MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORE.STRY AND AGRICULTURE.
Obligatorily mycorrhizal plants have been defined as those
wh ich will not su rvive to reproductive maturity without being
associated with mycorrhizal fungi in the soils (or at the fertility
leve ls) of t heir natural habitats Uanos 1980). These species
cons iste ntly su pport mycorrhizal colonisation throughout most of
th eir you ng roots.
Facultatively mycorrhizal plants are those that benefit from
mycorrhizal associations only in some of the least fertile soils in
which t hey naturally occur Uanos 1980). In ecosystem surveys,
incons iste nt mycorrhization (Trappe 1987) or low leve ls of
mycorrhizal colonisation (less than 25% - Brundrett & Kendrick
1988) have been used to designate facultatively mycorrhizal
species when soil fert ility levels could not be manipulated.
Non-mycorrhizal plants have roots that consistently resist
co lonisation by mycorrhizal fungi, at least w hen they are young
an d healthy. These observations provide evidence that intrinsic
properties of roots can restrict mycorrhizal formation . Nutrient
levels and other soil properties and mycorrhizal propagule
dynamics can also reduce mycorrhizal formation, but usually do
not prevent it completely.
Table 1.9. Typical features of host root systems and mycorrhizal
formation that are associated with categories of mycorrh izal
for matio n.
Designation:
Obligate
Facultative
Non-mycorrhizal
young roots
o lder roots
sparse or variable
sparse or variable
none
may occur
in old roots
often coarse
few/short
usually fine
many/long
usually fine
many/long
Colonisation:
Arbuscules
hyphae or vesicles
Roots:
diamete r
root hairs
In natural ecosystems, plants with facultatively mycorrhizal
associations or non-mycorrhizal roots are more common in very
dry, wet or col d habitats where plant productivity is limited by
soil/envi ronmental conditions, or in disturbed habitats where
mycorrhizal fungus inoculum is limited (Brundrett 1991). Nonmyco rrh izal trees are rare (members of the Australian family
Proteaceae are one exception). There are a number of nonmycorrhizal genera which are important in agriculture and
horticulture including members of the families Chenopodiaceae,
Amaranthaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Polygonaceae, Brassicaceae,
Scrophulariaceae, Commelinaceae, Juncaceae and Cyperaceae
(Newman & Reddell 1987, Testier et al. 1987, Brundrett 1991).
Page 36
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORE.STRY AND AGRICULTURE.
Chapter I Introduction
E. Recommendations
The presence of arbuscules should be used to identify VAM
associations and the presence of a Hartig net should be used to
define ECM associations. However, these definitions cannot
always be used and careful judgment may be required when
examining mycorrhizal associations in roots collected from the
field, particularly if roots are old, or associations are atypical.
Some older reports of the mycorrhizal status of hosts should be
disregarded if they do not include evidence that mycorrhizal
definitions were rigorously applied or anatomical investigations
were carefully conducted.
There is disagreement about whether arbuscular mycorrhizas
or vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas is the most appropriate name
for these associations (Section lA). It is important that scientists
use consistent terminology, because this influences the capacity of
computer searches to find papers, abstracting services to
categorise them, and the accessibility of mycorrhizal literature to
other scientists and students. It seems that the name arbuscular
mycorrhizas is gradually replacing vesicular-arbuscular
mycorrhizas in the scientific literature. It is best to use both the
words arbuscule and Glomalean in the title or keywords of
papers to ensure they will be retrieved by computerised search
programs in the future.
The terms ectomycorrhiza, ectomycorrhizas, ectomycorrhizal
should be used for ECM associations.
The degree of mycorrhizal formation of a host plant can be
expressed as the proportion (%) of root length colonised by
mycorrhizal fungi (see Chapter 4). However. roots with a
periderm (bark) layer resulting from secondary growth should be
excluded, since they have no cortex. In ecosystem surveys. it is
best to express the degree of mycorrhizal colonisation as the
proportion of roots available for colonisation that were
mycorrhizal. This requires an understanding of the dynamics of
root growth and mycorrhizal formation.
Page 37
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORE.STRY AND AGRICULTURE.
