The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual
Integration Theory Perspective
A thesis
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Master of Arts
in English Language and Literature
By
Wu Yiqiong
Under the Supervision of Professor Xu Haiming
1
The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express my most sincere appreciation to Professor Xu Hai
Ming, for his generous instruction and patient guidance on my thesis planning and writing.
He offered me encouragement and helps to grasp the fundamental theories and knowledge
of linguistics.
Also I would like to thank all my classmates for their selfless help and the
encouragement during my study, especially those who stimulated my idea and helped me
to find valuable references.
Finally, I am also deeply grateful to my beloved parents and my husband for their
continuous understanding and encouragement during the process of pursuing my graduate
study and writing this thesis.
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
摘要
委婉语作为一种普遍存在的语言学以及社会文化显现，在我们的日常生活中扮演
着极其重要的角色。随着科技和社会的进步，在经济发展日益全球化的今天，委婉语
被人们看作语言中的“润滑剂”。近年来，随着交流手段、语境以及传媒受众层次的改
变，它对传统媒体以及人们的日常生活所形成影响的积极意义已经开始展现，使得我
们的语言表达方式更加丰富、间接，更有新鲜感。委婉语是时代文化发展过程中产生
的一种特定的语言现象，在这种新型文化现象的背后必然存在的普遍的认知规律，研
究这种规律是顺应现代社会语言的发展趋势的，对加强多元文化交流和传承，促进语
言规范化，乃至推动语言学科发展都是有意义的。
国内外学者对委婉语的研究纬度很多，有很多学者都分析了委婉语的社会功能、
特征和构成方式，从语言学，语义学和修辞学等方面对委婉语进行研究，也有不少学
者对英汉委婉语进行了对比研究，并且都已取得重要的研究成果。上世纪九十年代末
在西方认知语言学领域中出现的概念整合理论因其强大的阐释力而受到语言学家们
的关注。该理论被用于多种语言现象的解释，从句子的语义到词语的复合，它探讨的
是语言通过认知语义构建所产生的心理空间这一解释中介所反映的客观实践与场
景。，它从心智空间、概念整合网络、共有空间、输入空间、映射、关系、压缩、新
创结构等全新的角度来阐释认知模型的构建，以及意义产生的机制，不仅可用以阐释
委婉语语义的理解，更为重要的是它还是我们认识世界，进行思维的一种基本方式。
在本文中，作者将在介绍委婉语的基本概念和理论（包括委婉语的定义、特征、
分类和功能等）的基础上，尝试从概念整合理论的角度来解释语委婉语的构成机制和
意义构建，并重点介绍了委婉语多种构成手段中的四种：语音手段、词汇手段、语法
手段和修辞手段，最后本文在单独章节中结合概念整合理论对典型语料的构成机制进
行分析。
关键词：概念整合理论
英语委婉语
构成机制
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
Abstract
Euphemism as a universal linguistic phenomenon and the visualization of the social
culture plays an important role in our daily life. With the development of the society and
science, euphemism has become “the lubricant in communication”. The Euphemism is a
specific language pheromone along with the development of human being’s civilization.
There must be some relevant cognitive rules behind this new pattern of language
pheromone which will do benefit to the communication by employing these rules. This
thesis will further study euphemism and its generating mechanism and meaning
construction within the framework of conceptual integration theory.
The previous studies on euphemism involve various theoretical perspectives such as
rhetoric, semantics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, cross-cultural communication and
pragmatics. In the late 90th of the last century, scholars noticed that the conceptual
integration theory provided a good approach in cognitive linguistic area to explain our
language phenomenon. Conceptual integration theory is an important component of
cognitive linguistics, which gives a new point of view to explain the building of cognitive
model from a mental space, conceptual integration network, and a total of space, the input
space, mapping, relationship and compression, as well as the mechanism of meaning
construction. It can not only be used to explain the semantic understanding of euphemism,
also to explain our understanding of the world which carries out a fundamental way of
thinking.
Conceptual integration theory is the continuousness of mental space and the
important component of cognitive linguistic. This thesis will further study euphemism and
its generating mechanism and meaning construction within the framework of conceptual
integration theory. The authors will introduce the basic concepts of Euphemisms and theory,
including the definition of euphemism, characteristics, classification and function, etc.,
which based on the concept of integration theory and try to explain the mechanism and
significance of meaning construction from the perspective of the conceptual integration
network.
