Compilation of Research Projects at Mt. Rainier National Park
and Surrounding Region
Introduction to Environmental Studies: Mt. Rainier, 1999-2000
Faculty: Ken Tabbutt, Gabe Tucker, & Carolyn Dobbs
The Evergreen State College
Olympia, Washington
Compilation of Research Projects at Mt. Rainier National Park and Surrounding Region
Introduction to Environmental Studies: Mt. Rainier, 1999-2000
Faculty: Ken Tabbutt, Gabe Tucker, & Carolyn Dobbs
Introduction to Environmental Studies: Mt. Rainier was a team-taught, year-long academic program that
was taught in the 1999-2000 academic year at The Evergreen State College. This course was designed to
achieve several objectives: (1) introduce intermediate students to a wide range of natural and social science
topics in an integrated manner, (2) establish a long-term symbiotic relationship with Mt. Rainier National
Park, (3) provide opportunities for service learning at the park, and (4) conduct scientific research projects
within and around the park. This document is a compilation of this last objective: the results of several
research projects and the data that was collected by students on the program.
The report is divided into two sections based on the manner in which the work was conducted. The class,
as a whole, worked on studying a single wetland situated between the Nisqually river and the Kautz and
Tahoma creeks over the course of the entire academic year. This work was done at the suggestion of
Barbara Somora, staff scientist at Mt. Rainier National Park. The second section contains the research
conducted during the spring (and in some cases started in the winter) by small groups of students. Some of
these projects were linked to the wetland, while others were not.
To satisfy the objective of providing the Park with data, this document contains numeric data (speadsheets),
graphic data (images & figures), and GIS data (ArcView projects & themes).
Acknowledgments
A tremendous amount of effort went into this report, much of it from people outside of the Introduction to
Environmental Studies: Mt. Rainier academic program. Support from Evergreen included our field
assistant Catlin Orr, who cheerfully slogged around in the rain and snow, keeping the CBLs in working
order. Rip Heminway was a wealth of information about GIS and GPS. Peter Robinson helped maintain
the water quality probes and data loggers. Gary Ahlstrand, Barbara Somora, Jim Peterson, and Darin
Swinney all provided support from Mt. Rainier National Park. Pat Pringle led an outstanding field trip
around Mt. Rainier to look at lahar deposits. Funding that allowed this project to be completed, compiled,
and disseminated came from a Summer Research grant from The Evergreen State College. An NSF
Course, Curriculum, and Lab Improvement Grant provided the water quality probes and data loggers.
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Table of Contents
(Click on Subject for Link)
Project Introduction
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
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Part I: “Kautz-Tahoma” Wetland
Abstract
Introduction
Location
Vegetation
Geology
Bedrock Geology
Surficial Geology
Geomorphology of the Study Site
Topographic Survey
DEM
Autolevel survey
Handlevel survey
Relative Elevation DEM
Establishing Absolute Elevation
Orthophoto Registration and Rectification
Hydrology
Climate and Precipitation
Drainage Basin
Groundwater and Surface Water
Biogeochemistry
Air and Water Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
PH
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Nitrates
Discussion
Classification of Wetland Habitats
Wetland Genesis
References
Appendices
Appendix A: Description of Methods
Appendix B: Summary of Cowardin method of wetland delineation
Appendix C: Data Dictionary
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Part II: Student Originated Projects
Water Quality Monitoring Reflection Lakes, Mount Rainier
Adam Pope, Lauren Patton, Andrea Jacobsen & Joy Lee
Water Quality of the Paradise and Nisqually Rivers, Mt. Rainier National Park
Gavin Glore, Trevor Davis, Matt Killian, Cindy Moulder & Obediah Bowen
Paradise River Basin Analysis
Dan Moses, Craig Wortman & Rustie Trim
Breeding Bird Populations Present in the Tahoma Wetlands Research Area, Mount Rainier
National Park
Kari Barnett & Miranda Roses
Tahoma Wetland in Mount Rainier National Park
Mark Baltzell, Luc Burson, Chris Dowling, Gail Fullerton, Jessica Norman & Leah
Steiner
Salamander Survey along Tahoma Creek
Rachel Jencks, James Poelstra & Janet Rhoades
Interview Your Parks 2000: An Ethnographic Picture of Mount Rainier National Park Employees
Sandi Johnston, Maggie Everett, Matt Halvorsen, Heather Mayson & Robert Olesrud
Mount Rainier National Park Greenwall: Changes in Forest Composition of the Western Border of
the Park
Annie Thurston, Chad Boulay & Lucas Meek
A Comparison of Stand Characteristics of Permanent Vegetation Plots using GPS
Lisa Pausmann & Carrie Ziegler
Part III: Data Files (found in separate folders)
Wetland Study
GIS Files
Excel Files
Word Files
Student-Originated Projects
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A Comprehensive Assessment of the Kautz-Tahoma Wetland,
Mt. Rainier National Park
Ken Tabbutt & The Students of the
Introduction to Environmental Studies: Mt. Rainier Program
1
Abstract
A survey and monitoring program established in a low-elevation (2100 feet) wetland adjacent to the
Nisqually River in Mt. Rainier National Park by an academic program from The Evergreen State College.
