Advances in Asian Social Science (AASS) (ISSN 2167-6429)
Vol. 6, No. 4, 2015, Pages: 1071-1084
Copyright © World Science Publisher, United States
www.worldsciencepublisher.org
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The Impact of Visual and Verbal Techniques on Vocabulary
Achievement of Iranian High School Students
Vahid Bagheri, MA IN TEFL
Islamic Azad University of Abdanan
Email: [email protected]
Abstract- The presents study investigated the effect of verbal, visual and a combination of verbal-visual techniques on
vocabulary achievement of Iranian high school students in Abdanan (Iran). The participants were 60 male native speakers of
Persian and Kurdish in intermediate level of L2 proficiency ranging in age from 15 to 16. In order to have homogeneous
groups, the students last year scores were look at between the three groups of 12-15, there part. In order to state the
reliability of this test, the split –half method was utilized .The second one was question elicited demographic information
such as names, age and job of father. They were selected from among seven classes and divided into three groups of 20,
namely group 1, 2 and 3. The lexical items were taught to experimental groups by verbal (synonymy and exemplification),
visual (pictures, flashcards, blackboard drawings and photographs) and verbal-visual techniques respectively. Put another
way, groups 1 was treated by verbal techniques (synonyms and exemplification). For this group no aids were used, but
rather they used exemplification and synonyms, group2 was treated by using visual aids (pictures, photographs, and flash
cards). For group 3, verbal and visual techniques were used complementary to convey meaning of the lexis. During the ten
sessions of the treatment, 70 vocabularies were instructed to the three groups, Results of one way ANOVA showed that
when verbal or visual techniques were used alone, verbal techniques manifested more vocabulary acquisition than visual
modality and among three techniques employed in this study, complementary use of verbal-visual techniques was the most
effective i.e., the trend used in group 3. It may be concluded that in directing the learners toward the ability of vocabulary
skill, teachers should not solely rely on verbal cues and can benefit to a large extent from non-verbal aids. Results obtained
from this study may have pedagogical implications in the areas of syllabus design and teaching methodology.
Keywords: Vocabulary achievement, Verbal techniques, Visual techniques, EFL
1. Introduction
English has become the language of international
business, diplomacy and professions. After all, it is the
language of the United Nations. English has become the
most dominate language in the world. As time passes, more
people are learning English. Nowadays, the whole world
seems to speak English. As David (2009) asserts, it is the
language of travel, tourism, science and technology. It
became a universal language that covered all aspect of life,
where people of different nationalities used it to
communicate with each other and it became the language
of science, technology, politics, economy and education.
This universal acknowledgment of English as the language
of today and the need for good communication skill in
English has created a huge demand for teaching English
around the world. This has put a tremendous pressure on
scholars to cope with this demand and to contribute to the
development of a new and different teaching methodology
for teaching English as a foreign language Hamdona
(2007:1). Educators know that words and vocabulary
strongly impact learners’ lives. In fact, educated individuals
are often identified by their written and spoken
vocabularies (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2004). Beck,
McKeown and Kucan (2002) in their book, Bringing
Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction, introduce
the first chapter with a reminder that vocabulary plays a
“critical role…in people’s lives and future possibilities. A
large vocabulary repertoire facilitates becoming an
educated person to the extent that vocabulary knowledge is
strongly related to reading proficiency” (p. 1). In order to
be aware of the full importance vocabulary plays in the
lives of adolescents, it is necessary to first have a
comprehensive definition of vocabulary. According to Lehr,
Osborn, and Hiebert (2004), vocabulary is knowledge of
words and their meanings. For vocabulary and word
knowledge, Cronbach (1942) describes several qualitative
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dimensions, defined as the kind of knowledge one has
about a word and the uses to which that knowledge can be
put:
Generalization: The ability to define a word.
Application: The ability to select or recognize situations
appropriate to a word.
Breadth: Knowledge of multiple meanings.
Precision: The ability to apply a term correctly to all
situations and to recognize appropriate use.
Availability: The actual use of a word in thinking and
discourse.
In addition, every person has a receptive vocabulary and
an expressive vocabulary. Receptive vocabulary refers to
words that can be heard and understood in spoken context
or read and comprehended in print. Expressive vocabulary
refers to lexical items which a person can use properly
when speaking or writing (Readence, Bean, & Baldwin,
2004).
There is evidence indicating that oral language plays a
critical role in laying the foundation for literacy with print
(Metsala, 1999). According to Nelson (2007)
1.5 Significance in language learning
The result of this research will be useful for both
teachers and students. All of the teachers have concluded
that there are benefits from the use of visual and technical
materials for learning for learners with different ages.
Likewise, Koren (1996) points out that the learning of
foreign words by using such a trend can be easier and
memorable than the words learned in the traditional ways.
Because of this matter, many teachers in the English
language classrooms may use this to increase the
vocabulary and speaking skills of the learners. Visual
elements such as pictures can be important and suitable
solutions for many problems. There are many researches on
learning vocabularies by pictures or example, Underwood
(1989), as cited in Chun & Plass (1996) has concluded that
an important rule for learning is visual memory. For
learners, memorizing words by use of visual and verbal
objects is more effective than memorizing them with only
the text.