Key Word：Conceptual Integration Theory
English Euphemism
Construction Mechanism
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
Contents
The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective ..... 1
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of
Arts in English Language and Literature
By Wu Yiqiong
Under the Supervision of
Professor Xu Haiming....................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................... 2
摘要.................................................................................................................................. 3
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 7
1.1. A Brief Introduction to Euphemisms ................................................................ 7
1.2. A Brief Introduction to Conceptual Integration Theory..................................... 7
1.3. The Main Purpose of this Thesis....................................................................... 8
1.4. The Structure of this Thesis .............................................................................. 9
Chapter 2 Literature Review............................................................................................ 10
2.1. Origin of Euphemism ..................................................................................... 10
2.2. Definitions of Euphemism...............................................................................11
2.3. Classifications of Euphemism ........................................................................ 13
2.3.1. The Positive Euphemisms and the Negative Euphemisms .................... 13
2.3.2. The Unconscious Euphemism and the Conscious Euphemism .............. 14
2.3.3. Other Classifications of Euphemisms ................................................... 15
2.4. Devices for Forming Euphemism ................................................................... 15
2.4.1. Phonetic Approach ............................................................................... 15
2.4.2. Lexical Approach ................................................................................. 17
2.4.3. Rhetorical Approach............................................................................. 17
2.4.4. Grammatical Approach......................................................................... 18
2.5. Theoretical Studies andEmpirical Status of Euphemism ................................. 20
2.6. Inadequacies of Traditional Studies ................................................................ 21
Chapter 3 Conceptual Integration Theory ........................................................................ 23
3.1. Introduction of Key Concepts of Cognitive Linguistics .................................. 23
3.1.1. Frame and Schema ............................................................................... 23
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
3.1.2. Mappings and Meaning Construction ................................................... 23
3.2. Mental Space.................................................................................................. 24
3.3. Conceptual Integration Theory ....................................................................... 25
3.3.1. Blending .............................................................................................. 25
3.3.2. Integration Networks............................................................................ 26
3.3.3. Optimality Principles of Conceptual Integration Theory ....................... 28
Chapter 4 the Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory....... 30
4.1. Mappings of Euphemism................................................................................ 30
4.1.1. Projection Mapping in Euphemism....................................................... 30
4.1.2. Pragmatic Function Mapping in Euphemism ........................................ 32
4.1.3. Schema Mapping of Euphemism .......................................................... 33
4.2. Integration Networks of Euphemism .............................................................. 34
4.2.1. Case 1 She is snorting snowball............................................................ 34
4.2.2. Case 2 She has got many blossoms on her face..................................... 35
4.2.3. Case 3 He got a one-way ticket............................................................. 36
4.2.4. Case 4 我们的英雄在此长眠。.......................................................... 37
4.2.5. Case 5 孔方兄是最好的外交官。. ..................................................... 38
4.2.6. Case 6 道路两侧零星的“土馒头”据说是旧时村落的物事。. .......... 39
4.3. Summary........................................................................................................ 40
Chapter 5 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 41
References ...................................................................................................................... 43
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. A Brief Introduction to Euphemisms
Euphemism as a universal linguistic phenomenon is so widely used in our daily life
that every society, every speech community and very social class has their euphemisms of
various kinds. It is a widespread language phenomenon in language communication.
Euphemism can disguise unpleasant, disgusting, embarrassing even terrifying facts and
phenomena. It has become an indispensible language device to coordinate interpersonal
relationship which is called “the lubricant in communication”.
“A language without euphemisms would be a defective instrument of communication”
(Enright, 1985). As a part of language and a common linguistic phenomenon, euphemism
is widely used at almost anytime. Every culture, speech community, social class, or even
the individuals have their unique euphemisms. They are so embedded in every language
that few people could get through a day without them.
