BEDFORD CUSTOM TUTORIAL FOR HISTORY
Working with Primary Sources
As a student in a history course, you probably have some preconceived
ideas about what you will be studying and how you will study it. But
your college-level history may surprise you. You may have thought that
the study of history is about “facts,” when the study of history has as
much to do with working with and evaluating sources and as evidence as
it does with learning dates, names, events, and places from the past. In
this tutorial, you will learning the following:
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What exactly are historical sources
The difference between primary and secondary sources
How to read and analyze a written source
How to read and analyze a visual source
What Are Historical Sources?
The stories historians tell in books, articles, and lectures are pieced together
from hundreds, often thousands, of documents, objects, and artifacts. The
challenge is to turn all of those individual pieces of evidence into a convincing, compelling version of the past.
That’s no easy task. Most historical evidence was produced by people
with no direct interest in telling the story of their times. While historians
do have access to the occasional chronicle or official account, far more
typical is the kind of evidence people produce to meet immediate needs,
not to enlighten future generations. A merchant bills his or her customer,
and creates a historical document in the process. A woman is convicted of
theft, an unhappy event that is commemorated in the legal documents
associated with her trial. An artisan crafts an engraved silver chalice for a
wealthy client, and another piece of evidence is produced. The bill, the
records, and the chalice all offer valuable clues about the past, but none
were created for that purpose. It is up to the historian to tease out the
implications of the document or artifact, and to make connections between
the evidence and his or her historical argument or thesis.
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2 Working with Primary Sources
Distinguishing between Primary and
Secondary Sources
Before we go any further in our discussion, it’s important to explain the
distinction between primary and secondary sources. A primary source is a
document, object, or image created during the time period under study.
Such sources are the basic evidence historians use to construct their s­ tories
about the past. Secondary sources, in contrast, offer interpretations or analyses of the past. In other words, primary sources are the subject of historical
research, and secondary sources are the results of historical research.
Your textbook, professional journals, scholarly books, and even Web
sites can all serve as useful secondary sources. Beyond such written secondary sources, there are also many different types of visual secondary
sources. Maps, tables, charts, graphs, and videos can all be used as effective tools for presenting a historian’s analysis of primary sources. Thus,
examples of secondary sources include:
•Textbook
• Scholarly journal presenting recent work in modern history
• Scholarly journal open to the best scholarship in any historical field
• Microhistory that explores the significance of a single event
• Multivolume history that covers many centuries and many places
• Map showing the routes taken by famous sixteenth-century explorers
• Map showing eighteenth-century Atlantic trade patterns
•Chart showing the decline in economic output during the Great
­Depression
• Graph showing changes in average per capita income over time
• Table comparing literacy levels at different places in a given year
• Video exploring the experiences of real soldiers during World War I
• Museum Web site that links objects in its collection to historical
­developments
•Historian’s Web site that includes resources for students and
­instructors
As helpful as secondary sources can be, you need to be careful when
selecting them, particularly when you look for information online. While
professional journals and university publishers review proposed articles
and books, and only publish those that meet their standards, no such vetting process occurs prior to Internet publication. It’s up to you to carefully
examine any Web site you propose to use as a resource to make sure the
information it contains is reliable.
As a student of history, you’ll use both primary and secondary sources,
often in conjunction with each another. For example, your instructor may
ask you to read and analyze a letter written by the sixteenth-century
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Analyzing Written Primary Sources 3
­ rotestant reformer Martin Luther. To get the most out of your reading of
P
this primary source, you’ll need to examine it carefully, noting the details
of Luther’s ideas and arguments. You’ll also need to consult your textbook,
a secondary source, to help you understand the historical context in which
Luther’s letter was written. Thus, the two kinds of sources work together.
Primary sources, like the letter, provide an opportunity for you to develop
your own interpretations of the past. Secondary sources, like your textbook, provide a framework for your analysis, helping you to place primary
sources in the context of the events and developments of their time.
Analyzing Written Primary Sources
Reading and analyzing historical documents can sometimes feel like a
daunting challenge, particularly if the document’s vocabulary, style, and
subject matter are new to you. The task can be made easier, however, if
you proceed in a systematic fashion, starting with the establishment of
basic facts, and then moving toward more complex levels of analysis. With
this in mind, the following six questions provide a step-by-step approach
to the analysis of historical documents.
Who wrote this document, when, and where?
