AnOverviewofLaborHistory
2
MaryEvans/EverettCollection
LearningObjectives
Aftercompletingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:
• Describetheatmospheresurroundingunionoppositionandresultingcourtcases.
• Discusseachoftheearlylaborunions,majorstrikes,andkeyplayersinlaborrelations.
• Relatethegrowthofindustrytomajorstrikesinthesteelandtextileindustriesatthe
turnofthe20thcentury.
Introduction
TheU.S.economywasformedaroundfarmsandsmalltowns.IfyouweretoviewtheUnitedStatesin
theearly1800s,youwouldseecountryroads,largefarms,andtownserectedatcrossroads,servingthe
needsoffarmers.Althoughtherewerefactories,thesewererareandusuallylocatedonlyinthelarger
cities.Earlymanufacturingtookplaceinsmallshopsrunbycraftsmenwhowereexpertsinonetrade,
suchasbarrelmakingorstitchery.Thus,America’searlyindustrywascenteredonindividualtradesand
skilledworkers.
These workers were called master craftsmen. Not only were they proficient at making specific
products,theywerealsomultitalentedbusinessmen.Consider,forexample,BostonianPaulRevere,who
trained in the art of silversmithing and then became a shop owner, a teacher to his apprentices, a
capitalist,anemployer,andahighlyskilledartisan.
Mastercraftsmensatside­by­sideatthebenchwiththeirworkers,togethermakingtheproductsofthe
shop,beitboots,silverware,horsebridles,orcopperbowls.Atfirst,slavesorindenturedservantsmade
upthegroupofworkers,butasslaverydecreasedintheNortheastandindenturedservantscompleted
theirterms,craftsmensearchedforothertypesofhelp.Soonastrataofworkersdevelopedthatbecame
knownasapprenticesorjourneymen.Thesewerethemenwhoworkedinthetradesbutwouldnever
beshopownersunlesstheystartedtheirownbusiness.
The work environment in these shops was intimate. The boss knew each worker—his strengths and
weaknesses, and certainly his personal life. Problems could be addressed directly and quickly if the
master craftsman chose, which led the workplace to have a give­and­take quality. Workers felt
somewhat empowered by the fact that management was present, understood the conditions of work,
andcouldberesponsivetoissuesthatarose.
Thisworkenvironmentalsofeaturedtwodistincttiers:ownersandlaborers.Lineswereclearlydrawn
regarding the rights of the owner to make fundamental decisions about the work environment while
laborremainedpowerless,exceptaboutwhethertoleavethejobandseekotheremployment.Workfor
laborers was a “take it or leave it” environment, and for those unwilling or unable to secure work
elsewhere,theshop,itsrules,andculturewerenonnegotiable.
Asthe19thcenturyprogressed,anotablechangeoccurredthatessentiallyputanendtothiswayoflife.
The United States underwent a great industrial boom, commonly referred to as the Industrial
Revolution(1820–1840).TheIndustrialRevolutionmadesmallworkshopsobsoleteandunprofitable.
Aconfluence of factorscontributedtothisnewreality.Workerswereplentifulandrelatively cheap to
employ; America had bountiful natural resources; tradesmen from Europe came to the United States
with skills, inventions, and creativity; and as the population grew, the demand for goods increased
tremendously.Smallshopscouldnolongerkeepupwithdemand,andwhentheydid,weretooslowand
costly.The1800salsosawtheriseofexpandingtransportationsystemsthatmadetheexportofgoods
toEuropepossibleandhighlyprofitable.Additionally,transportationwithintheUnitedStatesimproved,
whichfostereddomestictrade.Factories,too,begantoexpand;asaresult,theyemployedacompletely
differenttypeofworkerthananapprenticeorjourneyman.
Withtheadventoffactories,anewclassofworkeremerged:theunskilledworker,whocouldoperate
machinery or do repetitive tasks that required little skill. One of the earliest such industries was
spinningyarn,whichby1860involvedmorethan1,700millswith6,400spindlesand16,000looms;the
industryhadanannualoutputof$90millionandemployedmorethan60,000laborers(Foner,1998).
ImmigrantsstreamedintotheUnitedStatesduringthistime,providinginexpensiveandoftenunskilled
labor.Asthefactoriesgrew,moreworkerswereneeded,andwomenandchildrensoonbecamepartof
theworkforce.
As large factories replaced farms and small shops run by artisans with thousands of workers, work
becamemoreimpersonal;thelinesbetweenownersandworkersgrewevenmoredistinctthanbefore.
Gonewerethedaysofsittingatabenchasanapprenticeandlearningatradefromamastercraftsman.
Witheachofthesechanges,workersfoundthatthegive­and­takequalityofthesmallshopswasgone,
andtheyhadnorelationshipwiththeownerofthebusiness.
2.1InitialViewofUnionsasIllegal
When businesses expanded from small shops to larger factories, owners turned their attention to
competing with other businesses without necessarily considering their employees’ welfare. As the
employer became distanced from the worker, the expansion of the workplace and lowered wages
(brought about by increased pressure on employers to compete nationally) led employees to feel
disenfranchisedandunappreciated.Theconditionsbecameripeforworkerstoconsiderwaysinwhich
they could effectively demand better wages and conditions of employment. From this initial
considerationcametheideaofbandingtogetherandformingaunion,muchastheirancestorshaddone
backintheircountriesoforigin,beforecomingtotheUnitedStates.
Commonwealthv.Pullis(1806)
In1806U.S.courtshadtoconsiderforthefirsttimewhetherornotaunioninAmericawasinfactlegal
and whether workers could go out on strike. The organization that struck was the Federal Society of
Journeymen,commonlycalledCordwainers.OneofthefirstunionsintheUnitedStates,ithadformed
in1794andconsistedofworkerswhomadeshoes,boots,andotherleatherfootwear(Foner,1998).In
1805 there was a general pay cut throughout the industry, and in response the organization went on
strike.Themastercraftsmenwhoemployedtheworkerstookthemtocourtandchargedthemwiththe
crimeofconspiracybasedonanoldEnglishlawthatprohibitedworkersfromactingcollectively,orina
conspiracy,toseekbetterwages(Dau­Schmidt,1993).
Becausetoday’sAmericansareaccustomedtomodernlawsthatprotectunionactivity,chargingstrikers
with such a crime may seem incomprehensible; yet it was done, and done successfully. The state of
Pennsylvania(the“commonwealth”inthecase)broughtcriminalchargesagainstthestrikers,including
one named Pullis as the defendant, in the case Commonwealth v. Pullis. The state charged that the
“defendants conspired and agreed that none of them would work at the shoe making craft except at
certain specified prices higher than the price which had theretofore customarily been
paid”(Commonwealthv.Pullis,1806).
Inotherwords,theaccusationofcriminalconspiracywasbasedontheideathattheworkersdemanded
awagehigherthanthemarketwaswillingtopaythem.Theworkerswerealsoaccusedofconspiringto
keepother craftsmenfromworkingexceptatthesamehigherratetheydemanded.Bothactionswere
consideredillegalandconspiratorial.Thedefendantswerefoundguiltyandorderedtopayfinesandthe
costofprosecution.Thesefinessubsequentlybankruptedtheirunion.