The word “euphemism” came from Greek “eu” which means “good”, “phemism”
means “speech” or “saying”, thus the whole word means literally to speak with “good
words or in a pleasant manner”. In traditional scholarship, euphemism was considered as a
purely lexical phenomenon employed to replace words or phrases as unfit for polite
linguistic usage with milder or indirect equivalents. It “consists of replacing a word which
has offensive connotations with another expression which makes no overt reference to the
unpleasant side of the subject and my even be a positive misnomer” (Leech, 1974).
1.2. A Brief Introduction to Conceptual Integration Theory
Conceptual integration theory, also called Conceptual blending theory, is developed
from the basis of Mental Space theory by Fauconnier in 1994. It is the continuousness of
mental space and the important component of cognitive linguistic. According to
Fauconnier, conceptual integration is the theoretical framework for exploring human
information integration which involves a set of operation for combining dynamic cognitive
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
models in a network of mental spaces. In fact, the general notion of conceptual blending
has been discussed before by many scholars. All these scholars, takes blend to be
somewhat exotic manifestation of meaning. It is another mental operation which highly
imaginative but crucial to even the simplest kinds of thought and it is and invisible
unconscious activity involved in every aspect of life, besides framing, analogy, metaphor,
grammar and commonsense reasoning (as cited in Fauconnier & Turner, 2002).
The purpose of conceptual integration is to figure out the meaning construction and
the blending of the languages. It plays the key role in how we study, how we think and how
we live. We understanding meanings and create colorful conceptual world by using
cognitive integration, so it is rather important theory in cognitive semantics (Y. Wang,
2005). It has been developing rapidly and drawing more and more attention from
linguistics. It has widely been studied and applied in various fields in the west, however
the introduction and application of it into China was quite late. Wang Shao Hua first
introduced this theory into China on his publishing paper Journal of PLA University of
Foreign Language (6th edition, 2000). Then some scholars attempted to study this new
concept of cognitive linguistics. Wang Wen Bin mad a comprehensive view on its main
idea and application in Chinese. According to his point of view in 2004, during the year of
2000 to 2003, there were 20 papers that on the study and the application of Conceptual
Integration theory in various aspects of language. Among these paper, there were 16 paper
were published in the core journals. Conceptual Integration theory was proved to be
another new angle of view in the cognitive linguistics.
1.3. The Main Purpose of this Thesis
With the rapid development of Internet technology, language on the Internet becomes
another object that attracts the interest of linguistics. There brings up a great many
non-traditional euphemisms which are typically widely used on the Internet. It is the
enrichment of the type of traditional euphemisms and enhances the flexibility of language
communication. The Euphemism is a specific language pheromone along with the
development of human being’s civilization. There must be some relevant cognitive rules
behind this new pattern of language pheromone which will do benefit to the
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
communication by employing these rules. The previous studies on euphemism involve
various
theoretical perspectives
such
as
rhetoric,
semantics,
psycholinguistics,
sociolinguistics, cross-cultural communication and pragmatics. Scholars from home and
abroad have achieved great success in the above area. Based on the previous achievement,
we further study euphemism and its generating mechanism and meaning construction
within the framework of conceptual integration theory.
1.4. The Structure of this Thesis
This thesis is divided into five chapters, attempts to explain the forming of
euphemism from the conceptual integration theory perspective.
Chapter one is an introduction. It includes a brief introduction to euphemism and
Conceptual Integration theory. Afterwards, it describes the main purpose of writing this
thesis and the structure of this thesis.
Chapter two reviews the origin and the definitions of euphemism, then introduces
some fundamental aspects of euphemism, such as the classification, forming devices and
the forming principle. Moreover, the author discusses the inadequacies of the former
studies which focus on the above mentioned perspectives.
Chapter Three introduces the key concept of cognitive Linguistics and the conceptual
integration theory on a detailed analysis of euphemism.
Chapter Four is devoted to the cases analysis English and Chinese euphemism from
the conceptual integration theory perspective. Plenty of examples are given to demonstrate
the above mentioned aspects of the CIT theory.
Chapter Five is the conclusion of the thesis, which summarizes the previous four
chapters and also points out the inadequacies of the analysis.