The analysis of historical documents begins with the establishment of the
basic facts: where, when, and by whom was the document written. These
facts are critical because if we want to discover the historical significance
of a document, we need to start by situating it and its author in a specific
time and place. Sometimes these questions have straightforward, precise
answers. We know, for example, that Mahatma Gandhi wrote Hind Swaraj,
a work that provided a blueprint for the Indian independence movement,
in 1909 and that it was published in India. In other cases, however, we
must be content with educated guesses. We may never know exactly when,
where, and by whom an ancient Egyptian papyrus was created. The best
we can do is to use the available evidence to deduce the most likely
answers to these questions, and acknowledge that our conclusions are
subject to revision if new information comes to light.
Identifying the author is also important because it alerts us to the issue
of author bias. In this context, author bias does not necessarily refer to an
intentional effort to distort or deceive. Instead, it refers to the fact that
every author has his or her own agenda and particular point of view. Thus,
it is not enough simply to know an author’s name. We need to know something about the author’s background, about how this author viewed the
world, and about how he or she came to produce the document we’re
examining.
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4 Working with Primary Sources
What type of document is this?
All written genres have their own their own distinctive rules and char­
acteristics. Sometimes those rules and characteristics are relatively rigid. A
formal legal plea, for example, may follow guidelines about content and
organization established by law. In other instances, such as personal letters,
the rules of the genre may be looser. In either case, identifying what type of
document we are dealing with is an important step in establishing its
importance. If we know what kinds of rules and conventions an author was
working within, we’ll be able to discern their influence on the document
the author created. Just as important, we’ll notice when the author deviates
from established practices and produces something new and unique.
Who is the intended audience of the document?
There is often a close connection between a document and its intended
audience. A twentieth-century government propaganda initiative may
have been intended to reach a mass audience that included representatives
of all segments of society. In sharp contrast, the readers of a legal decision
rendered by a sixteenth-century high court may have been limited to a
small number of highly educated elites. Finally, a personal letter may have
had an intended audience of one, its recipient. Identifying the audience for
a document is important because when authors create documents, they
often makes choices of language, style, and content based on their assumptions about their audience’s preferences and beliefs. Moreover, the historical importance of a document is determined, at least in part, by who read
it and what influence it had on its readers.
What are the main points of the document?
As you set out on your exploration of a document, you’ll want to start by
identifying its main points. For this reason, while reading, you should
mark words, phrases, and passages that strike you as particularly important. With this task completed, you can go back over the document and
start to make connections between its main points and the specific choices
the author made about style, organization, content, and emphasis.
Why was this document written?
Documents are always written for a reason and that reason shapes the
document’s content and significance. For example, a formal declaration of
war might be intended both to announce the commencement of hostilities and to present the case that war is necessary. Understanding these
intentions leads us to ask follow-up questions. What argument did the
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Working through a Written Primary Source 5
authors make in favor going to war? Who was this argument meant to
convince? How effective was it? In contrast, a letter from a father to a son
offering advice might have been written solely for the recipient’s benefit.
In this case, we might ask ourselves what light the letter sheds on familial
relationships during the period in which it was written. How formal was
the letter? Was it affectionate or businesslike? What kind of advice did the
father offer? Was the advice presented as suggestions or as commands?
What does this document reveal about the time and place in
which it was written?
The point of analyzing a document or artifact is not to produce a mere
summary or description. It is to build a case for the document’s or artifact’s historical meaning. It must be stressed that there is no single right
answer to this question. This is because readers bring their own goals and
purposes to their analyses. A military historian might read an account of a
medieval battle in order to gain insight into the evolution of military strategies and tactics. A social historian might be more interested in what the
account tells us about who fought medieval battles and how they experienced warfare. Finally, a political historian might be most interested in the
implications of the battle for future relations between medieval states. As
long as the argument presented by each of these historians is grounded in
fact and is logically consistent, they are equally valid.
Working through a Written Primary Source
To help you better understand the nature of historical analysis and develop
your own analytical abilities, apply the questions and approaches described
above to the following historical document. Be sure to read the headnote
that introduces the document first. It serves as a secondary source, alerting
you to critical issues of historical context, and thus guides and illuminates
your reading. Once you’ve read the headnote, work through the six questions in order, beginning with the basic facts and finishing with general
conclusions about the document’s historical importance.