1.6 Statement of the Problem
English language is an international language and is
being used widely in businesses, academic, and other
aspects of life. Research efforts have been going on to
investigate ways to improve learning languages including
learning English as a foreign language. In Iran, English
language education is considered especially important for
experts of the other fields. The problem is that students
who have received several years of formal English
instruction frequently face difficulties to use or remember
the words of language, whether in the spoken or written
form. You may see someone who has studied 18 to 20
terms in an institute but he/she is unable to express
himself/herself in English. The gravity of the situation
comes to eyes when, if not many, some technical subjects
are not satisfactorily learned until the students study
relevant text books and useful materials in English. Most
students have problems when they are asked to learn the
new words in a single lesson. Some of them who have
found the job very difficult will quit the job at the very
beginning, and some try to memorize a word list. None of
us can forget the tough job of memorizing word lists during
the school days. Learning vocabulary in isolation, in a nonmeaningful and technical way is useless. So, vocabulary
learning is an important matter for learning of foreign
language. Most times it is not easy to remember some
vocabularies. And because of this matter researchers are
seeking for ways to increase student’s learning
vocabularies. So, almost all teachers and students have the
same opinion with better vocabulary instructions.
According French Allen (1983) if teachers use visual and
verbal materials, students learning vocabulary will be better
than the time when they use other materials. And the writer
in the present study researched this study to understand
whether this trend is advantageous to students’ learning and
improving vocabulary. And also according Nelson et al
(1976) the use of visual and verbal materials such as
pictures is effective way and it has good results. In
summary, this study aimed to investigate the impact of
visual and verbal techniques on vocabulary achievement of
Iranian high school students in order to improve students’
learning vocabulary skills, stimulate interest for second
language learners to increase their level of vocabulary,
provide an interesting way for learning vocabulary, and
make learners more proficient, and encourage learners for
learning vocabulary.
1.7. Research questions
This study aims to answer the following questions:
1-What is the effect of verbal techniques (synonymy,
exemplification, etc.) on vocabulary achievement of Iranian
EFL students?
2-What is the effect of visual techniques (flashcards,
pictures, photographs, etc.) on vocabulary achievement of
Iranian EFL students?
3-Which one is more efficient? Visual techniques,
verbal techniques or a combination of these two techniques
in enhancing vocabulary knowledge of Iranian EFL
students?
2. Literature review
After a long period of relative neglect, language teachers
and researchers have recently been cognizant of the fact
that vocabulary is an important aspect of language, which is
worth investigating. However, learners usually admit that
they experience considerable difficulty with vocabulary and
many of them identify the acquisition of vocabulary as their
greatest source of problems. The problem is to discover
which ways or skills will best help learners better learn,
retain and retrieve vocabulary. Consequently, it is essential
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for language teachers to be aware of the effectiveness of
different methods of vocabulary teaching to choose the
ones that are the most effective to their students; this is
what we follow in this experimental study. Vocabulary is
regarded not only as one important component of language
system but also as part of the language competence
necessary for communication. Birnjandi, Mosallanezhad &
Bagheridoust (2003) state that vocabulary cannot be taught
but it can be presented and then learned by the learners.
The emergence of language learning strategies shift the
perspective from having product oriented to process
oriented methods which put more responsibilities on the
learners’ shoulders. Since vocabulary has a tremendous
effect on students’ proficiency and their production and
comprehension of language (Gathercole, 2006), it can be
claimed that “learning a second language means learning its
vocabulary” (Gass, 1999, p. 325). Studies on the essential
issues in the realm of vocabulary take into account the
learners, the words, and the teacher (Folse, 2006). Since
vocabulary has a tremendous effect on students’
proficiency and their Lexical learning represents a corner
stone in foreign language education. Vocabulary is
indispensable to both oral and written communication and
often regarded as a major source of problems by foreign
language learners. For EFL adult learners, effective
vocabulary use is a real challenge when they are engaged in
language production as they need to bring into focus their
active vocabulary. Lexical recognition may also be a real
threat when they are indulged in comprehension processes
as it exposes their not only active but also passive
vocabulary and puts it to the test (Bossers, 1992; Coady,
1993, 1997; and Grabe & Stoller, 1997).production and
comprehension of language (Gathercole, 2006), it can be
claimed that “learning a second language means learning its
vocabulary” (Gass, 1999, p. 325). Studies on the essential
issues in the realm of vocabulary take into account the
learners, the words, and the teacher (Folse, 2006). Research
concerning the learners, focuses on the strategies that they
employ in learning vocabulary (Gu, 2003; Kojic–Sabo &
Lightbown, 1999; Nassaji, 2003); the way in which they
make gains in knowledge of vocabulary (Ellis, 1995;
Laufer, 1998; Laufer & Paribakht, 1998); and their
differences regarding the acquisition of second language
vocabulary (Bauer, Goldfield, & Reznick, 2002; Speciale,
Ellis, & Bywater, 2004). There are also studies that
investigate the kind of words that second language learners
have to know (Liu, 2003). Furthermore, studies related to
vocabulary teaching investigate the effect of different types
of exercise (e.g., Folse, 2006) and different methods of
vocabulary presentation on the vocabulary learning (Brown
& Perry, 1991; Zimmerman, 1997). Knowledge of words
and their meaning is a crucial component of language
proficiency both for first language acquisition and for
second and foreign language learning. One cannot learn a
language without vocabulary. Even though there are some
language teachers who believe that vocabulary does not
need to be actively taught, many students suppose that
learning of new words requires tremendous effort (Nation,
1990). In fact, language learners generally agree that many
of their difficulties in both receptive and productive skills
arise from their inadequacy in vocabulary (Meara, 1980;
Nation, 1990).Vocabulary knowledge plays a basic role in
acquiring other skills of language (speaking, listening,
reading and writing). For many years vocabulary had been
considered as the neglected “Cinderella” of applied
linguistics (Carter& McCarthy, 1997; Laufer, 1986; Meara,
1980). It was given a little attention in many language
programs and textbooks. Although course curriculum gave
priority to some aspects of language such as grammar,
reading or speaking, little importance was given to the role
of vocabulary. Most of interest had been given to structures.