A. Dissecting microscope
Eyepiece ~
........--_ _ _ _ _ Prism housing
Focusing control
~
~
...._ _ _ _ _ _ _ Magnification selector
fooIIl--- - - - - - ~I--_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Objective
Microscope stand
Mic roscop e base
with light source
B. Compound micro scope
_ c_ _
Eyepiece
.......
__- - - Prism housi ng
Microscope
stand
Revolving nosepiece
_ - - O bjective
. .......
Condenser
adjustment
...------...
Stage
Condenser diap hragm
...
Fine
Specime n ho lder
Stage motion cont ro ls
C o ndenser
Coarse
focusing
...
Field ir is diap hragm
Microscope base
.....-- with light sou rce
Figure 1. 13. Mojor components of dissecting (A) ond compound (B) microscopes.
Page 38
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
Chapter I Introduction
1.7. WORKING WITH MICROSCOPES
Many of the procedures introd uced in th is manual requ ire the use
of a microscope to exam ine details of fungal or root structu re
t hat would not otherwise be visible. Mycorrhizal research
activities t hat requ ire access to a good-quality dissecting and
compound microscopes include fu ngal identification, confi r mation
of association types, quantification of mycorrhizal roots, a nd
identifi cation of roots within samp les. Publication of t he resu lts of
mycorrh izal experiments often requires m icroscope photograph s
to ill ustrate details of mycorrhizal or fu ngal anatomy. More
information on specialised microscope tec hniques is prese nted in
C hapter 4 .
Parts of basic compound and dissecting microscopes are shown in
Figure 1.13, and some information about their use is provi ded
here. However, it is recommended that you also refe r t o books
o n microscopy, especially if you inte nd to use histochemistry,
fluorescence microscopy, interference contrast microscopy, or
electron microscopy methods (Chapter 4).
A. Dissecting microscopes
These microscopes normally have two eyepieces to provid e
stereoscopic vision and are most often used t o view whole
structures at relatively low magn ifications. In mycorrhizal studies
they are used to quantify mycorrhizal roots (Chapter 4), t o help
identify fungi (Chapters 2, 3), check fungal cultures (Chapter 5),
and to assess t he results of mycorrhizal inoculation (Chapter 6).
Some notes on dissecting mic roscope use are provided here.
I.
It is advisable to keep all microscopes separate from areas where
samples are prepared to minimise exposure to dust and liquids. If
samples contained in liq uids (cleared and stained roots, etc.)
a re used ro uti nely, it is advisable to have a clear plastic
platform made to protect the base of the microscope.
2.
Several types of illumination are required for mycorr hizal
studies.
(i) Incident-light illumination is req uired to required to co unt
spores of VAM fungi and select them to start pot cultures
(Chapter 3) and to view unstained roots, fungal fruit bodies,
etc. It is best to use a cool light source when observing living
material such as VAM fungus spores (halogen lam ps produce
less heat than incandescent light bu lbs of similar intensity).
Fibre-optic adjustable arms or ri ng lights mounted on the
objective lens are very useful (obtained from microscope
manufacturers) .
(ii) A transm itted light source, wh ich is built into t he microscope
base, is required to assess mycorrhizal colo nisation in cleared
and stained root samples.
(i ii) Darkfield illumination is not essential, but allows unstained
hyphae and roots to be observed more easily.
Page 39
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
B. Compound microscopes
A good quality compound microscope is an essential tool for
mycorrhizal research, to allow fungus identification by examining
fungal structures (Chapters 2, 3), and to examine sections of
mycorrhizal roots or mounted segments of cleared and stained
roots (Chapter 4). Microscopes should have powerful built-in
illumination, interchangeable objectives including a IOOX oilimmersion objective and a fully adjustable condenser and dual
eyepieces. Some notes about microscope use are provided below.
I.
All parts of the microscope must be kept free of dust and
cleaned carefully when they become dirty. Dust and dirt on
microscope components are the most common causes of
poor image quality.
2.
Great care must be taken when examining liquid preparations
such as unsealed slides. fungi growing on culture media, etc.
to avoid contact with objectives. Immersion oil must be used
very carefully to avoid damage to other objectives. Objective
lenses are also easily damaged by abrasion.
3.
The microscope condenser must be carefully adjusted so that
illumination of the specimen is uniform and sufficiently bright.