A detailed elevation survey was conducted and a DEM was interpolated with GIS. Ground and surface
water elevation was monitored within the wetland and water quality was monitored on a weekly b asis. It
was found that water quality within and around the wetlands was found to be pristine, no anthropogenic
influence was identified. An intimate relationship between water quantity and water quality parameters
was established. The pH of the waters was found to be extremely consistent, even in the organic-rich, lessoxic soils of the wetland. There is a consistent decrease in the concentration of dissolved load as water
passes through the Kautz-Tahoma wetland. The wetland habitats were classified and a complex and very
dynamic structure was identified.
Introduction
The public largely views National Park lands as pristine ecosystems, preserved in their natural state, but
increased use of these lands have called into question the carrying capacity of the parks, particularly some
of the more fragile ecosystems contained within them. Mount Rainier National Park is no exception; over
two million visitors enter the Park annually, and their impacts on the ecosystems are significant. The
National Park Service has recognized the need to establish monitoring programs in order to assess these
impacts and enable policies to be implemented that keep carrying capacities from being exceeded.
There is very little low-elevation wetland habitat in Mt. Rainier National Park. A wetland corridor located
north of the Nisqually River and between Kautz and Tahoma Creeks is one of the most extensive systems
in the park. It is also located in one of the few regions not designated as Wilderness within the park. The
objective of this study was to conduct a comprehensive assessment of a part of this wetland system and
collect some baseline data. Our intent was to define the ambient conditions at this time so that future
monitoring programs will have quantitative and qualitative data to compare with. We addressed spatial
variation and some temporal variation (over the course of this investigation) but we hope that the results of
this study allow long-term variations to be assessed.
This work was conducted by students and faculty of an academic program taught at The Evergreen State
College, Introduction to Environmental Studies: Mt. Rainier. The program spent considerable time in the
Park, much of it sloshing about the wetland collecting data and surveying. The majority of these students
were sophomores and juniors, many with little background in environmental science.
Initial work consisted of reconnaissance and detailed survey of a 25 hectare section of the Kautz-Tahoma
wetland. The survey data were compiled and a digital elevation model (DEM) was generated. Orthophotos
of the study area were imported into a Geographic Information System (GIS), registered and rectified. The
forest habitats within and surrounding the wetland were surveyed, surficial geology and geomorphology
were assessed and climate data were analyzed. Ground and surface water monitoring sites were established
throughout the study area, and weekly water quality data and ground water elevations were collected. All
of these data contributed to the delineation of the wetland habitats of the Kautz-Tahoma wetland.
The results of this study indicate that, at this time, the Kautz-Tahoma wetland is not significantly impacted
by anthropogenic influences and is, in fact, a very dynamic natural system. We discovered that it maintains
a wide range of wetland habitats that have very distinct and different ecological functions. But most
importantly this study provided an excellent learning opportunity for students, as they examined various
components of a complex wetland system and discovered the processes that link the hydrology, aqueous
chemistry, geology, soils, wildlife, and vegetation.