TITLE
Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince (1831)
HEADNOTE
Mary Prince was born around 1788 and died sometime after 1833. She
was born into slavery in the West Indies and was sold four times while a
slave. In 1828, she obtained her freedom when her final master took her
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6 Working with Primary Sources
to England where slavery was no longer legally recognized. Her master
had counted on Prince’s desire to return to her husband in the West Indies
and her lack of friends in England to prevent her from exercising her legal
rights, but the harsh abuse she suffered at the hands of her master and his
wife convinced her that she had to leave them. Once free, she joined the
abolitionist movement. It was in this context that Mary dictated her life
story to a friend and fellow abolitionist, a “Miss S——,” in 1831.
DOCUMENT
He [Mary’s master] had an ugly fashion of stripping himself quite naked,
and ordering me then to wash him in a tub of water. This was worse to
me than all the licks. Sometimes when he called me to wash him I would
not come, my eyes were so full of shame. He would then come to beat
me. One time I had plates and knives in my hand, and I dropped both
plates and knives, and some of the plates were broken. He struck me so
severely for this, that at last I defended myself, for I thought it was high
time to do so. I then told him I would not live longer with him, for he
was a very indecent man—very spiteful, and too indecent; with no
shame for his servants, no shame for his own flesh. So I went away to a
neighboring house and sat down and cried till the next morning, when I
went home again, not knowing what else to do. . . .
I am often much vexed, and I feel great sorrow when I hear some
people in this country say, that the slaves do not need better usage, and
do not want to be free. They believe the foreign people, who deceive
them, and say slaves are happy. I say, Not so. How can slaves be happy
when they have the halter round their neck and the whip upon their
back? and are disgraced and thought no more of than beasts?—and are
separated from their mothers, and husbands, and children, and sisters,
just as cattle are sold and separated? Is it happiness for a driver in the
field to take down his wife or sister or child, and strip them, and whip
them in such a disgraceful manner?—women that have had children
exposed in the open field to shame! There is no modesty or decency
shown by the owner to his slaves; men, women, and children are exposed alike. Since I have been here I have often wondered how English
people can go out into the West Indies and act in such a beastly manner.
But when they go to the West Indies, they forget God and all feeling of
shame, I think, since they can see and do such things. They tie up slaves
like hogs—moor them up like cattle, and they lick them, so as hogs, or
cattle, or horses never were flogged;—and yet they come home and say,
and make some good people believe, that slaves don’t want to get out of
slavery. But they put a cloak about the truth. It is not so. All slaves want
to be free—to be free is very sweet. I will say the truth to English people
who may read this history that my good friend, Miss S——, is now writ-
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Working through a Written Primary Source 7
ing down for me. I have been a slave myself—I know what slaves feel—I
can tell by myself what other slaves feel, and by what they have told me.
The man that says slaves be quite happy in slavery—that they don’t want
to be free—that man is either ignorant or a lying person. I never heard a
slave say so.
Source: Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave, Related by Herself
­(London: F. Westley and A. H. Davis, 1831), 13, 23.
Now, let’s apply our six steps to the document you just read.
Who wrote this document, when, and where?
The History of Mary Prince was published in England in 1831, in the
midst of a great push for the abolition of slavery throughout the British
Empire. Abolitionists would achieve this goal two years later in 1833.
As you learned from the headnote, Mary Prince’s autobiography was
­dictated to a friend and member of the abolitionist movement, a “Miss
S——.” Under these circumstances, we are entitled to wonder to what
degree Miss S—— shaped the narrative. Did she simply write down
everything that Mary Prince said, or did she suggest topics and/or alter
Mary’s words?
What type of document is it?
The History of Mary Prince is a slave narrative, an autobiography in which
a slave recounts his or her personal history. British and American abolitionist groups played a central role in their production, and the characteristics
of the genre reflect this fact. Slave narratives were meant to persuade the
public that slavery was a sin. Thus, they emphasized the humanity of slaves
and the immorality of slave owners. They also sought to connect the evils
of slavery to a real person, thereby making it easier for readers with little
direct experience of slavery to empathize with the institution’s victims.
Who is the intended audience of the document?
The History of Mary Prince was a political document. It was intended to shape
the political debate over the abolition of slavery. Its publishers, therefore,
hoped to reach as much of the British reading public as possible. It should be
emphasized that this public was not limited to men. Women played a critical
role in both the American and British abolitionist movement, and the movement sought to persuade both men and women to join the cause. The account
of the sexual abuse Mary Prince suffered at the hands of her master may have
had a particularly powerful impact on female readers.