Condenser adjustments are often required when objective
lens magnification is changed. Kohler illumination is required
to obtain uniform lighting of the specimen with a compound
microscope. This can be achieved by raising the condenser
until the image of its iris diaphragm is in focus. centring that
image and then opening the iris beyond the field of view of
the objective that is being used.
4.
Light microscopes may have additional components to al low
polarised light. interference contrast. phase contrast. o r
fluorescence microscopy (see Chapter 4). These may be of
great value in mycorrhizal studies, but require different
accessories to be installed and these parts are often very
expensive.
Page 40
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORE.STRY AND AGRICULTURE.
Chapter I Introduction
c. Photography
Microscope photographs are commonly used to document
taxonomic features of fungi and the results of experiments. A
relatively high quality microscope with a dedicated camera and
photomicroscopy controller is normally required to obtain
satisfactory results. Some information on microscope
photography is provided here. but more specific instructions are
provided in the manuals provided with photomicroscopes.
I. Photographic exposures are usually controlled by a dedicated
camera control unit. It is often wise to bracket exposures
(± I or 2 F stops).
2.
The cleanliness of microscope parts. and proper adjustment
of the condenser (see above) is most important when
photographs are taken. as microscopy errors are often
magnified when slides or negatives are printed.
3.
Colour photographs can be taken with a microscope by using
a film which is colour-balanced for the light source used
(usually tungsten). The light source voltage of the microscope
also needs to be adjusted to obtain the correct colour
temperature (typically 3200° K). It is normally best to use a
relatively 'slow' slide film (100-200 ASA) such as Ektachrome
EPY for microscope photography to obtain sufficient detail of
the subject material. but faster film is used for some
purposes. Fine-grained black-and-white negative film is also
commonly used for photography.
4.
It is essential that records of information pertaining to
photographs be recorded. on a record sheet or log book.
when they are taken. Essential information includes the
exposure number. magnification. details of the subject
material. microscope procedures. or stains used. the date and
photographer's initials. This will allow photographs to be to
be identified and correctly labelled after processing.
Page 41
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
Chapter 2 Working with
Ectomycorrhizal Fungi
Chapter 2
WORKING WITH
ECTOMYCORRHIZAL FUNGI
2.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter concerns methods used for the collection,
description, management and identification of larger fungi
(Fig. 2. 1). Most emphasis is on mycorrhizal fungi, especially those
which associate with eucalypts in Australian forests. However,
these methods are also applicable to non-mycorrhizal fungi and
fungi which fruit on substrates other than soil. Terms used to
categorise fungi throughout this chapter are explained below.
Refer to Section 1.3 for an introduction to ECM associations.
Major terms for fungi
Larger fungi - fungi which produce macroscopic fruit bodies, large enough to be readily seen with the
naked eye.
Fruit bodies - reproductive structures of larger fungi containing sexual spores. These are also called
sporocarps, sporophores, ascocarps, basidiocarps, etc.
Epigeous - fruit bodies produced above ground, on the soil, or on other substrates such as wood. These
include fungi called mushrooms, club fungi , coral fungi, puffballs, etc.
Hypogeous - fruit bodies produced below ground, e.g. truffles. Hypogeous fungi include some
Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes. They often rely on animal vectors for spore dispersal.
Mushroom-like fungi - fruit bodies with a clearly defined stalk and cap (e.g. like the field mushroom
Agaricus). These fungi are commonly called mushrooms, or toadstools.
Truffles - hypogeous members of the Ascomycete genus Tuber are the true truffles, but other hypogeous
fungi (Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes) are sometimes also called truffles.
Truffle-like fungi - hypogeous Basidiomycetes (sequestrate Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes) and
Ascomycetes.
Sequestrate - fungi which have spores that are not forcibly discharged from their basidia and remain
enclosed by the fruit body at maturity. Spores of these fungi are mostly dispersed by animals. These fungi
are often referred to as secotioid or gastroid basidiomycetes and many have close ties with groups of
mushroom-like fungi.
Gasteromycetes - an artificial group containing a diverse assemblage of basidiomycetes with spores that
are not forcibly discharged from their basidia, but are dispersed by wind, rain, or animals after they have
matured. These fungi, which are commonly called puffballs, stinkhorns, earthstars, etc. are mostly not
known to be closely related to any of the mushroom-like fungus groups.