The threat of being charged with a crime and successfully convicted put a chilling effect on many
workers’ desiretoformaunion.Commonwealthv.Pullisreflectstheearlyclimate inthe United States
regardingoppositiontounions.Scholarswholookbackonthedecisionnotehowforcefullytheworkers
were shut down in trying to unionize. It is one thing for courts to find civil or financial liability, but
convictingworkersofacriminalactwasanonerousandforebodingresult(Swartz,2004).
In a social context thedecision also highlights howlittleequality was offeredto workers.Instead, the
American system was much like that of Britain, with distinct class systems. Prohibiting union activity
prevents individuals from earning more money and thus rising above their station in life. Further,
keeping workers fromunionizing by threatening them withcriminal chargeswouldmake any worker
hesitant to question an employer, thus eliminating any hint of democratic decision making in the
workplace.Inshort,Pullishadachillingeffectonlaboractivityforthenextfourdecades(Conrad,1997).
The outcome of cases such as Commonwealth v. Pullis considerably dampened enthusiasm for
organizing.Knowingtheywouldgotojailorpayheftyfinesforunionactivitylikelycurbedorentirely
halted such behavior from workers. Some writers who comment on this era note that most of the
strikerswhowereconvictedwereneversenttojail,butinsteadorderedtopayfines(Lambert,2005).
The criminal charges brought against them were to frighten other workers and set an example.
Whateverthephilosophyofthetime,bydeclaringitillegaltoactorconspiretogethertoprotestone’s
wages,thedecisionofthecourtmadeworkerswaryaboutparticipatinginunionactivities.
Thisdecisionremained“goodlaw”forsome40years.Thismeansthatothercourtswouldalsofollowor
abide by the decision that union activity was illegal. It was not until 1846 that a Massachusetts court
ruledthatthedecisioninPulliswaswrong,replacingitinthecaseofCommonwealthv.Huntwithexactly
theoppositeview:thatunionformationwaslegalandnotconspiratorial.
Commonwealthv.Hunt(1846)
Inthe40yearssincethePullisdecision,industrializationoftheUnitedStateshadcontinuedatasteady
clip.Asmoreworkerswerethwartedintheirattemptstoorganizeandconditionsinfactoriesworsened,
publicopinionincreasinglychangedabouttheneedforunionization,whichwasreflectedoverseveral
court decisions. Finally, in the case of Commonwealth v. Hunt, the Supreme Judicial Court of
Massachusetts stated unequivocally, and for the first time, “that trade unions are per se lawful
organizations” (Perlman, 1922, ch. 7). This means that once formed, a labor organization will be
presumedtobelegal,thusopeningthedoorforlabortoorganizewithoutthethreatofcriminalcharges.
Thecourtstated,“Thisdoctrinethatworkingmenmaylawfullyorganizetradeunionshasbeenadopted
innearlyeverycasesinceCommonwealthv.Hunt”(Perlman,1922,p.151).
More changes wereonthehorizonforAmerica’sworkers.In1861 the CivilWarbegan.In addition to
heraldingdramaticsocialandlegalchanges,thewarservedasamajorcatalysttofurtherindustrialize
the country. Initially,thewar accountedforan immediateand drasticneedfortroopsupplies such as
food,clothing,weapons,cannons,andhorsebridles.Asthewarprogressed,steelproductionincreased
dramatically, as did the need to expand roads, canals, and thoroughfares to transport troops and
equipment.Commercerapidlyexpanded,withdramaticandsignificanteffects.TheCommonwealthcase
providedanimportantbasisforunionformationinthetimesthatweretocome,whenindustrywould
becomeeverlargerandimpersonalandworkerswouldstrivefordecentworkingconditions.
2.2EarlyLaborUnions
This section introduces some of the earliest and most significant labor organizations formed after the
CivilWarendedin1865,andintothe20thcentury(seeTable2.1).Asyouread,notethatalthougheach
of these organizationsisaunion,there areneverthelessfundamental differencesintheir purpose, the
economicsectorstheyserve,andtheirultimateabilitytosurvive.
Table2.1:Earlylaborunionsandassociatedactivities
Era
1866
–1874
1869
–1940s
1881
–1886
1886
1876–1942
–present(as
theAFL­
CIO)
1905
–present
Nameof
union
National
Labor
Union
Knightsof
Labor
Federation
of
Organized
Tradesand
Labor
Unions
American
Federation
ofLabor
Amalgamated
Associationof
IronandSteel
Workers
(evolvedinto
theUnited
Steelworkers)
Industrial
Workersof
theWorld
Founders
Formedby Formedby
William
Uriah
Sylvis
Smith
Stephens;
succeeded
byTerence
V.
Powderly
Goalsof
theunion
To
implement
an8­hour
workday
Toobtainfair
wagesforits
workers
Tounite
workersin
thetextile
millsfrom
many
backgrounds
and
nationalities
To
implement
an8­hour
workday
andaban
onhiring
children
underage
14
Samuel
Gompers
To
implement
an8­hour
workday
Towork
towardlarge
organization
withpower
to
implement
legislation
Era
Major
strikes
1866
–1874
1869
–1940s
1881
–1886
Great
Railway
Strikein
1877
Haymarket
Square
Riotin
1886
1886
1876–1942
–present(as
theAFL­
CIO)
Homestead
Strikein1892
1905
–present
Lawrence
TextileStrike
in1912
Reading
Railroad
Massacre
Battleof
theViaduct
Great
Southwest
Strikeof
1886
TheNationalLaborUnion(1866–1874)
TheNationalLaborUnionwasnotthefirstunionintheUnitedStates,butitwasthefirsttoachievea
nationalidentity,becomesomewhatrecognizabletothecommonman,andenjoy acontinuityofmore
thanafewyears.ItwasformedattheendoftheCivilWarbyWilliamSylvis,aPennsylvanianativeand
iron molder. His goal was to form a union for everyone, no matter their occupation or whether they
wereskilledorunskilled.
Asyouwillseelaterinthischapter,mostunionswouldeventuallybeformedaroundaspecifictypeof
work or occupation. The National Labor Union, however, was aimed at “uniting workers across
occupationsandachievingeconomicandsocialreforms,includingtheeight­hourworkingday”(William
H. Sylvis Historical Marker, 2011, para. 5). It fought for better wages and shorter hours, but more
significantly,italsoenteredthepoliticalarena.Sylviswasespeciallyinterestedinissuesofthedaythat
includedprisonlaborandlandreformlaws.
The idea that a union would accept members of all occupations and engage in political activity was
radicalinthe1800s.Nevertheless,theunionattractedalargeconstituency.In1869theChicagoTribune
approximatedithadabout800,000members,whereasSylvisestimateditwas600,000.Itislikelythat
bothestimatesareexaggerated,butnevertheless,theorganizationdidrepresentalargeportionofthe
nation’s labor force. At its height, it likely had between 200,000 and 400,000 members (Grob, 1954).
Although the union was successful for 7 years, by 1874 it was totally defunct; the reason most often
givenisthatittriedtorepresenttoomanydifferentandvaryinginterests.
TheGreatRailwayStrike(1877)
©Corbis
TheGreatRailwayStrikeof1877,which
beganinresponsetoapaycut,
demonstratedtheneedforacohesive
organizationofworkers.