Course books had provided a little guideline except word
units, so that due to a few supplementary materials such as
dictionary and workbooks, teachers were not able to satisfy
their students’ demands for words. This situation no longer
exists and vocabulary and vocabulary teaching and learning
have gained more attention in EFL/ESL research for the
last few decades (Beck & McKeown, 1991; Goodfellow,
1995; Hulstjin, Hollander & Greidanus, 1996; Zimmerman,
1997; Taylor, 1990). Specialists and researchers in second
and foreign language acquisition see the need for more
emphasis on vocabulary for several reasons. First,
vocabulary acts like a bridge between other language skills
(reading, writing, speaking &listening) which are essential
for the learners’ communication. Learners is required to
learn certain words in order to understand what other
people say and speak to him/her and later to reply to them
or to read a document and later speak or write about what
s/he had just read (Shmitt, 1998).
Second, L2 language learners have difficulty with
vocabulary learning. Only a small number of students come
close to the threshold level in terms of breadth and depth of
vocabulary knowledge (Nurweni & Reed, 1999). So there
should be more emphasis on vocabulary instruction. Third,
it is important to systematically design the learning and
teaching of a large number of new words. A more direct
and organized study of vocabulary and vocabulary
instruction would be helpful for learners, although they
certainly acquire word knowledge incidentally while
engaged in various language learning activities (Schmitt,
1998). A fourth reason for stress on vocabulary learning
and teaching is the consistent growth of technology
applications in language curricula. In the context of
computer-assisted
language
learning technologies,
vocabulary should be one aspect of language learning that
instructors and curriculum designers focus on. It is one of
learning tasks that can be practiced easily outside the
classroom, especially when compared to a pronunciation or
dialogue practice in which feedback from a qualified
teacher is very valuable (Nesselhauf & Tschichold, 2002).
However, this study aimed to investigate if students in high
school can improve their vocabulary knowledge in English
studies with the help of visual and verbal techniques.
Methodology
3.1. Introduction
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The present quasi-experimental study was undertaken
because of the evidence of effectiveness of verbal-visual
techniques on vocabulary achievement and scarcity of
research in this area in EFL vocabulary. The purpose of the
study was to determine whether the vocabulary
enhancement of Iranian EFL learners would be improved
when they get benefit of verbal-visual techniques and
instructions. Put another way, the current thesis sought to
examine the effect of this trend on EFL learners’
vocabulary achievement. However, it was hypothesized
that the learners who experienced this trend would come to
better results and understanding of the words in comparison
to those of non-users.
3.2. Participants
Sixty high school EFL students who participated in this
study were selected from among a number of EFL students
in a high school in Abdanan, Ilam, Iran. The researcher was
a teacher in this high school. The classes were held two
days in a week, each day one hour and a half, in Fall,
2013.There was not any control group. The experimental
groups were males, native speakers of Persian and Kurdish
and ranging in age from fifteen to sixteen. None of the
participants had the experience of residence in English
speaking countries.
3.3. Materials
In order to conduct the current thesis, the following
instruments were used: 1. A vocabulary test was
administered to participants as a pre-test to see if the
participants were homogeneous enough to start the study.
In order to estimate the reliability of this test, the split-half
method was utilized. The questions were given to the
participants and the total score for each part was calculated.
2. A post-test: It was administered at the end of the course
to measure the difference between the achievements of all
groups with respect to the type of vocabulary teaching
techniques employed for each group. 3. Visual aids: These
included pictures, flashcards, photographs and blackboard
drawings. These were labeled and depicted their referents.
For better understanding visual and verbal techniques we
deal with them in greater details here.
3.3.1 Visual and verbal.
a) Visual techniques

Realia: Using a variety of real objects is
one of the most efficient ways of teaching and
learning vocabulary.

Pictures: The main advantage of pictures
is that they are able to illustrate very large objects
which are not easily brought into the classroom.

Mime and gesture: This is an extremely
effective way of introducing a new word since it
resembles to the Total Physical Response, which
clearly promotes the understanding and
meaningful retention of new vocabulary items.
b)
Verbal techniques

Definitions and illustrative sentences:
the introduction of a word in English through the
use of other words in the same language offers
the advantage of contextualization. I n addition,
sample sentences complement the definition
because they show how the new word is used.

Synonyms and antonyms: Synonyms
and antonyms are especially important in
building new vocabulary because learners are
able to use know vocabulary.

Scales: This technique is the presentation
of related words in scales that include the
combination of both verbal and visual and visual
techniques; for example, in the term 32°Celsius,
the degree sign is the visual.

Explanation: This technique explains the
meaning and the use of a given foreign word in
the foreign language

Translation: Although many linguists
state that translation is not a good presentation
technique, it is only considered dangerous for
pupils if it becomes the only presentation
technique. However, the major drawback may be
when L2 words are introduced in lists.
3.3. Procedure
This study lasted about 2 months. Before the study
begins, a multiple choice pretest was administered to
measure the students’ current level of proficiency (see table
1, 2 and 3). Three groups were selected from among many
groups of students. The classes were marked groups 1, 2
and 3. Group 1 was treated by using visual aids (flashcards,
pictures, photographs and blackboard drawings). The
researcher attempted to get use of visuals that could
represent their referent unambiguously. Flashcards were
used for most of the words. Simple blackboard drawings
appeared to be more efficient in the case of concrete words.
When the students had problem in getting the meaning
other visuals, namely pictures and photographs were used.
In the learning phase, the visuals were shown to the
students for a short time (ten seconds) so that all of them
could see the picture depicting its referent. Then, the
corresponding word was read aloud by the teacher and
students were required to repeat. When the new word was
difficult to learn, it was read aloud and repeated again. This
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procedure insured that students could pronounce it
correctly. This phase followed by elicitation. To internalize
the pronunciation and meanings of the words, the teacher
mixed the pictures and showed them one by one to the
students to elicit the corresponding words. Group 2 was
treated by verbal techniques (exemplification & synonymy).