Hyphomycetes - known as conidial fungi , or anamorphic fungi, which reproduce by producing asexual
spores.
Saprophytic fungi -live on dead organic matter (e.g. litter, wood).
Pathogenic fungi - invade living organisms causing disease.
Symbiotic fungi - involved in mutually beneficial relationships, especially with plants, e.g. mycorrhizal
associations.
A. Fungal taxonomy
Taxonomy provides a framework on which to base biological
work by providing names of organisms and by giving data about
the biology of the organism and its relationship to other
organisms. Communication between scientists relies largely upon
Page 43
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
Collecting and processing fungi
Section 2.2
A. Fungal habitat information
B. Describing and processing fresh material
Sterile culture isolation
(Chapter 5)
Describing macroscopic features
A. Basic information
~ Section 2.3
B. Detailed information
"
Describing microscopic features
A. Observing spores and other structures
~ Section 2.4
B. Using microscopic information
"
Managing fungal collections
A. Fungal herbaria
---. Section 2.5
B. Database information
"
Identifying fungi
A. Distinguishing major groups
---. Section 2.6
B. Classification within major groups
Figure 2.1. Stages in the collection and identification of larger fungi,
corresponding to sections of this chapter.
the accurate application of names of taxa. Th e name of a fungus is
of prime importance as it opens up access to all of the
information t hat is known about the species and its close
relatives. For exam ple, knowledge about which host plants a
particular fungus is known to form mycorrhizas with would be
significant for ecological studies, especially in habitats where many
ectomyco rrhi zal plant species coexist in close proximity. T he
accuracy of names applied to fungi is of great importan ce in
enabling communication of data. Incorrect ident ifi cat ion of
organisms and application of incorrect names may lead to overgeneralisations or incorrect conclusions (Trappe & Molina 1986).
It is important to realise that not all fungi included in Section 2.6
in the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes are ectomycorrhizal, as
many are saprophytic or parasitic. T he best way to determine if a
Page 44
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
Chapter 2 Working with
Ectomycorrhizal Fungi
specimen is likely to be mycorrhizal is to accurately identify in
which taxon it belongs as the mode of life is known and published
for many genera. If the fungus is not identified, determination of
ectomycorrhizal status may require time-consuming processes
such as isolation and testing of pure cultures (Chapter 5).
Identification of fungi relies upon accurate recognition and
description of fungal characteristics. Identification may be carried
out at any of the three levels described below, depending on the
accuracy that is sought. To aid this task, the reader is referred to
the outline and illustrations of major fungal groups presented in
Section 2.6.
Levels of fungal identification
Level
I
Process
• Basic field observations
Determination
• Ascomycete vs. Basidiomycete
• Family name
• Possibly also genus name
2 • Superficial examination of
• Confirm genus name
macroscopic details
• Tentative species name
• Comparison with illustrations
and descriptions in field gUides
3 • Detailed macroscopic and
• Confirm species name
(if described)
• Consult taxonomic literature
microscopic examination
I.
At the first level, the broad group of fungi to which the
specimen belongs must be determined, for example, whether
the specimen is an Ascomycete or Basidiomycete, and the
family to which it belongs. This level of identification will often
be insufficient to determine whether or not a specimen is
ectomycorrhizal.
2.
At the second level of identification, fresh specimens
collected in the field can be compared to colour illustrations
in commonly available regional field guides and simple keys
and descriptions can be used to recognise genera of fungi.
Some examples of such books include Phillips 1981, Arora
1986, and Breitenbach & Kranzlin 1991 . There are many good
reference books on fungi from northern temperate regions,
but it is much harder to obtain information on fungi from
southern and tropical regions . Identification to genus level will
usually be sufficient to determine whether or not a specimen
is mycorrhizal. In some cases the fungus may be so distinctive
that there is no doubt as to its species name from the
information and photographs in field guides. To help identify
fungi to genus level, the reader is again referred to the outline
and illustrations of fungal taxa presented in Section 2.6.
3.
A third level of investigation is often required to accurately
identify species of ectomycorrhizal fungi . This usually involves
careful examination of macroscopic and microscopic
characters (as discussed in Sections 2.3 and 2.4) , and the
Page 45
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORE.STRY AND AGRICULTURE.
consulting of specialised monographic works. It may also be
possible t o obtain advice fro m a taxonomist. especially one
w ho specialises in the group a particular fungus belongs to.
