “Green Games” can be seen in a broader context. But one can also uplift the
Olympics toward a local activism discourse. If one reviews the Olympics as a local
event, one can acknowledge the respondents concerns and former reports questions,
what will happen after the Olympics? The Local activism believes in a method, to raise
the democratic ambitions to create a better environment. The Beijing Olympics must
according to the respondent not turn out to what Jamison describes being the problem
with the local activism, temporary efforts on specific targets. When the culmination of
an impressive Olympics is over, the profits must remain and further develop. Both
technical improvements but also the NGO:s work and the awareness campaigns toward
the public cannot disappear, as local activism have a tendency to do.
Once again, the Governments power and control can be seen as an advantage. They can
target the profits from the Olympics and the environmental questions toward sustainable
legacies. On the other hand the Governmental control can be a weakness. The NGO:s
mentioned their limited influence and different reports are also discussing the weakness
in the Chinese systems, concerning openness and validity in environmental reports. As
the Olympic Games was collaborating with the Governmental goals and interests one
can only assume that the work with the future environmental changes, must go hand in
hand with the Governmental aims of modernization toward a developing country by the
year of 2049.
4.1.1
Own Reflections
The environment and the process toward sustainable development is a big challenge.
During my field study I have embraced that the Olympic Games is a respectful event
with message of peace and cultural exchange. The Olympics have a strong impact in the
political sphere, including political environmental questions. In my field study I have
meet many people that are making an important work toward improvements for the
environment. The Olympic Games was an opportunity to highlight their work. I believe
that many people in China have now noticed the importance of the environment in a
higher grade. Firstly, the citizens of Beijing, that have seen many environmental profits
rapidly develop toward the Olympics. Secondly and most important, most of the young
generation I meet acknowledged the important of the environment. The Green Olympics
motto highlighted these questions and it was a topic that was transmitted by the
government, which made it fully approvable for the public to take part of in discussions
and actions in a higher grade.
The Beijing Olympics had the ambition to host the best Olympics ever. This aim
involved the “Green” message which from one side generated many profits. On the other
side, these profits must developed into long term legacies. This responsibility is laying
with the government. Universal democratic values concerning openness, political
influence, freedom of speech and opinion have not developed in the same rate as the
61
economic growth in China. Unfortunately, both former reports and the case study
respondents are pointing at the limited lobbying influence within the environmental
expertise and the public society.
The Olympic Games in Beijing required a rebuilding of the city, toward the ambition to
host the best Olympics ever. The fact that the Olympics are getting bigger and bigger,
and cities must be rebuild in the ambition to host an impressive Olympics, also raises the
question whether there are any Olympic Games that truly can be considered as green?
4.1.2
Suggestions for Future Research
As the respondents and former reports describes, the interesting part is to see how China
and Beijing develop the profits from the Olympics to long-term legacies. Future studies
could explore for example the NGO:s work and how their work have been influenced by
the Olympics. Have their lobbying work toward political environmental improvements
been raised with help of the Olympics?
4.1.3
Weaknesses in the Result
Even though the result from the thesis have been analysed and compared to a theoretical
framework and former reports, that are some details that could have been done in a
different way. Once again these weaknesses must be mentioned.
One weakness is that the study was written from a Swedish perspective. This
circumstance may influence the study result concerning the fact that the field study was
conducted in a foreigner country with different culture. A Swedish perspective is
different from the Chinese culture and way of living. Statements and opinions are
viewed and understood from different perspectives. The literature research was based
on mostly literature by non Chinese authors and the circumstances that no respondent
were representing the Beijing Olympics (BOCOG organisation) is consider as
weaknesses. The Chinese perspective could have been more extended. As former
reports acknowledge the lack of informative and openness have also made it harder to
verify the Chinese perspective, views and achievements. The analysis in the study has
therefore been viewed from a Swedish perspective.
Finally, China and the Beijing Olympics, The Olympic Movement and The NGO:s
participating are big actors in the international sphere and this study only investigated a
small part of their work and views. Remember, a case study is only a small part of the
complex reality.
62
SUMMARY
The Olympic Games – An instrument for environmental political change is a
comparative case study exploring the opportunity to use the Olympic Games as an
instrument for political environmental change, with special focus at The Beijing
Olympics.
The Olympic Games is a highly respected event that through sport shall spread the
message of peace and cultural exchange. The Olympic Games are also an event that
have been and will be used as a mechanism for political changes. Allowing a rapidly
growing city and country, such as Beijing and China host the Olympic Games in 2008,
surely highlighted the environmental political questions. China has had an enormous
growth and development during the last thirty years. China and the International society
are well aware that the growth has not worked in balance with the environment. The
Olympics could therefore be an opportunity for different groups to highlight their work
and use the Olympics as a mechanism for environmental improvements. But
environmental politics are a complex social and scientific matter. According to Andrew
Jamison, the environmental political discourses are operating with different interest that
translates or interprets global doctrines in its own context. The knowledge, interests and
ambitions are different between countries, companies and organisations.