DuringtheCivilWar,industrycouldbarelykeepupwith
the demand for rifles, railroad tracks, cannon balls, and
thelike.Butbythebeginningofthe1870s,thewarhad
been over for 5 years; demand was down and the
country underwent a major economic contraction. In
addition to the war’s end, many people had invested
heavily in the further development of railroads. Towns
and cities vied for the opportunity to have rails come
into their communities and issued bonds to finance
them. Many railroads were overbuilt, meaning there
were too many lines running through the same places.
There was not enough business or demand to support
theavailabilityoflinesthroughoutthecountry,whichled
tothelongestdepressioninthenation’shistory:Itlasted
for65months,from1873to1879(Barreyre,2011).
It was during this economic downturn that the Great Railway Strike of 1877 occurred. Workers
formed a wildcat strike that had an enormous effect on how unions would be thereafter viewed. A
wildcat strike is organized by the workers without the blessing of union leadership. The strike began
whentheBaltimoreandOhioRailroadannouncedapaycutof10%forallofitsworkers.Assoonasthe
workers went on strike, the railroad responded by hiring new workers to take their place, which
infuriatedthestrikers.Inretaliation,theyrefusedtoletthenewhireswork;theystoppedthetrainsby
steppingontothetracksorblockingtheirpassage.Commercegroundtoahaltasthestrikespreadand
therailcarssatidleonthetracks.
The strike started in Martinsburg, West Virginia, and spread to WatchThis
Wheeling, West Virginia, then to Baltimore and Chicago.
According to Harper’s Weekly, a newspaper of the time, strikers Formoreinformationaboutthe
blocked1,500freightcarsand13locomotivesonthesidetracks GreatRailwayStrikeof1877,watch
in Martinsburg and in Pittsburgh. “At midnight fully 1400 men https://www.youtube.com/watch?
had gathered in thetwoyards, and1500carswere standing on v=dHE3u5KkEZw
thesidings,200ofwhichcontainedperishablegoods”(TheGreat (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Strike,n.d., para 3).Asthestrikeescalatedandtrainscametoa v=dHE3u5KkEZw)
halt across the nation,thestrikerswereviewedwith disdainby
the public. Maryland governor John Carroll called for military
actiontoquellthestrikers,asdescribedinanexcerptfromHarper’sWeekly:
ThenextdaywasabloodyoneinthehistoryofthestrikeontheBaltimoreandOhioroad.The
blockadeatMartinsburghadbeenraised,andtrainswereagainrunningbothwaysunderthe
protection of the national troops. But on the afternoon of the 20th, word reached Baltimore
that all the freighttrainsleaving Martinsburg that daywere stopped at Cumberland,and the
crews taken from them by the strikers. Governor Carroll at once issued a proclamation and
orderedouttheStatemilitia.Thesoundofthefire­bellssummoningthementotheirarmories
created the wildest excitement. Baltimore and other streets of the city had been crowded
duringthedaywiththrongsofcitizens,anxiouslywatchingthebulletin­boardsatthedifferent
newspaper offices and discussing the situation. As the alarm pealed forth, the crowds made
their way toward the armories of the different regiments. That of the Sixth is at Front and
Fayettestreets,andinaneighborhoodwhichisinhabitedbythepoorerclasses,andmuchof
the roughelementfrequentsit.Withinhalfanhourafterthecallhadbeensounded,acrowd
numbering at least 2000 men, women, and children surrounded the armory and loudly
expressedtheirfeelingsagainstthemilitaryandinfavorofthestrikers.Athalfpastseventhe
streetsleadingtothearmorywerecrowdedwithastruggling,shouting,andcursingmob.The
sightofamaninuniformendeavoringtogetintothebuildingwasthesignalforanoutbreak,
andhewasrushedupon,seized,andthrownoverabridgeintoJones’sFalls’streamwhichruns
throughthatsectionofthecity.Otherswerethrownovertheheadsofthesurgingmass,and
weregladtoescapewithslightinjuries.Atthisjuncturesomeonethrewablockatthesoldier
onguardatthedoorofthearmory.(TheGreatStrike,n.d.,para4)
The uprising became known as “The Great Strike” and demonstrated the need for a cohesive
organizationifanygoalsweretobeaccomplished.Asonehistorianpointedout:
Far from seeking todestroymodern civilization,labor leaders werebusyinthe aftermath of
1877 building new, more inclusive institutions of civil society. The aggressive crowd
actions—and even more, the myriad instances of unity across lines of skill, trade, ethnicity,
religion and sex—made it clear to many labor leaders that new forms of organization and
action for incorporating the unskilled laborers and factory hands were both necessary and
possible.(Stowell,2008,p.95)
Perhaps one of the greatest effects of the strike was the expansion of the Knights of Labor, the labor
organizationthatdominatedthelate1800s.
TheKnightsofLabor(1869–1940s)
Part secret society, part fraternal organization replete
with a secret handshake and initiation process, the
Knights of Labor was one of the most successful
attempts at union formation of this era. Formed by a
groupofsixgarmentcuttersinPhiladelphiain1869,the
organization sought to protect all wage earners, no
mattertheircraft.
The driving force for the Knights was Uriah Smith
Stephens,atailorwhomoldedmuchoftheorganization
on the Masons (or Freemasons), which began as a
fraternity of men who were stonemasons. As the
CourtesyEverettCollection
fraternity grew, more types of workers were admitted.
Members made pledges, prayed, sang songs, had secret Thisportraitshowsthefoundersofthe
handshakes, and swore an oath to the Knights. When KnightsofLabor,oneoftheearliest,
later taken over by Terence V. Powderly, who focused largest,andmostsustainedlaborunions
the agenda much more on worker’s rights, many of the ofthe1800s.
originalritualsdisappeared.Powderlyinsteadconcentratedongettingan8­hourdayforallworkersand
prohibiting children under age 14 being hired for factory work. By 1882 it was no longer a secret
organization; by 1886 it was the most powerful labor force in the country, with more than 700,000
members(Phelan,2000).
Inthe1880stheKnightshadastrongtoeholdonJohnMundellandCompany,Philadelphia’slargestshoe
manufacturer.Whenthecompanytriedtore­hireworkersatareducedwage,theworkersrefused.The
companyrelentedbuttookthepaycutoutonthewomeninthefactory,whowentonstrike.Themen
soon joined them, and none of Mundell’s 700 workers reported to work. Not only did this result in
women being admitted to the Knights as members, but the strike was successful and the workers’
demandsweremet(Montgomery,n.d.).
TheKnightsgainedfurthermomentumwiththeGreatRailwayStrikeof1877.Sixteencitizenswereshot
by the state militia in Reading, Pennsylvania, in what came to be known as the Reading Railroad
Massacre.ThestrikenextspreadtoIllinoisinJuly1877,withtheBattleoftheViaductinChicago.It
thenspilledintoSt.Louis,Missouri,whereitwasfinallyquashedbyfederaltroops.Thesuccessofthese
strikesledtoincreasedmembershipintheKnightsofLaborandconfidenceintheircause(OhioHistory,
n.d.).
In 1886 the Knights organized the Great Southwest Strike, which took place predominantly in
southwestern states. The Knights began their strike against the Wabash Railroad, owned by financier
and railroad developer Jay Gould, a famous industrialist of the time. The strike against Gould failed,
however,whichbeganadownturnintheKnights’power.