Submitting descript ive data an d specimens to a herbarium
should eventua lly result in its identificat ion. but this is a
slow process.
No matte r what leve l of identification is sought. three points
sho uld be remem bered.
I.
Macroscopic characters such as fru it body colour and size can
vary according to environme ntal conditions and are not
always re liable fo r determin ing differences between species.
2.
Fu ngal morphology rare ly fa lls into discrete categories. but
rather is often expressed as a contin uum that transgresses
the fo rmal boundaries of low level taxa such as genera and
species (Bougher et al. 1993).
3.
Australian fu ngi have co-evolved with e ucalypts and other
Austral ian plants. Conseque ntly many of these fungi are
uniqu e and may not conform to taxonom ic sch emes
constructed for north ern hemisphe re fungi (Bougher &
Castellano 1993. Bougher 1995).
B. The biodiversity of A ustralian fungi
The taxonomy of ECM fungi in many parts of th e wo rl d is poorly
known. particularly in tropical regions and the southern
hemis ph ere includ ing Australia. It is estimated t hat less than 5% of
Australia fungi are named (Pascoe 199 1). There may be 250000
species of fungi in Australia. includi ng perhaps 5000 mushrooms
(Pascoe 199 1). About 650 species of ECM fungi have been named
so far in Australia (Boughe r 1995). Australian ECM fungi have
co-evo lved with Austral ian plants and are therefore qu ite unique
and extremely diverse (Bougher & To mmerup 1996. Castel lano &
Bougher 1994. Bougher et al. 1994). Many do not naturally occur
o utside Australia. Asian fu ngi asso ciated with t rees such as oaks.
pines and dipterocarps are mostly differe nt to Australian fu ngi and
are generally not co mpatib le w ith Australian trees such as
eucalypts.
T he ECM fungi are predominant ly Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes (see Table 2.1). A few Zygo mycetes are also form
EC M associations (e.g. Warcup 1990) but t hese are infrequent
and their details are not conside red in this chapter. A greater
pro portion of Zygomycetetes produce YAM and these are dealt
with in Chapter 3. Also th e re are some hyphomycet e fungi (for
which th e sexual stage is lacking or not yet recognised) such as
Cenococcum w hich fo rm ECM. O ne est imate suggests t hat t here
are 5000-6000 species of mycorrh izal fungi with the majority
being ectomycorrhizal (Molina et al. 1992). Most ECM fu ngi
produce sexual fruiting structures common ly referred to as
mushrooms. toadstools. coral fungi. puffballs. and truffles. These
are the larger fungi. i.e. they prod uce structures visible to the
naked eye. T he taxonomy of ECM fungi is based almost
excl usively o n characte ristics of th eir sexual fr uiting structures
(see Section 2.6).
Page 46
Chopter 2 Working with
Ectomycorrhizol Fungi
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
Table 2.1. Ectomycorrhizal an d ectendomycorrhizal fungal taxa. List compiled from data in Miller 1982,
=
=
Ken drick 1992, Molina et al. 1992 an d Bougher 1995. (H hypogeous truffle-like fungi, E epigeous fu ngi,
P = puffballs, genera w ith an aste r isk have many non-mycorrhizal species, genera in bold are known to occu r
in Australia.)
Family
Genera
Type
HYPHOMYCETES
Cenococcum, ete.