For this group no visual aids were used, but rather they
were provided with exemplification and synonyms. When
using exemplification it was attempted to choose the
examples from “Oxford Elementary Learners’ Dictionary”.
With regard to difficult words, more examples were
provided. The researcher tried to build examples around the
topic of the lesson being taught. In this group after the
exemplification phase, a synonymous expression of the
word was provided. Finally, the teacher asked volunteer
students to provide some examples of the words’ use. The
students were encouraged to recycle the words they have
been taught already in previous units. While making
examples, they received a lot of feedback on their learning
of the words. It is noteworthy that this phase of
learning/teaching process was associated with interest. The
reason is that the learners were making a lot of attempt to
use their own resources and background knowledge and
link it to the newly learned words. In some cases, the
researcher used the words that students were already using
in their study of the textbook.
With regard to group 3, verbal and visual techniques
were used complementarily to convey the meaning of the
lexis. Different practices of group 1 and 2 were
incorporated in this group. First, visual aids were used to
clarify the meaning and then verbal cues were provided. At
the end of the treatment a post-test was administered in
order to measure the students’ level of vocabulary after
treatment. The post-test was representative of the items
covered during instruction within six weeks. The test was
both recognition (multiple-choice) and production skills
(cloze). Both pre-test and post-test were administered for
three groups at the same time and place. In scoring there
was no penalty for wrong answers and the scores were out
of twenty.
4. Data analysis
This study attempted to investigate the difference
between the mean performances of three experimental
groups being taught with verbal, visual and verbal/visual
techniques of vocabulary teaching. It is a between-group
study with techniques of vocabulary teaching (verbal,
visual and verbal/visual techniques) being the independent
variables and the level of vocabulary achievement as the
dependent variable. Based on the students’ scores, standard
deviation and the means of all groups were calculated
(Table 1, 2 and 3).
Having a cursory glance at table 3 and 4, it is obvious
that the mean of group three is more than group one and
two. So, it may be assumed that the method used for group
3 is more efficient. But mere use of standard deviation and
means does not guarantee our results and is not an authentic
way of comparing the result of the treatment effect on three
groups. The design of this study required us to compare the
means of three groups simultaneously by another authentic
measure, namely ANOVA. In this study, the experiment
tested the effect of method of vocabulary teaching (the
independent variable) on vocabulary achievement (the
dependent variable). The independent variable had three
levels (three methods of teaching were used in three
groups). So, the technique used for testing the significance
of differences in means was a one-way ANOVA. For
convenience in interpretation, the results were given in
table 1, 2 and 3.
Since the F-value is larger than one (F>1), we know that
there is a meaningful difference among the means. But how
important is that difference. An ANOVA provides
information on whether the three groups differ or not, but it
provides no information as to the location of the source of
difference.
5. Results and discussion
In this section the research questions presented before
are investigated one by one.
Research Question 1-What is the effect of verbal
techniques (synonymy, exemplification, etc.) on vocabulary
achievement of Iranian EFL students?
Table 3 shows that there is difference between mean of
verbal group with those of visual and verbal/visual groups.
Also, this difference is significant enough. It was found that
verbal group outperformed the visual one, but indicates
underperformance compared with verbal/visual group. It
can be implicated that using verbal cues to convey the new
vocabulary enhances vocabulary knowledge of the students
when compared with visual cues.
Research Question 2-What is the effect of visual
techniques (flashcards, pictures, photographs, etc.) on
vocabulary achievement of Iranian EFL students?
From among there groups, visual group had the least
performance. Different learners go through different routes
and use different strategies to memorize L2 vocabulary.
Depending on their individual characteristics, they have
verbal or visual preferences and store information in these
two systems differently. Ignoring verbal cues and
overemphasis on visual gloss while in favor of visualizes,
constrains the use of strategies like verbal association by
verbalizes. It can be concluded that in orienting the learner
toward the knowledge of vocabulary, the teachers should
not solely relay on visual cues and take advantages of
contiguous presentation of visual and verbal materials.
Research Question 3-Which one is more efficient?
Visual techniques, verbal techniques or a combination of
these two techniques in enhancing vocabulary knowledge
of Iranian EFL students? The mean difference of three
groups indicates that verbal/visual group outperformed the
verbal and visual groups suggesting that complementary
use of these modalities leads to development of vocabulary
knowledge. By combining different modalities each
medium’s strengths compensate for the other medium’s
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weaknesses. Linked verbal and visual information helps
students make connections, understand relationships and
recall related details.
All in all, group three (verbal/visual techniques) was the
best one. Group one (verbal techniques) was the second
best and did much better than group two. Group two (visual
techniques) was the group which acquired the least amount
of vocabulary (see Table 5 and Figure 1).
The findings can be summarized as:
1. Making use of verbal and visual techniques in order
to present new vocabulary in EFL classes in Iran is an
effective strategy.
2. While using one of these techniques, verbal
techniques are more efficient than visual techniques.
3. Combination of these two techniques demonstrated
greater vocabulary achievement than when one of them was
used alone.
These findings corroborate the theoretical concepts of
“Semiotics”, “Dual coding” and “Cognitive load”. All of
these concepts take humans’ visual-spatial cognition into
account and theoretically lend support to our findings. Each
concept and its contribution to our findings are discussed
below.