Like the National Labor Union before it, the Knights had a progressive agenda in that they welcomed
laborersand farmers,AfricanAmericans,andeventuallywomen.The frameworkhad noprovision for
groupingworkersbyoccupation,however,andthisturnedouttocontributetoitssubsequentdownfall.
Nevertheless, thesignificantroletheKnights played in Americanlaborhistory cannot beunderstated.
Thisorganizationbridgedthegapbetweenthecraftunioneraandtheheavilyindustrializedstatethat
grew into a world power. The Knights flourished as an organization, attracting huge numbers of
members and gaining great power, prestige, and notoriety. The organization led the labor movement
intothenextcentury,andalthoughitdidnotsurvive,itsetthebarfortheorganizationsthatfollowed
(Weir, 2006). The Knights’ numbers diminished to fewer than 100,000 members by the 1890s, down
fromahighof800,000in1869.
FederationofOrganizedTradesandLabor
Unions(1881–1886)
WatchThis
Formoreinformationaboutthe
KnightsofLabor,watch
Unlike the Knights of Labor, which wanted to be all­inclusive,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
mastercraftsmensoughtaunionthatadmittedonlyskilledlabor.
v=htNWwcZSupE
The resulting organization was the Federation of Organized
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?
TradesandLaborUnions(FOTLU).Thisgroupwascreated in
v=htNWwcZSupE)
1881 and was the precursor to the modern­day American
FederationofLabor.
Aspartofitsinitialagenda,theFOTLUannouncedthatonMay1,1886,anationwidestrikewouldtake
placetodeclarethatworkersshouldhavean8­hourday.Themovementgainedmomentumthroughout
the United States, and in Chicago alone a reported 80,000 workers marched up Michigan Avenue in
support of the concept. After May 1 all workers who were not granted an 8­hour day were to cease
workinguntiltheiremployersmetthisdemand(Adelman,2010).
On May 3 the strike turned violent at the McCormick Reaper WatchThis
PlantinChicagowhenpolicekilledpicketingworkers.Inprotest
to this violence against the strikers, union activists rallied the Formoreinformationaboutthe
nextnightataplacecalledHaymarketSquare.Reportedly,there HaymarketSquareRiot,watch
were only about 200 workers at the rally when 176 policemen
carrying Winchester repeater rifles attacked them. Someone in
thecrowdretaliatedbythrowingadynamitebomb,whichkilled
seven policemen and four workers. Outraged, Chicago declared
martial law, and authorities undertook a house­to­house search
to find the person who threw the bomb. Eventually, eight men
who were later described as a cross­section of union activists
wereroundedupandputontrialformurder(Adelman,2010).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=_
OQxncb2ihQ&feature=youtube_gdata_
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=_OQxncb2ihQ&feature=youtube_gdata_play
Despite the fact thattherewasmuchdoubtabout whether theywereevenatthe Haymarket Square
Riot, the eight men were convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging. The incident gave
antilabor governments around the world the opportunity to crush local union movements (Adelman,
2010).Asforthe8­hourworkday,itwasnotuntil1938andthepassageoftheFairLaborStandardsAct
thatthisnowcommonlyacceptedstandardbecamelaw.
TheAmericanFederationofLaborandSamuelGompers(1886–Presentasthe
AFL­CIO)
Despite limiting itself to skilled workers, the FOTLU, like its predecessors, began to unravel. Issues
contributing to its downfall included what role politics should play in the organization, the country’s
economic downturn, and the Haymarket Square Riot. Aware that their strength lay in organizing,
workerswerehighlymotivatedtoformanorganizationthatcouldrepresentthemcollectively.
Asaresult,acollectionoftradeunionsmetin1886andcreatedanewunion,theAmericanFederationof
Labor, or the AFL, the precursor to today’s American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial
Organizations (AFL­CIO).By1904 theAFLhad 1,750,000 members and consisted of115national and
internationalunionscomposedof28,000localunionsin38states(Hearings,1912).Thefollowingisa
listoftheinitialnationalunionsthatformedtheAFL:
TypographicalWorkers
IronandSteelWorkers
Molders
GlassWorkers
CigarMakers
Carpenters
CentralLaborCouncilsof11Cities
42LocalUnions
46LocalAssembliesoftheKnightsofLabor
(LeBlanc,P.,n.d.)
TheAFLisoneofthebest­knowncraftunions.Itsoughttounite
skilled craftsmen, rather than skilled and unskilled, in order to
CourtesyEverettCollection
demandahigherwage.Itsfirstpresident,SamuelGompers,who SamuelP.Gompersservedasthe
held that position until his death in 1924, brought together firstpresidentoftheAmerican
craftsmen such as masons, cigar makers, and hat makers who FederationofLabor.
eachhadtheirownlocalunionsbutjoinedtogetherinanational
unionofskilledworkers.Gompersreasonedthatskilledworkersmadeabetterunionbecausetheywere
inhighdemandandwerepaidthehighestwages(DigitalHistory,2013).
TheelectionofGompersaspresidentin1886atage36wastheculminationofaremarkablepersonal
journey.BorninEngland,GompersandhisfamilyimmigratedtoNewYorkCitywhereayoungSamuel
became a cigar maker. In those days there was no factory. Instead, the process of making cigars took
placeintenements,apartments,androomsthatanyonecouldfindinwhichtositandrollcigars.The16­
hourworkdaysandpoorworkingconditionsmadethisparticularjoboneofthemanythattookplacein
so­calledsweatshops(Yellowitz,1989).
HowdidGompersadvancefrombeingalaborertoalaborleader?Thecigarshopinwhichheworked
was large, and he was highly respected by his fellow workers. They elected him to a local union, the
CigarMakersUnionLocal144,andfromtherehewassentasadelegatetotheFOTLU,wherehequickly
emerged as a leader. After theHaymarket SquareRiot and the dwindling of unionmembership in the
FOTLU,Gompersworkedwithotherlaborleaderstoreorganizeandbeginanewunion.Hewasknown
asastreet­smartandsavvyindividualbutalsoasapragmatistwhowantedtounitetradeunionsunder
oneumbrellainaneworganization.
The initial objective of the AFL was to help more trade unions WatchThis
form, combine the power of all the trade unions into one
organization,andthenhavethatlargeandpowerfulorganization FormoreinformationaboutSamuel
work to implement legislation. The New York Tribune, a leading Gompers,watchthisvideo
newspaper of the time, summed up the AFL this way: “An (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
amalgamation has been formed which will result, it is hoped, in v=rnNIcHpNfgU&list=PLHZi3eLSKGhSPLHlHM
the establishment of an organization fully as powerful, better
disciplined and more conservative than the Knights of
Labor”(TheAmericanFederation,1886,para.1).SamuelGomperssucceededwhereothersbeforehim
hadfailed:Hewasabletouniteadisparategroupofworkersintooneorganizationthatworkedforthe
commonman.Hislegacylivesontoday,andheisstillwidelyregardedasoneofthemostprogressive
andablelaborleadersever(Yellowitz,1989).