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Euphemism, as “a mild or vague periphrastic expression as a substitute for a blunt
precision of disagreeable truth” (Forler, 1965), which plays the part of lubricant in human
being’s communication. It is a linguistic and culture phenomenon that widely appearing in
almost every aspect of our life, helping people to avoid the embarrassment caused by the
direct expression. The proper employment may improve interpersonal relationship and
make the social communication goes smoothly. Its function is far beyond to be a rhetorical
device of the language and attracts scholars’ attention widely. The previous studies on
euphemism involve various theoretical perspectives such as rhetoric, semantics,
psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, cross-cultural communication and pragmatics. Scholars
from home and abroad have achieved great success in the above area.
2.1. Origin of Euphemism
Euphemism is a universal language phenomenon which is widely used in our society.
It plays a part of lubricant in our communication and avoid the embarrassment of the
speaker and listener which caused by the directness of the expression. When employing it
properly, we can improve the interpersonal relations and make communication goes
smoothly.
Euphemism originates from “Taboo”, they are considered as twins. Wardhaugh
claimed that “taboo is the prohibition or avoidance in any society of behavior believed to
be harmful to its members in that it would cause them anxiety, embarrassment, or
shame”(1998). Taboo originates from the word “Tabu” which was first use in 1900s by
James Cook. He found some of the objects would be only used in certain occasion and for
special purpose. This kind of phenomenon is called “Taboo”, which means untouchable
thing. It is a way that people express certain kinds of behavior or things which are not
accepted by the society or believed to be harmful to others. It is commonly believed that
the earliest euphemism cam from the religious taboo. To call a God or Goddesses directly
by his or her name was considered as a blasphemous and rude act that may cause God’s
anger and bring disaster to the human beings. For example, Thunderer is the common
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
replacement for Odin who is the father god in Rune that Vikings believe that thunders
represents his anger.
In the ancient time, primitives were unable to explain many natural phenomenons like
death, illness and natural calamities due to the low productivity and civilization. In their
eyes, the palingenesis of nature was a kind of formidable power so they believed that
everything lives with spirit and language was the source of the happiness and disaster. To
find a way out, they started to use certain words or phrases in dialogs to replace those that
they were afraid of. As the American linguist Victoria Fromkin said, the existence of taboo
words or taboo ideas simulated the creation of euphemisms. Chen Yuan pointed out in his
book in 2002 that taboo originates from fetishism which is considered to possess some
mysterious power in some of the cultures. When people have to talk about some tabooed
things or activities, they will try to use other good or beautifully sounding words which we
call euphemisms nowadays to replace that tabooed words. Euphemism is rooted in the
language taboos.
Rawson supposed that “euphemisms conceal that things people fear the most – death,
the supernatural; cover up the facts of life, of sex and reproduction and excretion.
Euphemism are beloved by individuals and institutions (government, especially) that are
anxious to present only the handsomest possible images of themselves to the world.” In
another word, euphemism is the word or phrase that used in the attempt to avoid
unpleasant thing instead of the tabooed words (1981). For example, saying “if anything
happens to me” is a euphemized expression of “if I die” in both Greek and Latin (Enright,
1985). When someone has to tell the news of death, he may use the expression like “passed
away” or “gone away” instead of saying “died” directly. That is more polite and acceptable
by other.
2.2. Definitions of Euphemism
Euphemism finds its source in Latin. The words “euphemisms” was firstly recorded in
English in George Blunt’s Glossographia in 1656 which was defined as “a good or
favorable interpretation of a bad word”. With the development of linguistic, scholars gave
more definitions of euphemism which could be found in books and dictionaries from
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
different perspectives.
The use of euphemism is “an attempt to modify an unpleasant thought by substituting
mild or polite words or phrases for the exact words” (Mc Peek & Wright, 1956).
Foreler (1965) defines euphemism as “a mild or vague periphrastic expression as a
substitute for a blunt precision of disagreeable truth”. Neaman & Silver pointed
euphemism refers to “substituting an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit and
offensive one, thereby veneering the truth by using in word.” (Neaman & Sliver, 1983: 4).
It also be used as “an alternative to a dispreferred expression in order to avoid
possible loss of face, either one’s own face or through giving offense that of the audience
or of some third party” (Allan & Burridge, 1991: 18)
The definition that given in the Encyclopedia Britannica says “Figure of speech in
which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less
offensive terms and in the expression” (Longman dictionary, 1988).