5.1. Semiotics and vocabulary teaching
We can define “semiotics” or “semi logy” as the study
of signs, how they work and how we use them. According
to Harrison (2003) semiotics would show what constitutes
signs and what laws govern them. In fact, linguistics is only
one part of the general science of semiology which is not
limited to verbal signs only. Since language is the most
important and complex sign system, semiotics is closely
linked to linguistics and different components of language,
e.g. vocabulary. While teaching vocabulary, if we are
especially concerned with verbal and visual signs, the
science of semiotics and its relationship to vocabulary
teaching gains more importance. It is a fact that the primary
concern of vocabulary teaching is to place the meaning of
the words in the long term memory of the students. Many
words possess semiotic elements. Semiotic elements
provide learners with a better understanding of vocabulary
item and help them develop lexical knowledge in the target
language (Harrison, 2003). Hawkes (1977), stated that the
use of semiotic elements included within the nature of the
lexical items not only helps learners to deduce the
meanings of the words but also leads to the cognitive
learning of the words because of presenting visual feedback
for the students. Semiotics is the study of all
communication phenomena by way of signs. According to
Harrison (2003), there are two central issues about
semiotics: First, it deals with the relationship between the
sign and its meaning. Second, semiotics studies the way by
which signs are combined through certain rules.
Vocabulary teaching is an area which is closely linked to
semiotics. According to Sebeok (1991), the subject matter
of semiotics is the exchange of any messages and of the
system of signs which underlie them. Since its concerns
include considerations of how messages are successively
generated, encoded, transmitted, decoded and interpreted,
and how context influences this kind of transaction, it is in
close relationship with vocabulary teaching.
5.2. Dual coding theory (DCT)
The effectiveness of multimodal input in language
learning environments can be explained by Paivio’s “dual
coding theory”. According to Sadosky and Paivio (2004), a
basic premise of DCT is that all mental representations
derive from external experiences and have some of the
qualities of the external experiences. These experiences can
be linguistic or non-linguistic. Their different features
develop into two separate mental systems, or codes, one
specialized for representing and processing language
(verbal code) and one for processing nonlinguistic objects
and events (nonverbal code).The latter is frequently
referred to as the “imagery system” because its functions
include the generation, analysis, and transformation of
mental images. Each system or code has its own
characteristic units and organization. Together, the two
codes account for knowledge of language and knowledge
of the world. Using multiple (auditory and visual) ways of
retrieving new vocabulary, knowledge of world established
which is because of the simultaneous engagement of
auditory and visual memory. Dual coding also, allows the
learner to process new L2 forms more deeply and to
associate them directly with images from the target
language, instead of merely linking the target form to an
equivalent L1 form (Lafford, B; Lafford, P & Sykes, 1999).
According to Stone (2003), presenting new vocabulary can
be improved by associating a spoken form of the new word
with a picture of the item, which can be accompanied by a
written representation of the word. She proposed that
instead of relying on L1-L2 translation, “natural” way of
approaching the new words will be effective. By “natural”,
she meant the same way humans acquired their native
language, by directly associating words written and spoken
form with objects, actions and ideas that convey meaning.
According to Lafford, et al., (1999) the two mental codes
and our five senses are orthogonal in DCT. This means that
the two codes each have subsets of mental representations
that are different because of the different sensory
experiences from which they originated. They asserted that
we develop visual representations in the verbal code for
language units we have seen such as letters, words, or
phrases (e.g. a ball). But, we also develop visual
representations in the nonverbal code for nonlinguistic
forms that we have seen such as common objects. Likewise,
we develop auditory representations in both verbal and
non-verbal codes. DCT is a unique theory in its emphasis
on the verbal and non-verbal distinctions in mental
representations. It implies that the more learners associate
target words with appropriate nonverbal referents (pictures,
objects, events and emotions), the richer and more
meaningful will be their interconnections between verbal
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and visual systems. As a result, they have a better recall
and appropriate use of the words when they learn through
two codes than when the words are coded in a single
manner. Therefore, additional pictorial cues are effective in
helping learners make associations between pictures and
words. Some researchers have moved from the idea of
distinctive skills (verbal and visual) to the concept of
distinction between people who prefer to use verbal
abilities and those who prefer visual processing (Paivio,
1971). Paivio argued that most information can be encoded
visually and verbally and along with other factors, the
verbal/visual tendency of the subjects will affect which
mode is used.
5.3. Cognitive load theory (CLT)
Cognitive load is generally defined as the amount of
mental resources necessary for processing information.
High cognitive load requires the user to expend extra
memory resources in order to deal with incoming
information. Sweller (1998) stated that working memory is
limited in its capacity to selectively attend to and process
incoming data. CLT is concerned with the way in which a
learner’s cognitive resources are focused and used during
learning. He suggested that for an effective instruction, the
information should be presented in a way that not overloads
the mind’s capacity for processing information. Some
studies investigated the effect of presentation modality by
comparing retention of subjects provided with information
using two different modalities (e.g. visual–auditory) to
those students which are presented with information using
one of modalities (e.g. visual). In one study, it was
concluded that dual modality presentation would decrease
the cognitive load and therefore increases working memory
capacity (Mousavi et al., 1995). The reason is that when
both systems are used simultaneously, limited working
memory capacity might be effectively increased and
information is presented in a manner that permits it to be
divided between the two systems rather than processed in
one system alone. This increase in capacity is manifested in
better retention of the materials. So, students will be more
able to build referential connections between visual and
verbal representations when both are held in working
memory at the same time.