2.3GrowthofIndustryandWorkerUnrest
AstheUnitedStatesmovedforwardintothe20thcentury,thecountryexperiencedenormousindustrial
growth. The steel industry became a world leader in production under the direction of Andrew
Carnegie,andotherindustriessuchascottonmillsflourished,too.Butwiththeexpansionofindustry
andtheprosperitythatfollowed,thegapbetweenwealthyownersandpoorlaborersbecameevenmore
pronounced,leadingtotension,strikes,andoccasionalviolence.
TheRiseofSteelandtheHomesteadStrike(1892)
While the Knights of Labor and the AFL were thriving and the craft industry was expanding, great
strides were also underway in another sector—the steel industry. In the 1860s a new process for
makingsteelcalledtheBessemerprocessmadeitpossibletomanufacturesteelatmuchlowercosts.A
leading industrialist of the day, Andrew Carnegie, figured out how to use the Bessemer process to
manufacture steel rails for the railroads. Up to this point, there were no cheap or expedient ways to
makerails,andhisinnovationledtothecreationofhugesteelmillsunderthenameofCarnegieSteel,
locatedinPittsburgh.
CarnegieplayedaformidableroleinAmericanhistory.Astheleadingbusinessmanofhistimeandthe
wealthiest of his era, he is viewed by some as an American success story. In the context of labor
relations,however,Carnegie’sreputationismixed,withsomeregardinghimasanenemyoflabor,while
othersrespectedthebusinesshebuiltandthejobsheprovidedtosomanyworkers.
Carnegie did not come from wealth. His parents were
poor and he worked at a young age. Among his earliest
jobswasbeingarunner,ormessenger.Inthelate1800s
oneoftheonlymeansofcommunicationwastheuseof
messenger boys, who ran notes from one person to
another.Inhisroleasarunner,Carnegiemadeapointof
learning every man’s name to whom he delivered
messages. In this way he quickly learned about the
businessmen of Pittsburgh. Over time he befriended
many of them, and they taught him about
business—specifically,therailroadbusiness.
CourtesyEverettCollection
He used these connections to advance from telegraph
boy at a telegraph company to general manager of the
railroad by his early 20s, all the while absorbing
informationaboutinvestingandfinance.Hesavedmoneyandinvestedwisely,basedonstocktipsfrom
the men he had befriended while a runner. After the Civil War ended, he acquired enough money to
purchaseahighlyprofitablepetroleumenterpriseandsoonwaspartownerinasteel­rollingmill,which
expandedintohisvaststeelholdings.
Violenceeruptedduringalaborstrikeat
theHomesteadSteelWorksin1892.
One of Carnegie’s holdings was the Bessemer Iron Works in Pittsburgh, which he merged with
Carnegie Steel. After making a substantial part of his fortune, Carnegie went to live in Scotland and
turnedoverthedailyminutiaeofrunningthemillstoHenryClayFrick.CarnegieadmiredFrick’sharsh
approachtolaborissuesandtrustedhimimplicitly(Standiford,2005).
LikeCarnegie,Frickwasbornintoarelativelypoorfamily.Althoughhisgrandfatherwasthefounderof
OldOverholt,aryewhiskeydistilleryinPennsylvania,themoneydidnotbenefitFrick’sgeneration,and
he worked for muchofhischildhood.Asateenager Fricklearnedhow to convertthevast deposits of
coal in the mountains of Pennsylvania into coke, a product needed to make steel. When Frick met
Carnegie in 1881,itwasanespeciallyfortuitoustimesinceFrickhadathisdisposalvastquantitiesof
coke,whichCarnegie,theownerofsteelmills,wasinneedof.TheysealedadealwherebyFrickbecame
the provider of allthecokeforCarnegie’smills.Carnegie andFrick soonbecame partners and had an
interesting,complicated,andpowerfulpartnershipforthenext20years(Standiford,2005).
Overtime,CarnegiemadeFrickthegeneralmanagerofCarnegieSteel;whenCarnegiebegantospend
more time in Scotland, Frick ran the mills. Carnegie considered Frick a genius at management and
approvedofFrick’smethods,evenwhentheywerecutthroat(PBS,1999).Steelmillemployeesworkeda
14­hourdayandhadjustonedayoffayear,ontheFourthofJuly.Forthistheyearned14centsanhour.
CarnegieandFrick’ssteelmillswerethemostcompetitiveandthemostproductive,makingfortunesfor
bothofthem.
As the steel business expanded and more workers were hired, a new union formed in 1876 in
Pittsburgh. It consisted solely of men who worked in steel and was called the Amalgamated
AssociationofIronandSteelWorkers.Itbroughttogetherworkersintheironandsteelindustrywho
believed that banding together, no matter their job in the mill, would empower them against
management(Wright,1893).
Bythe1890stheAmalgamatedAssociationofIronandSteelworkershadanestimated13,000to24,000
members. The men who formed the association were already established at the Homestead Steel
Works,locatedinPennsylvania,whenCarnegiepurchaseditin1883andaddedittohisvastempireof
holdings.GivenCarnegie’sstrictantiunionpolicyinhismills,theunionandCarnegieseemeddestined
forconflict.
Prior to Carnegie’s acquisition of Homestead, Amalgamated had successfully negotiated a contract in
whichworkerswerepaidonaslidingscaledirectlycorrelatedtothepriceofsteel:Thehighertheprice
of steel, the more the workers earned. When times were good and prices and demand were up, the
workersinsistedonalargershareofmoney.Theyenteredintosuchacontract,anditwaseffectivefor
threeyears.
Thecontractwassettoexpirein1892,andCarnegieseemeddeterminedtobreaktheuniononceand
forall.HeputFrickinchargeofthedisputeandwenttoScotland,keepingintouchonlybytelegraph.
Frick made clear that the sliding scale arrangement was to be abolished; he refused to recognize
Amalgamated and would not bargain. The workers began to strike in one segment of the plant after
another.Theyrefusedtoallowreplacementstogointotheplanttodotheirjobs.Thesereplacements,
knowndisdainfullyasscabs,wereeffectivelychasedoutoftown.
Frick was prepared for Homestead to shut down. He erected a large fortress around the plant, which
laterbecameknownasFortFrick.The“fort”hadsearchlights,barbedwire,andhighwallswithcutouts
whereriflescouldbeplacedtoshootfrominsidethewalls.Frickpresentedhiswageofferbutrefusedto
meet to discuss anyofitsterms,essentiallylocking out the union fromnegotiations. At stake was the
issueofwhetherwagesshouldcontrolthepriceofsteelorthepriceofsteelshouldcontrolwages.
Next,Frickhadtheworkersevictedfromcompanyhousing.Womenwerecarriedoutintothestreetsby
thesheriff.Frickthenfortifiedthesteelmillbyhiring300guardstoprotecttheplantfromthestrikers.
The guards werenotlocatedatHomestead,however;theyhadto bebroughtto the plant. Frick made
arrangementsfortheguardstocomedowntheriverviabarge.
Itwaswellknownthatguardshadbeenhiredandwereintheprocessoftravelingtotheplantbyriver.
Morethan10,000strikersgatheredontheriverbankstoawaittheirarrival.Asthebargepulledupto
thedock,gunfireerupted.Itwasneverdeterminedwhofiredthefirstshot,butsevenguardsandnine
strikers were killed and many others seriously injured. After an all­day melee, the guards tried to
surrenderandwereescortedoffthebargesbythestrikers,onlytobeattackedbythemobonshoreas
theywalkedthegauntlet.Thestrikecontinued.