Co ni dia l
ZYGOMYC ETES
Endogonaceae
Endogone, Sclerogone
H
ASCOMYCETES
Ascobolaceae
Balsami aceae
Elaphomycetaceae
Geneaceae
Geoglossaceae
Helvellaceae
Sphoerosomo
Bo/somio, Picoa
E/ophomyces
Geneo, Geneobo
Geoglossum*, Leotio*, Trichoglossum
Gyromitro, Helvello
H
H
H
H
E
E
Barssia, Fischerula, Gymnohydnotryo, Hydnotryo, Mycoclelondio
Aleurio*, Pezizo*, Phillipsio*, Pulvinio, Sarcosphaera
H
Pezizaceae
Amyloscus, Hydnotryopsis, Mucitu rbo, Pochyphloeus, Pezizo, Ruhlondiello
Geopora, Humaria, Jo fneodelphus*, Lomprosporo* Sphoerosporello,
Trichoph aea, Wilcoxina
H
Pyro nemataceae
Sarcoscyphaceae
Te rfeziaceae
Tuberaceae
Choiromyces, Dingleyo, E/derio, Geopora, Hydnobolites, Hydnocystis,
Lobyrinthomyces, Pourocotyis Reddellomyces, Sphoerozone, Stephensia
Plectonio*, Pseudoplectonio*, Sorcocypho*
Choiromyces, Terfezia
Mukogomyces, Paradoxa, Tube r
BASIDIOMYCETES
Amanitaceae
Amonito, Limocello
Astraeaceae
Torrendio
Astraeus
Boletaceae
Camharellaceae
Chondrogastraceae
Clavariaceae
Cortici aceae
Cortinariaceae
Cribbiaceae
Entolo mataceae
Elasmomycetaceae
Ge lopellidaceae
Go mphaceae
Gom phidiaceae
Hydnaceae
Hygroph oraceae
Hysterangiaceae
Leucogastraceae
Lycoperdaceae
E
E
H
E
H
H
E
H
E
Pyrenogaster, Rodiigero
H
Austroboletus, Boletellus*, Bo/etochoete, Boletus, Buchwoldoboletus*,
E
Cho/Ciporus, Fistulinello, Gyrodon, Gyroporus, Heimiello, Leccinum, Phlebopus,
Phylloporus, Pulveroboletus, Rubinoboletus, Suillus, Tylopilus, Xonthoconium
Alpovo, Boughero, Ch omonixio, Gostroboletus, Rhizopogon, Royoungio
Truncocolumella
Conthorellus, Croterellus
Chondrogoster
Aphelorio, Clovorio, Clovoriodelph us, Clovicorono, Clovulino, Clovulinopsis,
Romorio, Romoriopsis
Amphinema, Byssocorticium, Byssosporia, Piloderma, ete.
Astrosporino, Cortinorius, Cuphocybe, Dermocybe*, Descoleo, Hebelomo,
Inocybe, Leucocortinarius, Rozites, Stephonopus, etc.
H
H
E
H
E
E
E
Cortinorius, Cortinomyces, Descomyces, Destuntzia, Hymenogoster,
Quodrisporo, Setchelliogoster, Thoxterogoster, Tim groveo
Cribbeo, Mycolevis
Clitopilus, Entolomo, Leptonio, Rhodocybe*
E
Rhodogoster, Richoniello
E/osmomyces, Gymnomyces, Mortellio, Zelleromyces
Gelopellis
H
H
H
~~m
E
Chroogomphus, Cystogomphus, Gomphidius
Bankera, Dentinum, Hydnellum, Hydnum, Phellodon
Bertrondio* Com orophyllus, Gliophorus, Humidicutis*, Hygrocybe,
Hygrophorus*, ete.
Hysterongium, Pseudohysterongium, Troppeo
Leucogoster, Leucoph/eps
Lycoperdon*
E
E
H
H
E
H
H
p
Page 47
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORE.STRY AND AGRICULTURE.
Table 2.1. (continued)
Family
Genera
Type
Melanogastraceae
Mesophelliaceae
H
Octavianinaceae
Paxillaceae
Pisolithaceae
Polyporaceae
Russulaceae
Melonogoster
Costoreum, Diplodermo, Gummiglobus, Molojczukio, Mesophellio,
Nothocostoreum
Octovionino, Sclerogoster
Poxillus
Pisolithus
Albatrel/us
Loctorius, Russulo
H
E
P
E
E
Sclerodermataceae
Archongeliello, Cystongium, Mocowonites
Sclerodermo
H
P
Sedeculaceae
Stephanosporaceae
Strobilomycetaceae
Horokiello, Sclerodermo
Sedecula
Stephanospora
Strobilomyces
H
H
H
E
Thelephoraceae
Tricholomataceae
Page 48
AU5trogautieria, Chamonixia, Gautieria, Wakef/eldia
H
Boletopsis, Thelephoro
Clitocybe*, Cystodermo*, Conthorellulo, Catathelasma, Loccorio, Lepisto,
Leucopoxillus, Tricholomo, Tricholomopsis*
E
E
Gigasperma, Hydnongium, Podohydnongium
H
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
2.2. COLLECTING, PROCESSING AND
DESCRIBING ECTOMYCORRHIZAL
FUNGI
Collecting fungi should be undertaken in a well-planned and
ordered fashion, as outlined below, to achieve a high standard of
retrievable information (see Fig. 2.2). This protocol for collecting
fungi is described in detail in the corresponding parts (A-F) of
this Section. Data on fungi and their environments, particularly
associated plants and soil, need to be recorded at the time of
collection as it is often impossible to retrieve such data at a later
date . Morphological characteristics such as shapes, textures and
colours are required for identifying fungi and these must be
recorded with fungi in their fresh condition. If recorded in a
systematic fashion, fungal and environmental information may be
synthesised into a valuable database about particular mycorrh izal
associations (Section 2.5). The value of a database wi ll be great ly
enhanced by preservation of fungal fruit bodies in a herbari um, to
provide a perpetual, physical source of confi rmatory data.