Attendance to multiple sources of information causes a
“split attention” effect which interferes with reasoning
capacity (Goolkasian, 2000).The split attention effect is
seen when subjects must divide their attention between
separate tasks and integrate sources of information
mentally. It is taught that this process of integration
increases cognitive load and consequently decreases
performance. This effect may also be alleviated by dual
modality presentation. Mousavi, et al. (1995) stated that
when verbal and visual information are presented at the
same time, the necessity for mentally integrating two
different modalities will disappear. This increase in
capacity to focus on and process information is the result of
a lowered cognitive load. So, it can be concluded that when
different sources of materials are presented in the same
modality, working memory is overloaded and deep
processing cannot occur. If information is presented in
different modalities, subjects have more space in their
cognitive systems to hold the information. Also, because
modalities are different, integration is not necessary and
cognitive load is reduced.
Conclusion
Vocabulary learning is often used with strategies such as
word lists or paired associations in which new words are
presented with their translations. These strategies with
visual text alone may be outdated and irrelevant to students
who are accustomed to visual stimuli and have shorter
attention spans. The findings of this study indicate that
developers of vocabulary learning instruction and
curriculum should reconsider their use of multimedia
within their presentations. For example, because presenting
too many elements in visual or verbal form can lead to
reduced ability to learn and retain vocabulary, visual text,
spoken text and graphics must be carefully planned and
utilized in the instruction. This study sheds light on the
issue of the effectiveness of putting audio and visual aids to
use for vocabulary learning. This investigation into various
vocabulary teaching techniques and a focus on verbal and
visual techniques hoped to provide new insights into the
issue of vocabulary learning into multimedia language
learning environment and recognition of how and when
devices of different types of verbal and visual are more
useful. Supported by theoretical viewpoints, the results
obtained from this study showed that in order to develop
the ability of vocabulary skill, teachers can benefit from
non-verbal representations and should not rely exclusively
on verbal techniques. Verbal devices are not the only way
of getting meaning. Teachers can use both verbal and visual
aids in order to promote the learning of materials. When
using two modalities, according to Cohen (1987) students
are involved in a task of problem solving which arouses
their motivation to participate and follow the act of
communication. He stated that by exploring non-verbal
devices students take shortcuts for getting meaning in an
efficient and quick way. No matter how well the meaning is
negotiated by the help of verbal and visual aids together,
the negotiation of meaning is facilitated to a great extent
and the word is comprehended well. Teachers can develop
the ability of exploiting different types of verbal and nonverbal techniques in the students to negotiate the meanings.
Non-verbal representations in the initial stages of language
learning are of great help, because the learners can exploit
nonverbal devices to compensate for their language
difficulties (Wright, 1989). It can be implicated that by the
use of different glosses and facilitating factors like visuals,
language educators and material designers will be able to
design course curricula for EFL learners in a way that
enhance learning and decrease redundant memory load in
English vocabulary learning. Sometimes, due to lack of
time and resources, teachers prefer to use verbal modes
1078
alone. This study provided a reason to claim that verbal
mode is more effective than visual mode to acquire
vocabulary; however, it is strongly recommended to use
both of them in a supplementary manner in order to
promote comprehension and retention.
In this study the focus was on using both verbal and
visual techniques in teaching vocabulary. However, using
verbal and visual aids extends over other areas where
students are engaged in, e.g. in some seminars and lectures
students are to understand a discourse which is presented
through both oral and visual medium of language. On such
occasions, using two modes together is of great help in the
interpretation of the message. It is noteworthy that while
findings of this study suggest that use of both verbal and
visual aids has some positive impact on L2 learners ’ recall
and retention of vocabulary, they cannot be generalized. As
it was mentioned earlier, the subjects of this study were in
intermediate level of proficiency and this study does not
tell us anything about beginning and advanced L2 learners.
Testing different levels of proficiency may lead to different
results. In future, a follow-up analysis of different kinds of
multimedia and a comparative study of them is needed to
obtain a better view of their effect on vocabulary
achievement. These studies may include the effect of video,
audio, graphic aids and pictures on different skills like
listening and reading. Future research may also take into
account different language groups other than English to see
if learners from other language groups may behave
similarly.
5.4 Future Directions
The present study raised a number of questions requiring
further research in the area of visual and verbal techniques
strategy and its influence on vocabulary development. First
of all, it is of importance to ascertain more normative data
with typically developing learners for both visual and
verbal. Similar research in respect of visual and verbal
trends might be valuable, especially with respect to
intervention programs in vocabulary classes.
Furthermore, it is important to determine whether
similar results in terms of visual and verbal trends would be
found when studying a larger pool of participants. It would
also be beneficial to study samples outside of Iran to
determine if the same outcome applies not only for non
native English speaking learners but also to children
speaking British, Australian and American English or
languages other than English.
Moreover, visual and verbal trend regarding receptive
vocabulary require further investigations. Although a
positive correlation with receptive vocabulary was
observed in the current study.
Future findings might contribute to a better
understanding of the fact that some students benefit more
from intervention programs and, therefore, show better
treatment outcomes than others.
5.5. Limitations
Similar to other studies, the ongoing thesis was
conducted only in one high school in a small city in Ilam
province, Iran. Therefore, the generalizability of the results
is also limited by the small scale of the study. Other
variables such as the cultural and educational background
of the learners could affect the findings of the present study.
Further research is recommended to validate the findings of
the current study. Generally speaking, similar to other
studies, certainly there were particular limitations in this
study. Firstly, the subjects participating in this research
were only 60 high school students. For the intention of
more powerful results, more participants could have been
chosen. Secondly, the subjects were only male learning. In
order to come up with better results, inclusion of female
learners is also recommended. Moreover, the participants
were selected from the same high school and under the
same teacher. To gain more generalizability, heterogeneous
learners could have been involved. Also, only three classes
in one high school participated in the study, therefore the
result should be used cautiously due to possible internal
validity problems. Furthermore, the effort required to resort
to instrument aids in learning vocabularies may have
caused fatigue and, subsequently, diminished reading effort
and performance.