Eventually, after numerous attempts by different factions, the
state militia finally arrived at Homestead and quelled the riot.
Withanarmedforceincharge,thecompanywasthenabletohire
replacement workers to get the plant up and running, and the
strikecametoanend.FromCarnegieandFrick’sperspective,one
couldconcludethatthestrikewasasuccess:TheCarnegieSteel
Companyremainedwithoutaunionforthenext40years(Brody,
1969).
WatchThis
TolearnmoreabouttheHomestead
Strike,watch
http://www.aflcio.org/About/Our­
History/Key­Events­in­Labor­
History/1892­Homestead­Strike
(http://www.aflcio.org/About/Our­
History/Key­Events­in­Labor­
Some of the strikers were arrested, and 16 were tried for
History/1892­Homestead­Strike)
conspiracy and murder. The union spent its time, energy, and
finances defending those members; the strain on its coffers and
thelossofjobsresultedintheunion’sruination.Intheendonlyoneoftheworkerswasconvictedofa
crimeandsentencedtoservetime.
The lingering effects of the violence and the bad impression it left on the American public, however,
remainedlongafterthestrikewasover.Shortlythereafter,Carnegieinstitutedlowerwagesandlonger
hours.Frick,however,maybeconsideredacasualtyofthestrike.HeandCarnegieworkedtogetherat
arm’slengthforsomeyearsandeventuallyhadafallingoutin1899,atwhichtimeCarnegieboughthim
outforsome$32million.FrickwentontofoundUnitedStatesSteel,asdiscussedinthenextchapter.
The reputations of both Carnegie and Frick, however, were forever tarnished by the events of the
HomesteadStrike(Standiford,2005).
TheEarly20thCenturyandtheLawrenceTextileStrikeof1912
Steel was not the only major manufacturing enterprise in the United States. Another large and
flourishing industry located predominantly in the northeast consisted of textile mills. The mills were
large,impersonalplacestoworkwithdangerousmachineryandpoorworkingconditions.Workersgot
sickfrominhalingdustandclothfibers,caughtlimbsinthepoorlymaintainedmachinery,andgenerally
sufferedfromdebilitatingconditionsandlonghours.
Unskilledworkerswereallowedtorunthemachinery,andasaresult,themillsemployedthousandsof
women and childrenwho toiledfor $6per week that often included 6 or7 workingdays. When their
longworkdaywasover,workersreturnedhometoacrowdedanddirtytenementbuildingwherethere
waslittlefoodtosustainthem.
One of the largest employersofthe time was theAmerican Woolen Mills inLawrence, Massachusetts.
TheintolerableconditionsatplacesliketheAmericanWoolenMillsmadejoiningaunionappealingto
the workers, and rising from the conditions of the time was the Industrial Workers of the World
(IWW), whose members came to be known as Wobblies (Green, 1993). The IWW was considered by
manytobearadicalorganizationbecauseitadheredtothebeliefthatmilitantactionwasnecessaryto
improvethelivesofitsmembers,anditwasdeterminedtorepresentthemillworkers.
One daunting problem facing the IWW’s attempts at unification was the varied backgrounds of its
members,whowereimmigrantsfromwidelydiverseplacessuchasPoland,Italy,andIreland.Itwasa
daunting task to organize workers who spoke a variety of languages,practiced different customs, and
heldstrongbutvaryingbeliefsaboutunionization.
Nevertheless,theIWWwassuccessfulinorganizingasignificantnumberoftheworkersandplanneda
strikewhenthestateofMassachusettspassedalawrequiringthattheworkweekbereducedfrom56to
54hours,whichwentintoeffectonJanuary1,1912.Inresponsetothedecreasedhours—whichmeanta
corresponding cut in wages—the mills deducted money from their workers’ wages to represent the
fewerhoursworked.ThefirsttonoticethereductionintheirwageswerethePolishwomenworkingin
theEverett,Massachusetts,cottonmills.Theywalkedoutoftheplant,leavingthemillsidle.Soonboth
men and women went on strike, and within a week there were 20,000 strikers; it was estimated that
more than 25 nationalitieswererepresented inthestrike,whichincluded workersofGerman,Italian,
Polish,Scottish,andLithuaniandescent(LawrenceTextileStrike,2014).
The women estimated that the pay cuts translated into two to three fewer loaves of bread a week,
resulting in the now famous phrase shouted by the strikers, “We want bread and roses too.” The
immediate reaction was to send in the militia to quell the strike; workers were attacked with water
hosesfromtherooftopsofadjoininghouses.WorkerscontactedtheIWWtoassistthemwiththestrike,
and the IWW sent Joe Ettor and Arturo Giovannitti, who came to unite the workers and form a
democraticmeansofrepresentingthem.
ACloserLook:BreadandRosesToday
TherallyingcryofthewomenattheAmericanWoolenMillsmayseemadistanthistorical
incident,but“breadandroses”isaliveandstillpartofAmericanlaborculture.
Amoviebythatname,releasedin2000,depictedthestruggleofworkersinLosAngeleswho
workedatnightcleaningdowntownofficebuildings.Thedichotomybetweenrichandpoorwas
justasevidentforthejanitorsasitwasforthewomeninthemills.
TheworkerseventuallyformedanalliancenamedJusticeforJanitors,whichisanexampleofa
ground­uporganizationthatsucceededinattainingitsdemands.Thestoryisespeciallyintriguing
becausetheworkersusedunconventionalmethodssuchas“house­visits,face­to­faceorganizing,
member­intensiveorganizingandstrategicanalysesofthepoliticalandeconomiccontexts,and
organizationalrenewalofmoribundlocals”(Milkman&Voss,2004).
One important tenet of the union was its belief in respecting the language and culture of each of the
groups working in the mill, no matter what country they came from. Rather than division, the IWW
sought to bring the workers together in a bid to gain better working conditions. Women played a
significantroleintheLawrenceTextile Strike, notjustbecausetheywerethekeyworkersatthe mill,
butbecausetheyinsistedonanonviolentapproach,oftenmarchingatthefrontofstrikeparadesinan
attempttokeepviolencedown.
Nationalattentionwasdrawntothestrikebecausethewomensenttheirchildrenoutoftownbytrainto
protectthem.ThechildrenweresenttoNewYorkCity,wheretheytookplaceinparadesandotherwise
drew attention tothestrike. Asaresult, the nexttimethestrikerstried to send more children on the
trains, the militia showed up and tried to wrest the children away from their mothers (Kornbluh &
Thompson, 1998). This resulted in massive publicity and eventual hearings in Congress. After the
hearingscommenced,themillownersbackeddownandgrantedconcessionstothestrikers.Thestrikers
received what they originally asked for: wage increases between 5% and 25%, compensation for
workingovertime,andnoretributionagainstthestrikers.
Atthe congressionalhearingsonthestrike,onewoman’stestimonystoodout.HernamewasCamella
Teoli, and she was just a teenager when she appeared before Congress. Some of her testimony is as
follows:
CHAIRMAN.Camella,howoldareyou?
MissTEOLI.Fourteenyearsandeightmonths.