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8 Working with Primary Sources
What are the main points of the document?
The excerpts from The History of Mary Prince included here sought to
accomplish two key objectives. First, the account of Mary’s humiliation at
the hands of her master offered readers a stark contrast between his
shameless immorality and her own modesty and innocence. Second,
Mary’s stirring declaration that all slaves longed for freedom countered the
prevailing notion that people of African descent were natural-born slaves
and were, in fact, happiest when enslaved.
Why was the document written?
The History of Mary Prince was intended to advance the abolitionist cause.
By allowing her personal story to be written down and published, Mary
became a participant in the movement. Slave narratives like Mary’s were a
powerful tool for fighting against some of the most dangerous ideas
advanced by the enemies of abolition. Mary’s piety, intelligence, and passion for freedom directly contradicted the stereotypes of African slaves
offered up by the defenders of slavery.
What does this document reveal about the time and place in
which it was written?
The History of Mary Prince provides historians with a window into both
the lives of slaves in the West Indies and into the alliance between blacks
and whites that culminated in the abolition of slavery in the British Empire.
Mary’s account offers a detailed picture of the lives of female slaves in the
West Indies in the eighteenth century. At the same time, we must not forget that her story was created in collaboration with white abolitionists. As
such, its content and language reflect, in part, her collaborators’ values
and beliefs. This does not mean that Mary’s story is not truthful, but it
does mean that its telling was not entirely her own.
Analyzing Visual Primary Sources
Written documents are at the heart of much historical analysis, but they
are not the only sources of historical evidence. Clues about historical
developments can also be discovered in material objects, in art, and in
architecture. Such nonwritten sources present their own distinct challenges. In general, they require more interpretation and extrapolation on
the part of the historian than do written sources, which are often explicit
about their motives and messages. Nonetheless, the process of analyzing
a painting or a photograph is very much like analyzing a document—you
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Analyzing Visual Primary Sources 9
begin with six questions similar to the ones you have already applied to
The History of Mary Prince, moving from basic facts to more complex analytical issues.
Who created this image, when, and where?
Just as was the case with written sources, the analysis of visual evidence
begins with the establishment of basic facts: where, when, and by whom
was the image created. And again, as was the case with written sources,
our answers cannot always be as precise as we would like. Sometimes this
is because we simply lack definitive information. In other cases, the circumstances under which the evidence was created complicate the question. For example, most art produced during the Italian Renaissance was
commissioned by wealthy patrons. Such patrons had a significant say in
the size, style, and subject matter of the works they commissioned. Given
this, might we not make the argument that such patrons should be considered as cocreators?
What type of image is this?
To fully answer this question, we need go beyond simple answers like “this
is a photograph,” or “this is a painting.” If it is a photograph, is it candid or
is it staged? If it’s a painting, is it a landscape or a formal portrait, a religious
scene or a depiction of a historical event? Like written sources, visual sources
often belong to genres. If we can identify an image’s genre, along with its
rules and conventions, we take a big step forward in our process of interpretation and analysis.
Who are the intended viewers of the image?
The intended audience for an image gives us crucial clues about its importance. Suppose we’re looking at the cover of a popular American magazine
from the 1950s. We may deduce that the image was meant to appeal to a
wide range of people and that’s its meaning was one that most people of
that time and place would have understood at a glance. In contrast, imagine
the subject of our analysis is a religious fresco painted on an interior wall
of a chapel. Confronted with such an image, we might ask ourselves who
worshipped in the chapel and what role the image played in their religious
practice.
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10 Working with Primary Sources
What is the central message of the image?
Images can convey powerful messages, but they are often challenging to
decipher. Instead of using words, artists use visual elements to communicate
their ideas. As a historian, your task is to learn how to “read” an image, to
make connections between the artist’s choices about composition, color,
and subject matter on the one hand, and his or her intended message on the
other. As you did with written sources, start with the image’s main features,
then move on to the details and their interrelationships.
Why was the image produced?
Like written sources, visual sources are created for a wide range of purposes. A painting, sculpture, or photograph may be meant to educate, to
persuade, to enlighten, or to shock. Understanding this purpose is central
to discovering its historical meaning. For example, Egyptian pharaohs did
not commission paintings, sculptures, and other art objects for the pyramids simply to serve as decorations. The pyramids were tombs and the
pharaohs believed the objects they contained would be available to them
in the afterlife. Thus, without an understanding of Egyptian religion, it is
impossible to achieve a full appreciation of ancient Egyptian art.