5.6. Recommendations to School
Administrations and Supervisors
Administrations and supervisors are recommended to do
the following:
1. Provide teachers with training courses to enhance
using verbal and visual techniques in teaching vocabulary
in their classes. 2. Prepare and distribute instructional
materials that increase awareness of using various
strategies and emphasizes on the significance and necessity
of using visual and verbal in teaching English vocabulary. 3.
Conduct workshops that aim at familiarizing teachers of
how to teach vocabulary by using visual and verbal trends.
4. Encourage teachers to exchange visits and hold
periodical meeting to discuss new methods of teaching such
as visual and verbal trends. 5. Connect schools with local
society especially universities and educational centers to
enhance making competitions among English clubs.
5.7. Recommendations to Teachers of English
Teachers of English are recommended to do the
following: 1.Consider students’ individual differences by
using visual and verbal trends in order to illustrate the
intended vocabulary. 2. Exchange experiences among
teachers by attending each other classes especially in
vocabulary to show benefits of using visual and verbal
trends in teaching vocabulary. 3. Select effective methods
and techniques which encourage students to use vocabulary
correctly. 4. Move from the ordinary teaching methods to
using visual and verbal trends in authentic situations.
1079
5.8. Summary
Vocabulary is needed for expressing meaning and in
using the receptive (listening and reading) and the
productive (speaking and writing) skills. “If language
structures make up the skeleton of language, then it is
vocabulary that provides the vital organs and the flesh”
Harmer (2001:153). Moras (2001) pointed out that
vocabulary teaching above elementary level was mostly
restricted on presenting new items as they appeared in
reading or listening texts. The goal of the current
investigation was to determine if visual and verbal
techniques affected the vocabulary improvement of Iranian
students. The impact of pre-reading questions on improving
reading comprehension is indisputable. This study
described the participant, setting, instruments, and
materials. It contained the research design, procedures to
conduct the testing, description of the treatment, and
outline of the data collected. The implementation of
measures to support social validity, internal validity, and
external validity were described. The test results, treatment
data, and observations of using the pre-reading activities
were provided in this study. Quantitative data collected
before, during, and after treatment show that this trend was
useful and significant improvement learners’ reading
improvement was recorded during the treatment period.
They experienced additional benefits beyond working with
visual and verbal techniques.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
English Proficiency Exam (pre-test)
For each question, choose which of the four possible answers fits the space best
1. Normally, before you are able to get a job, you have to attend a(n)
A. appointment
b. arrangement
c. interview
2. And when you go, make sure you bring your
a. RSVP
b. CD
c. CV
d. VCR
3. I am feeling really
A. lazy
b. punctual
4. My uncle
A. graduated
b. retired
. If you do well in that, they offer you the position.
d. meeting
to show the manager. This is a sort of record of your education and employment history.
today. The weather is terrible and I got some bad news this morning too!
c. miserable
d. starving
four years ago but he is still very active and says he wished he had stopped work years before!!
c. resigned
d. fired
1081
5. I think a teacher should be quite
A. serious
b. strict
c. harsh
so that the students who want to learn can, without worrying about other students playing around.
d. cold
6. If you turn off the central heating if you are away from home for more than a couple of day, you will
A. earn
b. save
c. win
d. gain
a lot of money.
7. We watched the carnival and then stayed behind for two hours afterwards to help the organizers clear away all the
A. garbage
b. dirt
c. mud
d. pollution
8. I
A. accord
.
with you. This movie is really boring! Let's change the channel.
b. meet
c. agree
d. join
9. After you check in, wait in the ______ until you hear your flight called.
Waiting room
reception
check-in lounge
departure lounge
10. All flights to Canada go out of our southern ______. You can get there on the airport bus.
Block
terminal
station
zone
11. Would you prefer a window seat or a(n) ______ seat, Mr. Robson?
Corridor
line
aisle
non-window
12. Please ensure you have fully filled out the green form for ______ before we land, stating anything on the list you are carrying into the country.
Customs
police
immigration
aviation
13. Hi Jane. I was wondering if you could ____ my cat for a few days while I am away on vacation.
look for
look after
look up
Look like
14. John ____ me yesterday that he is getting married in the spring.
told
said
spoke
viewed
15. I had an all-expenses-paid business ____ to Hong Kong last May. It was wonderful!
holiday
trip
travel
vacation
16. New York is found on the east ____ of the United States.
beach
coast
shore
17. Versatile means : ( tongue/ having many uses/ because of/
18. “Predict” means…. (Explain/
forecast/
around/
Near
summarize)
guess)
19. Group of letters or words at the beginning of a word are called… (root/suffix/prefix/syllable)
20. Fred studies the basic ……….of psychology (commands/concepts/tongues)
21. He found the smell of the lotus blossom 'repugnant', and asked for a different type of flower.
a.
enjoyable
b. disgusting
c. delightful
d. beautiful
22. Teenage 'lethargy' is often due to lack of proper nutrients.
a.
enthusiasm
b. sluggishness
c. boredom
d. happy
23. Unfortunately, information concerning the latest crisis in the state government is arriving 'piecemeal'.
1082
a.
incorrectly
b. delayed
c. bit by bit
d. good
24. Many of the students’ attitudes are considered too 'cynical' for publication.
a.
encouraging
b. sarcastic
c. deprived
d. hungry
25. Soldier:
a.
a person engaged in military service
b. to rouse to activity or to quickened action
c. a settled course or manner of progress d. officer
Appendix II
English Exam (Post-test)
This question needs a clear….
a.
Laugh
b. Response
c. Road
d. Exercise
Can you … the accident that happened in the morning?
a.
describe
b. drink
c. laugh
d. pay
… your old father kindly he sick.
a.
