MOTIVATION
Theory, Research, and Applications
FIFTH
EDITION
Herbert L Petri
Towson University
John M. Govern
Towson University
THOMSON
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WADSWORTH
Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain
United Kingdom • United States
Contents
OVERVIEW
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CHAPTER 1
Evolution and Motivation
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Life
Mitosis and Meiosis
Sex
The Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
The Pleasures of Sex
Interim Summary
Higher Motives?
Evolution
Natural Selection
Sexual Selection
Female versus Male Sexual Strategies
Mate Selection in Humans
Instincts, Emotion, Thoughts, and Behavior
Instincts, Emotion, Thoughts, and the Brain
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading
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Web Resources
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CHAPTER 2
Conceptualizing and Measuring Motivation
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Introduction
The Concept of Motivation
The Measurement of Motivation
Characteristics of Motivation
Activation
Direction
The Study of Motivation: Categories of Analysis
Nomothetic versus Idiographic
Innate versus Acquired
Internal versus External
Mechanistic versus Cognitive
Levels of Analysis
Physiological Analysis
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Contents
Individual Analysis
Social Analysis
Philosophical Analysis
Analysis of Angle's Problem
Major Constructs in Motivation
Energy
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Physiological Mechanisms
Learning
Social Interaction
Cognitive Processes
The Activation of Motivation
Homeostasis
Hedonism
Growth Motivation
Philosophical and Physiological Roots of Motivational Theory
Philosophical Antecedents
Physiological Antecedents
The Flow of Ideas about Motivation
The Authors' Bias
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading
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Web Resources
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PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF MOTIVATION
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CHAPTER 3
Genetic Contributions to Motivated Behavior
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Early Instinct Theories
William James
William McDougall
Criticisms of the Early Instinct Theories
Classical Ethology
Ethological Terms
Intention Movements and Social Releasers
Conflict Behavior
Reaction Chains
Imprinting
Criticisms of the Classical Ethological Approach
Some Modifications to the Basic Ideas of Ethology
Human Ethology
Ethological Concepts Concerning Sex and Aggression
Adaptiveness of Intraspecific Aggression
Modern Ethological Approaches
Behavioral Ecology
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Cognitive Ethology
Evolutionary Psychology
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading
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Web Resources
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CHAPTER 4
Physiological Mechanisms of Arousal
Introduction
Arousal Theory
The Reticular Activating System
Hebb's Theory
Psychophysiological Measures
Problems with Arousal Theory
Sleep
General Properties of Sleep
Stages of Sleep
Dreams
Sleep Deprivation
Physiology of Sleep
Brainstem Mechanisms That Promote Arousal
Neurotransmitters That Promote Arousal
Brainstem legions That Promote NREM Sleep
Neurotransmitters That Promote Sleep
Brainstem Regions That Promote REM Sleep
Possible Functions of Sleep
Stress
Definition of Stress
Systemic and Psychological Stress
Endocrine System Activity and Stress
The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Diseases of Adaptation
Life Change, Stress, and Illness
Buffers of Stress
Health Psychology
Psychoneuroimmunology
Conditioning of Immune Responses
Psychosocial Factors and the Immune System
Sexual Arousal
Stages of the Human Sexual Response Cycle
Other Bodily Changes During Sexual Behavior
Summary
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Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading
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Web Resources
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CHAPTER 5
Physiological Mechanisms of Regulation
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Why Do We Eat?
Sensory Specific Satiety
Basic Metabolism
Local Theories
Central Theories
Homeostatic Regulation
Regulation of Hunger
Short-Term Regulation
Long-Term Regulation
Leptin and Insulin
Energy Regulation; Two Processes or One?