A. Finding and collecting fungi
Fungal fruit bodies are produced intermittently in response to
seasonal changes in environmental stimu li such as rainfall and
temperature. Fungi may fruit at any t ime of the year, particularly
in tropical and subtropical regions. In temperate regio ns fungi are
most abundant in autumn, but another spring flu sh may occu r.
Each fungal species responds differently, and t he fruiting of any
particular species cannot always be predicted. Some fungi fru it
every year, either once or in several different months, w hile
others do not. Hence, the absence of fruit bodies of a part ic ular
species in a specific area at any po int in time does not necessarily
confirm t hat its mycorrhizas are absent in t he area. Also, the
abundance of fruit bodies does not necessarily reflect the extent
of mycorrhizal formation by a particular fungus compared with
othe r fungi. However, it is possib le to infer broad changes in
populations of mycorrhizal fungi in a site by regular observatio ns
of fr uit bodies at that site over a period of years.
The fruit bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi are ephemeral
structures. Fruit bodies may occur for many weeks or o nly days.
Some species of fungi have large fr uit bodies that may take wee ks
t o mature and then decay, while others have small, fragile frui t
bodies that may appear and disappear within a day.
Chapter 2 Working with
Ectomycorrhizal Fungi
Protocol for processing
fungal specimens
Locate and coll ect fungal
specimens.
B. Assign a code number to
each collection. Record
the site and date of
collectio n, the collector's
name , and details of the
habit, so il type and
associated vegetation.
C. Examine, draw, and record
basic macroscopic details
(Section 2.4), with
particular attention given
to variations with age.
Accurately describe the
colour of the fresh
speci mens using daylight
an d a reference colour
chart.
D. Clean off adhering soil and
debris. Take colour
photographs showing
young, mature, and old
specimens, some in
longitudinal section, on a
standard grey background
with a scale (mm).
(Examples of photographs
are provided in th is
manual from Figu re 2.20
onwards.)
E. Set up a spore print on
white paper (epigeous
fungi).
F. Cut large epigeous fruit
bodies longitudinally
before drying the
specimens. Cut truffle-like
fungi in half for drying.
After drying is completed,
package the specimens in a
labelled paper bag or
envelope. Store specimens
in a dry environment.
A.
A great deal of planning and equipment (listed below) is
needed to ensure a successfu l expedition for collecting
ectomycorr hizal fungi. It is o bvious that locations of interest,
e.g. where particular ectomycorrhizal tree species occur, need to
be targeted. If many locations are to be targeted, t he most
efficient travel arrangements need to be worked out. It is also
obvious that collecting expedit ions must be ti med to coi ncide
with t he appearance of fruit bodies in the target area. Therefore
t he precise timing of expeditions must be as flexib le as logistiCS
Page 49
MYCORRHIZAS FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE
I. Select representative specimens
showing all developmental stages
2. Record habitat, location,
substrate and plant
associate information
A
3. Keep fresh fungi in
waxed paper or paper bags
E
4. Assign number to specimen
s.
7. Photograph specimens
6. Describe colours by
matching with colour guide
8. Make a spore print
9. Preserve specimens by drying
Cover
t
Figure 2.2. Col/eding and processing fruit bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi.
Page 50
Describe macroscopic features