CHAIRMAN.Howmanychildrenarethereinyourfamily?
MissTEOLI.Five.
CHAIRMAN.Wheredoyouwork?
MissTEOLI.Inthewoolenmill.
CHAIRMAN.Whatsortofworkdoyoudo?
MissTEOLI.Twisting.
CHAIRMAN.Howmuchdoyougetaweek?
MissTEOLI.$6.55.
CHAIRMAN.Whatisthesmallestpay?
MissTEOLI.$2.64.
CHAIRMAN.Doyouhavetopayanythingforwater?
MissTEOLI.Yes.
CHAIRMAN.Howmuch?
MissTEOLI.10centseverytwoweeks.
CHAIRMAN.Now,didyouevergethurtinthemill?
MissTEOLI.Yes.
CHAIRMAN.Well,howwereyouhurt?
MissTEOLI.Themachinepulledthescalpoff.
CHAIRMAN.Themachinepulledyourscalpoff?
MissTEOLI.Yes,sir.
CHAIRMAN.Howlongagowasthat?
MissTEOLI.Ayearago,oraboutayearago.
CHAIRMAN.Wereyouinthehospitalafterthat?
MissTEOLI.Iwasinthehospitalsevenmonths.
CHAIRMAN.Didthecompanypayyourbillswhileyouwereinthehospital?
MissTEOLI.Thecompanyonlypaidmybills;theydidn’tgivemeanythingelse.
CHAIRMAN.Theyonlypaidyourhospitalbills;theydidnotgiveyouanypay?
MissTEOLI.No,sir.
CHAIRMAN.Butpaidthedoctorsbillsandhospitalfees?
MissTEOLI.Yes,sir.
Mr.LENROOT.Theydidnotpayyourwages?
MissTEOLI.No,sir.(CamellaTeolitestifies,n.d.)
IntheNews:FromLawrencetoBangladesh—IsItAnyBetterfor
FactoryWorkersToday?
Basedonthearticle,DespiteLowPay,PoorWorkConditions,GarmentFactoriesEmpowering
MillionsofBangladeshiWomen,byPalashGhosh.InternationalBusinessTimes(March25,2014).
TheintolerableconditionsattheAmericanWoolenMillsinLawrence,Massachusetts,that
eventuallyledtothesuccessfulstrikebytheWobbliestookplacein1912,morethan100years
ago.TextilemillsintheUnitedStateshavenowbeenreplacedbymillsoverseas,withBangladesh
secondonlytoChinaintermsofproduction.
Bangladeshhascloseto6,000garmentfactoriesandexportsthemajorityofgoods,generating
morethan$20billioninannualrevenues.Theentirecountrydependsontheseexportstoprop
upitsimmenselypoorpopulation.ItwasunderthissortofeconomicpressurethatinApril2013,
thedilapidatedconditionsattheRanaPlazafactoryontheoutskirtsofDhakaledtoitscollapse.It
isconsideredthedeadliestgarmentfactoryaccidentinhistory:1,129workerswereburiedalive
andanother2,515injured(Ghosh,2014).Readthefollowingarticleaboutthiscalamityandthen
answerthequestionsbelow:http://www.ibtimes.com/despite­low­pay­poor­work­
conditions­garment­factories­empowering­millions­bangladeshi­women­1563419
(http://www.ibtimes.com/despite­low­pay­poor­work­conditions­garment­factories­empowering­
millions­bangladeshi­women­1563419).
DiscussionQuestions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Towhatlengthsshouldemployersgotoensurethehealthandsafetyoftheirworkers?
Arethereanyaspectsofhealthandsafetyforwhichemployersshouldnotbe
responsible?
Howwouldyouasamanagerhandleasituationinwhichemployeeswereplacedinan
unsafeenvironmentandtheownersofthebusinessdidnotcare?
Doyouthinkthatmanagersand/orownersshouldbepersonallyliablefordeathsand
injuriesthatresultfromworkplacecatastrophes?
Howdoyouthinkunionrepresentationbenefitsworkersinsuchcircumstances?
Howcouldtheformationofaunioninanunsafefactoryleadtobetterworkingconditions
fortheemployees?
Bytheendofthe19thcentury,thelabormovementhadcomealongway.Fromtheshopkeepersinthe
beginning of the century to the AFL and IWW at its end, labor had experienced great strides in
organizing successful unions and affecting changes in working conditions; but it had also experienced
violenceandhadyettouniversallyachievebetterworkingconditions,wages,andhoursforallworkers.
Americanswerestartingtobecomemoreoutragedatthetreatmenttheirfellowworkersreceivedboth
atthehandsofthefactoryownersandbypolicesentintostoptheriots.Theirdisbeliefledtoangerand
demands that working conditions change, setting the stage for the significant legislation about to be
passedbyCongressandstategovernments.
LaborHistory
Summary&Resources
SummaryofChapterConcepts
• The1700sand1800sfeaturedruralfarmsandmastercraftsmenwhorantheirownshops.
Mastercraftsmenranbusinessesinwhichtheyknewtheiremployees,understoodtheirneeds,
andtreatedthemasindividuals.
• TheIndustrialRevolutiontookplaceduringthemid­tolate1800s,duringwhichtherewasan
influxofcheaplabor,amassiveexpansionofrailways,thestartofnumerousfactories,the
requirementtoarmsoldiersfortheCivilWar,andlater,theimportanceofmeetingtheneedsof
agrowingpopulation.
• Astravelandcommercebegantocrossstatelines,sodidcompetition,makingbusinessesmore
cost­conscious.Thisoftenresultedinlowerwages,whichcausedworkerdisgruntlement.
• Commonwealthv.Pullisheldthatworkerswhojoinedtogethertostrikewereengaginginillegal
conspiracy.Thisantiuniondecisionwasnotoverturnedforsome40yearsuntilthedecisionin
Commonwealthv.Hunt,whichheldthattradeunionsareperselawfulorganizations.
• ThefirstmajorunionintheUnitedStateswastheNationalLaborUnion,whichwasfoundedfor
anyworkers,skilledorunskilled,andsoughtan8­hourworkdayandbetterwages.
• TheGreatRailwayStrikein1877shutdownthenation’srailroadsandresultedinextensive
damagetorailroadproperty;itendedonlywhenthemilitiawascalledintoquellthestrike.This
strikedemonstratedtheneedforacohesive,strongorganization.
• TheKnightsofLaborreachedaforceof700,000workers,whoweresocialisticinoutlook.They
alsofocusedonachievingan8­hourworkdayandonprohibitingchildrenunderage14from
beinghiredforwork.Thegroupdwindledinmembershipinpartbecauseitsacceptanceofall
typesofworkersblurreditsfocus.
• ThefalloftheKnightsofLaboroccurredastheFederationofOrganizedTradesandLabor
Unionswasrising.Thisgrouplimiteditsmembershiptoonlyskilledworkersbutwasdecimated
bytheHaymarketSquareRiot.
• TheAmericanFederationofLaboremergedasapowerfulsuccessortoFOTLU.Underthe
leadershipofSamuelGompers,itbecameanamalgamationof38tradeunionsandquickly
reachedamembershipofcloseto2million.