The main questions for the study was to explore, how the Olympic Games can be used
as an instrument for environmental political changes and which environmental political
opinions that are collaborating in the ambition to use the Olympics as a political
environmental instrument. The International Olympic Committee’s third pillar, the
environment, The Beijing Olympics Committee´s motto, “Green Olympics” and NonGovernmental Organisations represented by Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots and
Fuping Development Institute - have been reviewed in the light of environmental
political theories. The Analysis was carried out in the light of the two political theories,
The Green Business theory with its three discourses, Nature Capitalism, EcoEffiency
and Ecological Modernism discourse. And the opposite pole Ecological Resistance
(Critical Ecology) with its three discourses Local Activism, Professional Activism and
Personal Activism.
To limit the research the following questionnaires were used as guidance:
•
What environmental political views are apparent in the three category groups’
environmental approaches?
•
As a result from the analysis of question one and two, can any conclusions be
drawn if and why the groups have different views, concerning the Olympic
Games as an instrument for environmental political changes?
63
The case study consisted of an opening literature research. The validity of the empiric
background material was questioned by six qualitative interviews, one group interview,
one written questionnaire and participant observation. The material was collected during
an eight week field study in the summer of 2008.
The results conclude that the organisations are all using the Olympics as an important
instrument to address their environmental work. The ambitions and lobbying work show
tendencies toward the Green Business theory and especially the ecological modernism
discourse. Firstly, the environmental questions shall work in accordance to the
organisations’ original culture and structure. Secondly, technical improvements in the
process toward “Greening of the Olympics” are highlighted as a profit that hopefully
will be nationally spread. Thirdly, all organisations’ acknowledged the need of the
government support and control toward Green Games.
The International Olympic Committee (The IOC) describes themselves as a coordinator
and guide to use the education of sport as a tool toward sustainable development. The
Olympic Games shall according to The IOC be held in conditions in accordance to
environmental issues and also educate the members within the organisation about
general principles toward sustainable development, using guidance as Olympic Agenda
21 and Sport and environment manuals. The IOC states though that the main
responsibilities are laying with the governments. The Beijing Olympics (BOCOG) and
their motto “Green Olympics” was financed and controlled by the Government. The
Olympics was a way to address the work with environment, in accordance to the goal to
host an impressive Olympics. Technical improvements were in focus. The Beijing
Olympics highlighted the IOC responsibilities concerning the environment. The
Olympics are therefore seen as a catalyst toward China’s overall goal of modernization
and gaining international respect.
The NGO:s and the Greenpeace “Green Games” approach are also using the Olympics
to highlight their lobbying work as professional activists. Toward the Beijing Olympics
the NGO:s have noticed a higher interest for their work, both form the government and
the public. The NGO:s are lobbying partly for the public toward a more ecological
lifestyle(personal activism) but also toward the hosting country and the IOC.
Greenpeace wants bidding targets backed up by national law. Hosting cities that do not
fulfill the binding targets shall be punished by penalties.
It is certain that the Olympic Games can be used as an important instrument toward
environmental improvements. The respondents and former reports are discussing the
challenge to develop the profits from the Olympics toward long-term legacies. But these
matter are laying within the Chinese governments power and ambitions. Once again,
The “Greening of the Olympics” is still though a complex social and scientific matter.
Countries and cities have different conditions, knowledge, interest and ambitions.
Universal standards are not always universally understood. And the fact that the
Olympics are getting bigger and bigger, and cities must be rebuild in the ambition to
host an impressive Olympics, raises the question, are there any Olympic Games that
truly can be considered as green?
64
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65
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67
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Interviewees
NGO:s
Ms Amy Chang, Greenpeace China, Beijing
Ms Zee Zee Zhang - Roots and Shoots, Shanghai
Mr Liajian Zhen - Fuping Development institute, Beijing
The IOC
Ms Michelle Lemaitre – The International Olympic Organisation (written questionnaire)
Further interviewees
Mr Zhang Jun – Lenovo group, Beijing
Mr Ola Wong, correspondent, Svenska dagbladet, Shanghai
Volunteer team leader – Jim, Beijing
Volunteers(group interview) Sunny, Memory, Karen, Ivy and Sunrise, Beijing.
68
APPENDIX
To whom it will Concern:
Interview questions
________________________________________________________________________
Dear participator:
The interview guide starts with some general questions concerning the Olympic
movement, leading up to the main questions about the “Green Olympics”.
-
How does one perceive the Olympic Movement?
-
How does one perceive the Olympic Movement, its role and ideals concerning
the third cornerstone of Olympism, the environment?
-
To which degree did the environment aspect play a part in the Beijing
application, resulting in the decision to let Beijing host the 28th Olympic Games?
-
To which degree has your organisation used the Olympic Games to communicate
your environmental political approach?
-
In what way has the “Green Olympics” influenced your organisation?
-
In what way has the “Green Olympics” influenced the Chinese and in particular
the Beijing community in the different spheres?
-
To which degree has the Beijing Olympic Games been used to communicate
with the environmental lobby?
-
Will the “Green Olympics” give any long-term changes?(Organisation/
Beijing/China)
Thank One for Ones participation!
Yours Sincerely:
Lukas Karlsson
[email protected]
69