The definition of euphemism can also been found in many dictionaries. It is defined
as a rhetorical device, like “substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for
harsh or blunt or direct one” (Concise Oxford Dictionary, 7th edition).
However, there is no common agreement of the euphemism definition up to date.
Different scholars give different definitions in several dictionaries as the following
influential ones:
♦
“It is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may
offer or suggest unpleasant” (Webster New Collegiate Dictionary, 1997)
♦ “An example of the use of a more pleasant, less direct name for something thought
to be unpleasant” (Longman English - Chinese Dictionary of Contemporary
English, 1988)
♦ “A good or favorable interpretation of a bad word.” (Neaman and Si1ver, 1983: 4)
♦ “A polite word or expression that you use instead of a more direct one to avoid
shocking or upsetting someone” (Longman Dictionary of contemporary English,
1995: 466)
♦ “The use of a pleasanter, less direct name for something thought to be unpleasant”
(Longman Dictionary of American English, 1992: 408)
♦ “An indirect word or phrase that people often use to refer to something
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
embarrassing or unpleasant, sometimes to make it seem more acceptable than it
really is” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, 2004: 581)
These definitions of euphemism are largely identical but with minor differences.
AltThough scholars has defined regarding to style and pragmatics, they commonly agree
that euphemism is a rhetoric device which allows people to express unpleasant expression
in an indirect way or a kind of strategic communication when people have to mention some
unpleasant things that may be offensive or impolite to the listeners or may hurt their feeling
and bring the embarrassment.
2.3. Classifications of Euphemism
Euphemism can be classified into different categories that analyzed from different
perspectives.
2.3.1. The Positive Euphemisms and the Negative Euphemisms
According to Rawson, the euphemism can be divided into two general types –
positive euphemism and negative euphemism according to its relation to taboos. The
positive euphemism can also be called stylistic one. It “inflates and magnifies the word
meaning, making the euphemized items seem altogether grander and more important than
they really are” (Rawson, 1981).
Positive euphemism transfigures taboo word more positive. The first major group of
positive euphemisms is the job title. The social status of the job could be glorified and the
ego of the people who takes this job could be protected. For example, “funeral director” for
“undertaker”; “account manager” for “salesman”; “administrative assistant” for “secretary”.
HR (Human resources) is experts in creating appellations for jobs. The word “engineer” is
the most frequently used word to transfer a junior position to an advanced job. There are
various kinds of fancy job title of “engineers”, such as “beauty assistant” for the sales girls
on cosmetics counter, “stylist” for “barber”. “wardrobe engineer” for “boutique sales”. The
common way is try to turn one’s trade into profession. A high-ranking title is the important
part of a job to attract the candidates. Personal respects constitute another important part of
positive euphemism such as undertakers use “patients” and “clients” when referring the
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
corpses. Positive euphemism also appears in the name of many institutions, which transfer
“madhouse” into “mental hospital” and “colleges” into “universities”.
The negative euphemisms, also called traditional euphemism, are closely related to
taboos. They are defensive in nature have extremely ancient origins. They make the taboo
features seem less obvious than they really are and even conceal the disturbing factors
from the receiving ends (Rawson, 1981). As we discussed in the previous session, the
earliest euphemism came from peoples’ fearing towards the gods. Birth, death, illness, sex,
disease, secretion, excretion and many forbidden territories are all negative euphemisms.
2.3.2. The Unconscious Euphemism and the Conscious Euphemism
The positive and negative euphemism are based on the motivation of how people using
them. There is another classification of euphemism, consciously and unconsciously.
Euphemism whether it is positive or negative can be used unconsciously or consciously.
Unconscious euphemism, generally speaking, is the euphemism that being used by people
unconsciously. It refers to those whose origins has been forgotten as they are created for a
very long history and treated as ordinary words in today’s communication. For example,
the word “cemetery” which originated in Greek in the fourteenth century, means
“dormitory or sleeping place” and was widely replaced the word “graveyard”. It has been
used so often that people hardly realize that they are euphemizing the place of the burial
ground to avoid talking about death. Also, people may not aware the word “indisposition”
is the euphemized expression of “disease” and “illness” as it occurs frequently in our daily
communication. The animal names like “donkey” and “rooster” were originally created to
replace the word “ass” and “cock”.