Failure of Regulation
Anorexia Nervosa
Cross-Cultural Evidence of Anorexia
The Serotonin Hypothesis
Heredity Factors
Bulimia Nervosa
Obesity
Obesity Explanations
Homeostatic Regulation Reconsidered
Regulation of Thirst
Extracellular and Intracellular Mechanisms
The Kidney
Osmometric Thirst
Volumetric Thirst
Nonhomeostatic Drinking
Inhibitory Control of Drinking
Regulation of Sexual Motivation
Hypothalamic Regulation
Regulation of Aggressive Motivation
The Limbic System
Types of Aggression
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading 152
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Web Resources
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Contents
III THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES: LEARNING,
INCENTIVES, AND HEDONISM
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CHAPTER 6
Learned Motives: Classical, Instrumental,
and Observational Learning
Pavlovian Classical Conditioning
Experimental Neurosis
Elimination of Motivated Behaviors Through Conditioning
Interoceptive Conditioning
Learned Aversions
Learned Taste Aversions in Cancer Patients
Operant Conditioning
Quantity, Quality, and Contrasts of Reinforcement
Primary and Conditioned Reinforcement
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers
Tokens and Token Economies
Classieal-Operant Interactions in Motivation
Acquired Fear
Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs)
Learned Helplessness
Symptoms of Helplessness
Causes and Prevention of Helplessness
Observational Learning (Modeling)
Modeling Processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction
Modeling Processes; Vicarious Reinforcement
Learning and Aggression
Classical Conditioning and Aggression
Operant Conditioning and Aggression
Modeled Aggression
Sexual Motivation and Learning
Learned Sexual Values
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading 191
Web Resources
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CHAPTER 7
Incentive Motivation
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Incentives as Energizers
Incentive Motivation K
The Persistence of Behavior
Incentives as Generators of Emotion
Mowrer: Fear, Hope, Relief, and Disappointment
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Incentives as Carriers of Information
Tolman: Cognitive Formulations
Predictability
Klinger: Meaningfulness
Incentive Aspects of Sexual Motivation
Female Attractiveness
Male Attractiveness
Incentive Motivation and Physical Addictions
Behavioral Addictions
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading 216
Web Resources
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CHAPTER 8
Hedonism and Sensory Stimulation
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Hedonism
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P. T. Young: Sign, Intensity, and Duration
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Sensory Stimulation and the Hedonic Continuum
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Pain
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Novelty, Curiosity, and Exploratory Behavior
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Behaviors Released by Stimulation
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The Need for Stimulation
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Attachment
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Sensation Seeking
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Opponent-Process Theory: Hedonism Eevisited
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Drug Addiction: An Alternative to the Incentive-Sensitization View 239
Thrill Seeking
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Social Attachment
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Summary
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Key Terms
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Suggestions for Further Reading 243
Web Resources
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IV COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION
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CHAPTER 9
Cognitive Motivation: Expectancy-Value Approaches
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Tolman's Purposive Behavior
Characteristics of Molar Behavior
Purpose and Cognition
Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory
The Person
The Psychological Environment
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Expectancy-Value Theory
Social Learning Theory
Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement
Criticisms of Need-Achievement Theory
Social Loafing
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading 278
Web Resources
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CHAPTER 10
Cognitive Motivation: Social Motivation
and Consistency
Coaction and Audience Effects
Conformity
Factors That Affect Conformity Motivation
Criticisms of Conformity Research
Why Do People Conform?
Compliance
Obedience
Bystander Intervention
Zimbardo's Mock Prison
Cognitive Consistency Theory
Balance Theory
Cognitive Dissonance
Research on Dissonance
Challenges to Dissonance Theory
A Problem for Consistency Theories
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading 315
Web Resources
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CHAPTER 11
Cognitive Motivation; Attribution Approaches
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Attribution Theory
Heider's Naive Psychology
The Jones and Davis Correspondence Theory
Kelley's Covariation Theory
Weiner's Attributional Analysis of Achievement Behavior
A Synthesis of the Theories of Kelley and Weiner
Biases in Attribution
Application of Research on Attributions
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Contents
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Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading
Web Resources
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CHAPTER 12
Cognitive Motivation: Competence and Control
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Carl Rogers and Positive Regard
The Fully Functioning Individual
Criticisms of Rogers's Approach
Abraham Maslow and Self-Actualization
Hierarchy of Needs
Competence, Personal Causation, Human Agency,
and Self-Determination
Competence
Personal Causation
Human Agency
Self-Determination
Toward a Positive Psychology?
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading 363
Web Resources
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V EMOTION AND MOTIVATION
CHAPTER 13
The Emotions as Motivators
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Emotion from a Biological Perspective
Darwin's Principles of Emotion
Other Formulations of Emotion after Darwin
The James-Lange Theory
The Emergency Theory of Emotional Arousal
The Cognitive-Physiological Theory of Emotion
Ethology
Brain Mechanisms of Emotion
The Amygdala, Orbital Frontal Cortex, and Cingulate Cortex
Emotion from a Learning Perspective
Classical Conditioning and Emotion
Operant/Instrumental
Conditioning and Emotion
Emotional Modeling
The Preparedness of Emotional Learning
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Contents
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Emotion from a Cognitive Perspective
Attribution of Emotion
Emotion as Primary and Universal
The Tomkins Model
Izard's Differential Emotions Model
The Circumplex Model of Emotion
Facial Expression and Emotion
Display Rules
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Summary
Key Terms
Suggestions for Further Reading
Web Resources
VI ENDVIEW
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CHAPTER 14
Conclusions
References 411
Name Index 451
Subject Index 463
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