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Location
There exists an extensive wetland system located north of the Nisqually river, south of highway 706, east of
Tahoma creek and west of Kautz creek (Figure 1). We will refer to this as the Kautz-Tahoma wetland
system. Our studies concentrated on the large emergent wetland located toward the southwestern part of
this region (Figure 1). The National Wetland Inventory (NWI) has classified this as a palustrine wetland,
while a riverine wetland system exists along the Nisqually River to the south (Cowardin et al., 1979). The
elevation of this wetland is exceptionally low for the park, ranging from between 2100 and 2200 feet.
Figure 1. Location of the Kautz-Tahoma wetland and our study area within that wetland system. The wetlands indicated on the map
were identified by the National Wetland Inventory conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Cowardin et al., 1979).
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Vegetation
Mount Rainier National Park contains three vegetation zones: forest, subalpine, and alpine (Franklin and
Dyrness, 1973; Frankin et al., 1988; Biek, 2000). The major river valleys, including the Nisqually, are
confined to the forest zone (Figure 2). The forest has been subdivided into zones that are characterized and
demarcated by a single tree species which represents the major climax dominant (Franklin and Dyrness,
1973). The Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Silver fir (Abies amabilis), and Mountain hemlock
(Tsuga mertensiana) zones are found in Mt. Rainier National Park. The boundaries of these zones are
defined by changes in temperature (generally a reflection of elevation). These forest zones are further
divided into associations, categorizing both the climax dominant tree and the shrub or herb that is
predictably associated with it.
The low elevation forest along the Nisqually River consists of primarily a Western hemlock/Devil’s Club
assemblage and the forests that surround the wetland study site are no exception (Figure 2). This forest
type is characterized by (a) inhabiting valley bottoms, (b) a thick shrub and herb understory, (c) presence of
devil’s club, and (d) the absence of silver fir (Moir, 1989). Although dominated by western hemlock
(Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) are quite
prevalent in some places. Douglas fir can often be a more common tree than Western hemlock in the
Western hemlock/Devil’s Club zone when the forest has experienced a disturbance (fire, flood, logging,
wind). In these cases, Douglas fir represents a seral species and not the climax dominant. An example of
this is found in the drumlin that extends through the NE portion of the study area. The ridge is dominated
by Douglas fir due to logging activity that occurred on this ridge, probably near the turn of the century.
The forested wetland contains plant communities that do not reflect the Western hemlock/Devil’s Club
assemblage. The forested wetland is dominated by red alder (Alnus rubra) with redcedar encroaching on
the wet margins. Red alder is also establishing itself along the margins of the Nisqually River channel. For
a more complete discussion of the plant communities of the Tahoma-Kautz wetland, see Tahoma Wetland
in Mount Rainier National Park (a student-originated research project).
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Figure 2. Vegetation zones and Forest Habitats of southwestern Mt. Rainier National Park. The Kautz-Tahoma wetlandstudy area
(green square) is located within the Forest vegetation zone and the Western hemlock/Devil’s Club (tshe/opho). This classification was
developed by Franklin and others (1988).
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Geology
Bedrock Geology
Mount Rainier developed on a sequence of middle Tertiary volcanic rocks. The Ohanapecosh formation is
the oldest formation exposed in Mt. Rainier National Park. This unit is widely exposed in southern
Washington between the Columbia River Gorge and Snoqualmie Pass and represents the first volcanic
expression of the Tertiary Western Cascade magmatic arc in southern Washington and marks the end of the
Eocene tectonic regime in the Pacific Northwest (Vance, 1982). Vents of the volcanoes which produced the
Ohanapecosh formation are found throughout the park region. Fission-track data indicate that the
Ohanapecosh formation spans the age range of at least 36 to 28 Ma (late Eocene - early Oligocene). The
long interval of subsidence which allowed the Ohanapecosh formation to accumulate ended by 27 Ma with
an episode of folding, uplift and erosion. The Ohanapecosh is the dominate basement rock in the region of
our study area (Figure 3).