What does this image reveal about the society and time period
in which it was created?
A visual source can often illuminate many different aspects of the past,
and there is no single correct answer to this question. A fifteenth-century
painting of the Madonna and Child, for example, might help us understand
fifteenth-century religious beliefs and practices, social and political hierarchies, and gender roles. This does not mean that the interpretation of a
visual source is simply a matter of opinion. As students of history, we are
interested in understanding the actions and beliefs of the people of the
past. To achieve this goal, we must ground our interpretations in a detailed
understanding of historical context.
Working through a Primary Visual Source
With the guidelines above in mind, let’s examine a visual source. As you
did with the written source, apply the questions and approaches described
above to the example, beginning by establishing the basic facts, and then
moving on to broader, more conceptual issues. Be sure to take the time to
examine the image carefully and to read the headnote and image caption
before you turn to the questions.
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Working through a Primary Visual Source 11
TITLE
“We Build a New Europe” (1950)
Source: Library of Congress
HEADNOTE
When World War II ended in 1945, much of Europe was devastated—
physically, financially, politically, and emotionally. To alleviate the worst
material suffering and to prevent European nations from turning to the
Communist Soviet Union for relief, in 1948, the United States introduced
the European Recovery Program (ERP), often referred to as the Marshall
Plan. In 1950, the European leaders of the ERP held a poster contest on the
topic “Intra-European Cooperation for a Better Standard of Living.” One
of the entries by Austrian Kurt Krapeik was titled “We Build a New Europe” and is shown below.
Now, let’s apply our six steps to the image.
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12 Working with Primary Sources
Who created this image, when, and where?
The poster was created by an Austrian citizen, Kurt Krapeik, in 1950, five
years after the end of World War II. Keep in mind that Austria was part of
the losing Axis powers during the conflict. Consider whether the artist’s
nationality had an impact on his message. His experience of the war provides some context for analysis of the poster.
What type of image is this?
This image is a poster, meant to convey a particular theme—cooperation
among European nations.
Who were its intended viewers?
The intended audience would be the committee deciding on a winner for
the poster contest—the European leaders of the European Recovery Program. At the same time, the artist would have understood that the poster
might have a broader viewership, in particular other Europeans with their
own experiences of World War II and its aftermath. Thus, the message of
the image is meant for any European who might see the poster.
What is the central message of the image?
The central message of the poster is both straightforward and complex. On
the one hand, the burned-out tree that is the centerpiece of the image illustrates the devastation wrought upon Europe by the war. It suggests that
Europe went through a literal burning of itself almost to the roots. However, the message is also optimistic. Out of the burned limbs of the tree,
new leaves have emerged, and doves (which represent peace) flock to the
tree. Inside the “nest” are the flags of the European nations which suggest
a rebirth. Finally, the acronym “ERP” has been incorporated into an American flag, suggesting that the United States and the ERP have both played
a crucial role in helping the new Europe to emerge.
Why was the image produced?
On the most basic level, it was produced for a contest. Other questions
emerge, however. Perhaps the artist had begun to create this image
before the contest was announced. Whether it was or not, the artist produced this image to illustrate a sense of hope and new beginnings for
Europe. It also credits the United States for helping this process through its
economic aid.
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Conclusion 13
What does this image reveal about the society and time period
in which it was created?
The poster offers historians an insight into the devastation that Europe
experienced in World War II. In particular, it may give us particular insight
to the experiences of Austria in the war. By 1950, Europe had begun to
rebuild its buildings and roads, its political structures, its economies, and
its morale. Even five years after the end of the war, the poster reveals that
there is still much work to be done. At the same time, the poster also suggests that the key to recovery lies in European nations’ cooperation with
one another, not in continued conflict.
Conclusion
As our examples have demonstrated, the successful analysis of historical
primary sources requires you to examine the evidence closely, to proceed
carefully and logically, and to use your creativity and imagination. It also
requires you to draw on your knowledge of historical context, adding to it
when necessary by consulting secondary sources such as textbooks, articles, and Web sites. This last point is crucial. Historical documents and
images cannot be analyzed in isolation. They were created in a particular
time and place. They reflect the experiences, values, and beliefs of their
creators. Thus, your job as a student of history is not simply to describe
the content of a document or image but to bring it back to life by placing
it within the unique context in which it came into being.
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