• Thelate1800salsofeaturedtheriseofthesteelindustryandtheemergenceofHenryClayFrick
andAndrewCarnegie.Despitetheirbrillianceinbuildingthesteelindustry,CarnegieandFrick’s
actionsduringtheHomesteadStrikeraisedseriousissuesabouttheirtreatmentofworkers.
• Inthetextileindustryastrikeinwhichwomendemanded“breadandroses”becameanational
event.
Chapter2ReviewQuiz
Chapter2Flashcards
Choose a Study Mode

KeyTerms
AmalgamatedAssociationofIronandSteelWorkers
AunionmadeupofworkersinthesteelindustryinPittsburghinthelate1800s.
AmericanFederationofLabor
AnamalgamationoftradeunionsfoundedbySamuelGompersintheearly1900s.
apprentices
Youngmenwhotrainedinashoptolearnaskill.
BattleoftheViaduct
AnuprisingthatwasanoffshootoftheGreatRailwayStrikeof1877andoccurredinChicago,Illinois.
BessemerIronWorks
PartofthelargesteelholdingsofAndrewCarnegie.
AndrewCarnegie
AsteelmagnateandheadofCarnegieSteelduringtheHomesteadStrike.
CarnegieSteel
ThenameofthesteelplantsownedbyAndrewCarnegie.
Commonwealthv.Hunt
Alawcasethatheldthatformingalaborunionisperselegal;itoverturnedthedecisionin
Commonwealthv.Pullis.
Commonwealthv.Pullis
Alawcasethatheldthatformingalaborunionisanillegalandcriminalconspiracy;itwasoverturned
byCommonwealthv.Hunt.
conspiracy
Whentwoormorepeoplejointogetherandplanacrime.
cordwainers
Thenamegiventoearlyshoemakers.
FederationofOrganizedTradesandLaborUnions(FOTLU)
Aunionthatformedinthe1880sandadmittedonlyskilledlabor.Itdeclaredthestrikeatthe
McCormickReaperPlantthatledtotheHaymarketSquareRiot.
HenryClayFrick
AnentrepreneurwhowasacolleagueofAndrewCarnegieandwhorantheHomesteadSteelWorks
duringtheHomesteadStrike;theviolenceanddeathduringthatstrikeareattributedtohim.
SamuelGompers
AunionactivistandoneofthefoundersoftheAmericanFederationofLabor,theprecursortothe
AFL­CIO.
JayGould
Afinancierandrailroaddevelopertowhomagreateconomiccrashisattributedinthe1880s;itledto
theGreatSouthwestStrike.
GreatRailwayStrikeof1877
Aparticularlybloodyandviolentstrikethattookplaceagainstthenation’srailroadsin1877andled
totheformationoftheKnightsofLabor;alsoknownastheGreatStrike.
GreatSouthwestStrike
AstrikeorganizedbytheKnightsofLaborin1886.
HaymarketSquareRiot
AriotthattookplaceasaresultofastrikebyFOTLUontheMcCormickReaperPlantin1886.
HomesteadSteelWorks
OneofCarnegie’ssteelplants;thesiteoftheHomesteadStrike.
IndustrialRevolution
AnerainU.S.historyspanningtheyears1820to1840,duringwhichtherewasatremendousgrowth
inindustry.
IndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(IWW)
AunionbasedonsocialistprinciplesthataroseoutoftheLawrenceTextileStrikeof1912.
journeymen
Apprenticesinaworkshop;youngmenwholearnedatradebyassistinginashop.
KnightsofLabor
Oneoftheearliest,largest,andmostsustainedlaborunionsofthe1800s,whichsoughttobeinclusive
ofbothskilledandunskilledlaborandworkedtoimplementan8­hourworkday.
mastercraftsmen
Skilledtradesmenwhooftenstartedasapprenticesinashop.
NationalLaborUnion
Oneoftheearliestunionsformed(1866–1873)thatrepresentedworkersandsoughtan8­hour
workday.
TerenceV.Powderly
ThesuccessortoUriahSmithStephensaspresidentoftheKnightsofLabor.
ReadingRailroadMassacre
PartoftheGreatRailroadStrikeof1877;ashootinginReading,Pennsylvania,thatresultedin16
casualties.
scabs
Aderogatorytermforworkerswhoreplacepeopleonstrike.
UriahSmithStephens
ThefounderofthelaboruniontheKnightsofLabor.
WilliamSylvis
ThefounderoftheNationalLaborUnion.
wildcatstrike
Astrikeorganizedbytheworkerswithoutthepermissionorblessingofunionmanagement.
Wobblies
ThenamegiventothemembersoftheIndustrialWorkersoftheWorld;thetermhasnoclearorigin
orexplanation.
CriticalThinkingQuestions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Whatwerethedrivingforcesthatledpeopletosacrificesomuchtoformunions?Wasitworth
it?Whatbenefitswerederived?Whatsacrificesweremade?
Compareandcontrastthefirstunions.Whatdidtheyhaveincommon?Whataresomeofthe
distinctionsbetweenthem?Whatunionshadconservativephilosophies?Whichonesweremore
liberal?
Violenceplayedalargeroleintheformationoftheearlyunions.Towhatdoyouattributethis?
Whatpartdidtheunionsplayincreatingsituationsthatengenderedviolence?Whatpartdidthe
governmentplay?
Howdidtheeconomicboomanddepressioninthe19thcenturycontributetoboththe
developmentanddestructionofunions?
ResearchProjects
1.
WatchthefilmTheHomesteadSteelStrikeof1892athttp://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=1NljbZAGk0w(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1NljbZAGk0w).
a. Afterwatchingthefilm,describethestrikefromtheviewpointofthesteelworkersand
thenfromtheviewpointofthePinkertonguards.
b. Somecommentatorshavestatedthatthestrikewasbothavictoryandadefeatfor
organizedlabor.Inyouropinion,whatdoesthismean?
c. MarthaFrickSanger,great­granddaughterofHenryClayFrick,appearsinthefilm.What
positiondoesshetakeabouthergreat­grandfather’sactionsinthestrike?
d. Whatisyouropinionofthestrikeafterwatchingthemovie?Hasyouropinionchanged
sincereadingthechapter?
2.
Thelabormovementhasmanyheroes,fromSamuelGomperstotheWobblies.Much
informationandresearchaboutearlylaborleadersisavailableontheInternetandYouTube.
Chooseonepersonororganizationthatyoufindparticularlyinterestingandwriteabrief
biographyanddescriptionofthisparty’saccomplishmentsonbehalfoflabor.
3.
AndrewCarnegieandHenryClayFrickareoftenportrayedasenemiesoflabor.Isthisportrayal
accurate?Chooseoneofthesemenandinvestigateifthisassumptionisreallytrue.Somegood
placestostartinclude“WhereaTycoonMadeItJusttoGiveItAway
(http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/21/travel/21footsteps.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0)”;“Carnegie
vs.FrickDuelingEgosonFifthAvenue
(http://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/02/realestate/streetscapes­the­frick­mansion­carnegie­vs­frick­
dueling­egos­on­fifth­avenue.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Aw%2C%7B%222%22%
3A%22RI%3A15%22%7D)”;and“HenryClayFrick:BloodPact
(http://www.pittsburghquarterly.com/index.php/Historic­Profiles/article­template.html).”