The Fifes Peak formation overlays the Ohanapecosh formation in the White Pass-Tieton River region but
an intermediate unit, the Stevens Ridge formation, has been identified in the park to the north (Fiske and
others, 1963). The Fifes Peak activity was initiated by violent, large-volume eruptions of silicic pyroclastics
from a number of vents, at least one of which was a major caldera (Fiske and others, 1963; Vance and
others, 1987). Fifes Peak volcanism lasted from 25.5 to at least 22 Ma (late Oligocene), ceasing prior to
extrusion of the Columbia River Basalts (16 Ma). The Fifes Peak formation consists of lava flows,
subordinate mu dflows, and minor quantities of tuffaceous clastic rocks (Fiske and others, 1963).
The Stevens Ridge formation attains a thickness of up to 1,000 m and consists mainly of massive welded
pyroclastic flows. The Stevens Ridge formation, which is a silicic pyroclastic unit, is probably laterally
discontinuous and lithologically equivalent to many units within the Fifes Peak formation and not unique to
a single stratigraphic interval in the Washington Cascades outside of the park region (Vance and others,
1987). The Stevens Ridge formation was deposited during the Oligocene or Miocene (Fiske and others,
1964).
There was a deformational event prior to the emplacement of the late Miocene Tatoosh plutonic complex.
This created gentle northwest-trending folds. The folding occurred largely between 21 and 12 Ma (Vance
et al., 1987). Radiometric ages of this granodiorite to quartz monzonite complex range from 17.5 to 14.4
Ma, although some ages as old as 26 Ma have been found (Mattinson, 1977). The Tatoosh Range
represents the eroded roots of a volcanic complex (Fiske et al., 1964).
In the middle Miocene (14 to 3 Ma) there was a decrease in the amount of volcanism in the Cascades, or
evidence of the magmatism may have been subsequently eroded. During this interval the region was being
actively uplifted, gentle folding may have continued into the late Miocene (10 Ma) (Pringle, 1993).
Erosion of the unroofed Tatoosh pluton occurred prior to the development of the Rainier volcano, probably
in early Pleistocene time (Fiske and others, 1963).
The first evidence of proto-Mount Rainier, referred to as the Lily Creek formation, consists of a thick
sequence of volcaniclastic debris that has been dated between 2.9 and 0.84 Ma (Smith, 1990, Pringle et al.,
1994). Early inter-canyon lava flows leveled the topography, filling the dissected surface of the Tertiary
basement and produced a base for the present volcano (Rampart Ridge). Despite rapid erosion by streams
and glaciers, the lava, mudflows, and thin pyroclastic deposits built a cone that was about 300 m higher
than the present volcano. The summit either collapsed or was eroded and a subsequent small cone formed
which culminates in Columbia Crest along the SE edge of the old summit rim. During the growth of this
cone a pumice sheet was deposited, the age of the youngest deposit (600 - 500 years) records the last
activity of the mountain (Fiske and others, 1963; Mullineaux, 1974). An estimated 140 km3 of lava has
been erupted from Mount Rainier in the past 1 my (Sherrod and Smith, 1989).
Surficial Geology
Pleistocene glaciations and interglacial phases caused the alpine glaciers that originated on Mt. Rainer to
repeatedly advance and retreat in the Nisqually River valley. The Salmon Springs Glaciation occurred
about 75,000 ybp and at the glacial maxima; the glaciers that originated on the flanks of Mt. Rainier
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merged with the Puget Lobe, continental ice sheet in the Puget Lowlands to the west. The Hayden Creek
and Wingate Hill drift were deposited by Mt. Rainier glaciers during the Salmon Springs Glaciation. The
Salmon Springs Glaciation was followed by the Olympia Interglaciation, a period of global warming that
lasted for several thousand years. Despite the relative warming, the timberline remained below the
elevation of the park during this interglacial period.
The Frazer Glaciation occurred between 25,000 and 10,500 ybp. Again, alpine glaciers coalesced with the
Puget Lobe to the west. The glacial maxima for the alpine glaciers of the Frazer Glaciation is referred to as
the Evans Creek Stade, and it appears to have occurred about 19,000 ybp. At that time only the highest
ridges within the park were above the ice. The alpine glaciers began to recede sometime before 15,000
ybp, leaving behind Evans Creek Drift (Figure 3).