On the contrary of the unconscious euphemism, people are aware of that they are
euphemizing what they really mean when using conscious euphemism. People use
intentionally to avoid taboo words or the offensive part in the communication for not
embarrassing the listener. As stated in the previous paragraph, death is the strongest topic
among all the taboo topics due to its mysterious, terrible and people’s fear of the nature.
The word “die” has lots of replacement like “depart”, “sleep forever” or “pass away”. This
kind of euphemism is welcomed in daily communication, for it accounts for people’s
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
intention to hide the truth they feel embarrassed to admit.
2.3.3. Other Classifications of Euphemisms
Besides the above mentioned two classification of the euphemism, Neaman and Silver
categorized euphemisms into eleven categories: body parts euphemisms, sex euphemisms,
crime & punishment euphemisms and war euphemism etc. Religion, illnesses, human
anatomy and sex were also discussed in their book.
There are other many ways of classification that concerning to different perspectives.
Such as death euphemisms, war euphemisms and sex euphemisms are classified according
to its characteristic. Criminal’s euphemisms, police’s euphemism and teacher’s
euphemisms are classified according to its angle of users. Instantaneous euphemisms and
continuous euphemisms are classified according to the length of time euphemisms have
been in use. It also can been classified in terms of its geographic area, like American
euphemisms and Australian euphemisms. Classify the euphemisms according to the ways
of their formation is also reasonable.
No matter which way we classified, all euphemisms are follow the same rule of “a
polite, peaceful or less explicit term used to avoid the direct naming of an unpleasant,
painful or frightening reality” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the
English Language, 1961)
2.4. Devices for Forming Euphemism
To classify the euphemisms according to the way of their formation is also reasonable,
as we mentioned in the above paragraph, it is a good approach to understand the meaning
construction of the euphemism which base on the formation of euphemism. Some ways
can be available to understand the formation of euphemism from the perspectives of
phonetic, lexical, rhetorical and grammatical means.
2.4.1. Phonetic Approach
Pronunciation of certain words which can be the impulse of the euphemisms. It is the
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The Interpretation of Euphemism from the Conceptual Integration Theory Perspective
most common reason that words are not rightly to speak out. Therefore, phonetic
transformation is the common approach to transform the taboo words. “When we
encounter words that dare not speak their names, we substitute, compound, abbreviate, clip
(shorten or omit the last syllable), backformation, initial, convert and reduplicate them. We
may also distort their sounds and create diminutives and blend words.” (Neaman & Silver,
1983)
♦ Abbreviation is the shortening of a word or phrase, e.g. “Ladies” for “Ladies
Room”, “Gentlemen’s” for “Gentlemen’s Room”.
♦ Substitution of synonyms is the simple and commonest euphemistical device,
such as “agent” for “spy”.
♦ Initialing is the use of acronyms to replace the whole words, e.g. “JC” for “Jesus
Christ”.
♦ Blending is the squeezing of two words together on both orthographically and
phonetically, e.g. “gezunda”, which means “a chamber pot”, for “goes under” the
bed.
♦ Apocopation is the eliminating of the last letters of words, e.g. “vamp” for
“vampire”.
♦ Back formation is the use of one part of the words to substitute something
sensitive, e.g. the verb “burgle” came from the noun “burglar” for “rob”.
♦ Diminutive is the creation of a new word by shortening or nicking words with a
suffix or indicating affection or smallness, e.g. “heinie”, which means “buttocks”,
for “hind end”. (Neaman and Silver,1990)
♦ Reduplication is the repetition of a syllable or letter of a word, e.g. “wee-wee” or
“pee-pee” for “piss”.
♦ Phonetic distortion is the changing of a sound of word for the purpose to
euphemize, e.g. “Cripes” for “Christ”.
♦ Euphemistic punctuation is the way which punctuation marks, like dashes are
used to omit the letter or character in a taboo word or the whole word.
Punctuation is widely used on Internet to euphemize taboo, such as in “f**k” for
“fuck”.
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