Treat
b. Migrate
c. Share
d. Examine
You should use anti solar cream to … your skin against harmful rays.
a.
Observe
b. Protect
c. Pick
d. Realize
The word "reply" means ….
a.
Giggle b. Smile
c. Plan
d. Answer
He can… all his exams since he has studied very hard.
a.
Watch
b. Fail
c. Pass
d. Move
We cannot go on foot the …. Is really too much from here to our destination.
a.
Distance
b. Communication
c. Shape
d. grass
He was … because he had lost all of this money.
a.
Worried
b. Angry
c. Upset
d. All
The synonym of the word " choose " is …
a.
Clear
b. Select
c. Ignore
d. Cry
I couldn’t … her voice , it was very weak and low
a.
Hear
b. See
c. Pick up
d. Steal
These two men were my … I was their host.
a.
Enemy
b. Gust
c. Baker
d. Butcher
This street is … many children are playing and a lot of cars are coming going.
a.
Noisy
b. Calm
c. Quiet
d. Ugly
She is not ugly. She is …
a.
Old
b. Young
c. Kind
d. Beautiful
I will … the dirty dishes at seven.
a.
Wash
b. Show
c. Explain
d. Guide
We need a … of jam.
a.
Bar
b. Jar
d. Loaf
d. Word
Stay at home and … if you are really tired.
a.
Work
b. Rest
c. Irrigate
d. Run
The … sold the bread.
a.
Baker
b. Butcher
c. Teacher
d. Farmer
This term is hard to understand. Term means ….
a.
Word
b. Lesson
c. Verb
d. Group
This bird’s can … high in the sky.
a.
Learn
b. Draw
c. Write
d. Fly
Do you … your teacher name when you were grade one?
a.
Decide
b. Try
c. Cure
d. Remember
We should … clothes in the winter.
a.
Warm
b. Thin
c. Cheap
d. Watch
Mary is … hungry she can eat something.
a.
A little
b. Light
c. Busy
d. Happy
You, re hungry and …, aren't you?
a.
Green
b. Right
c. Wrong
d. Sleepy
Do you like the new school?
a.
Yes, I like
b. Yes, I like him
c. No I don't like it
My brother … his letters in ink.
a.
Practices
b. Signs
c. Studies
d. Pronounces
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
d. No, I like it
APPENDIX III
FORMULA
A. Independent t-test
𝑡𝑜𝑏𝑠 =
𝑀𝑒 −𝑀𝑐
2
2
𝑁
𝑁
√𝑆𝑒 +𝑆𝑐
B. Symbols
𝑀𝑒 = Mean for the experimental group
𝑀𝑐 = Mean for the control group
N= Number
1083
𝑆𝑒2 = Squared Standard Deviation of the Experimental Group
𝑆𝑐2 = Squared Standard Deviation of the Control Group
Table 1: pretest score means
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
Group 1
20
14.8500
2.73909
8.00
18.00
Group 2
20
14.6500
2.60111
9.00
18.00
Group 3
20
14.8500
2.53969
10.00
18.00
Total
60
14.7833
2.58478
8.00
18.00
ANOVA
Table 2:pretest scores
Sum of Squares
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
F
.533
2
.267
Within Groups
393.650
57
6.906
Total
394.183
59
Sig.
.039
.962
Table 3: Posttest scores
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
Group 1
20
14.6500
2.68083
9.00
18.00
Group 2
20
14.8500
2.43386
10.00
19.00
Group 3
20
18.4000
1.31389
16.00
20.00
Total
60
15.9667
2.79204
9.00
20.00
ANOVA
Table 4:posttest scores
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Between Groups
178.033
2
89.017
Within Groups
281.900
57
4.946
Total
459.933
59
Sig.
17.999
.000
Table 5: pretest and posttest scores of groups 1, 2, and 3.
Group
1.00
pretest
15.00
posttest
14.00
1.00
16.00
17.00
1.00
17.00
17.00
1.00
15.00
14.00
1.00
18.00
18.00
1.00
14.00
14.00
1.00
17.00
17.00
1.00
15.00
15.00
1.00
18.00
17.00
1.00
17.00
17.00
1.00
16.00
15.00
1.00
16.00
16.00
1.00
15.00
15.00
1.00
18.00
18.00
1.00
14.00
13.00
1.00
12.00
11.00
1.00
15.00
15.00
1.00
10.00
10.00
1084
1.00
11.00
1.00
8.00
9.00
2.00
16.00
16.00
2.00
15.00
14.00
2.00
15.00
16.00
2.00
15.00
15.00
2.00
18.00
18.00
2.00
14.00
14.00
2.00
16.00
16.00
2.00
15.00
15.00
2.00
18.00
19.00
2.00
17.00
17.00
2.00
16.00
16.00
2.00
16.00
15.00
2.00
15.00
15.00
2.00
18.00
18.00
2.00
14.00
14.00
2.00
11.00
12.00
2.00
14.00
15.00
2.00
11.00
12.00
2.00
9.00
10.00
2.00
10.00
10.00
3.00
14.00
18.00
3.00
15.00
16.00
3.00
18.00
20.00
3.00
15.00
18.00
3.00
18.00
20.00
3.00
13.00
17.00
3.00
17.00
19.00
3.00
15.00
17.00
3.00
16.00
18.00
3.00
18.00
20.00
3.00
16.00
20.00
3.00
16.00
19.00
3.00
15.00
17.00
3.00
18.00
20.00
3.00
14.00
18.00
3.00
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17.00
3.00
16.00
19.00
3.00
11.00
18.00
3.00
11.00
20.00
3.00
10.00
17.00
Figure 1: Vocabulary achievement of three experimental groups in pre and posttest
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