A northwest trending moraine, possibly a terminal moraine, bounds the eastern margin of the wetland that
we studied (Figure 4). This prominent ridge (25 meters high) contains large, angular boulders, some of
which are over 2 meters in diameter. Although the internal structure of the ridge was not exposed, several
hand augered wells were attempted along its western flank. The cores consistently contained unsorted
sediment, including large, impenetrable rocks. Based on the topography, location, and limited lithologic
evidence we suggest that this ridge till deposited during the retreat of the Nisqually glacier during the
Evans Creek Stade. The park’s surficial geology map (Figure 3) classifies this ridge as Ohanapecosh
formation, but we found no evidence of a bedrock core.
Mt. Rainier was designated as a Decade Volcano study area by the National Research Council in 1994.
The mountain’s high relief and volume of ice and snow on the cone (4.4x109 m3 ) have the potential to
generate enormo us lahars and debris flow (especially during eruption) (Driedger and Kennard, 1986;
Pringle et al., 1994). Six or seven significant collapses and subsequent flows have occurred since the
Mount Mazama ash of 6,845 ybp, including the Osceola, Round Pass, and Electon Mudflows (Bacon,
1983; Pringle et al., 1994). Mudflow hazard is enhanced by the mountains steep, glacially carved slopes,
hydrothermally altered core, active hydrothermal system, bedding dipping down-slope, and frequency of
tectonic and magmatic pulses that characterize the mountain (Pringle et al., 1994). Recent efforts have
been made to map hydrothermally altered materials using remotely sensed data and field mapping
(Crowley and Zimbelman, 1997).
Postglacial deposits at Mt. Rainier are dominated by debris flows. The lahars have been divided into two
classes, clay-rich cohesive flows and noncohesive (Scott et al., 1992). Cohesive flows contain more than
3% clay-sized particles and tend to travel a great distance (>100 km). These flows are generally attributed
to non-eruptive failure of the mountain’s hydrothermally altered flanks. They can be triggered by seismic
events or slope failure. Noncohesive flows have less then 3% clay-size particles. These flows are
generated by flood surges triggered by eruptions. These flows often transform from debris flows, proximal
to the mountain, to hyperconcentrated flows (lahar-runout flows), distal from their source (Palmer et al.,
1991; Pringle and Palmer, 1992; Pringle et al., 1994).
The 5,600 ka Osceola Mudflow is the largest debris flow that has been identified. It had a volume of more
than 4 km3 , inundating at least 485 km2 , and flowing more than 110 km down the White River drainage to
the Puget Sound. The Electron Mudflow has been dated at 530 ybp appears to have been induced by a
failure of part of the western slope and incorporated 0.26km3 of material (Scott et al., 1992).
Kautz Creek has been inundated by recurrent debris flows from glacial outburst floods and precipitationinduced glacier collapse over the past 200 years. The largest historic debris flow occurred October 2nd and
3rd, 1947. This flow was initiated by intense precipitation and collapse near the terminus of the Kautz
Glacier (Richardson, 1968; Scott and Vallance, 1995). The Kautz lahar of 1947 moved 0.4 km3 of debris
several miles downstream and redeposited it in a huge fan that temporarily blocked the Nisqually River.
Small outburst debris flows also occurred during the summers of 1985 and 1986 (Pringle et al., 1994).
Tahoma Creek has been the site of numerous debris flows during the past 100 years. Glacial outburst
floods have been triggered by periods of hot weather and intense precipitation events (Walder and
Driedger, 1994; Scott and Vallance, 1995). The Tahoma Glacier debris avalanche occurred between 1910
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and 1927. This avalanche originated as a collapse of clay-rich, hydrothermally altered rock at the head of
the Sunset Amphitheater and ran down the South Puyallup River, the drainage just to the north of Tahoma
Creek (Crandell, 1971; Frank, 1985, Scott and Vallance, 1995). A debris avalanche in 1963 lead to the
closing of a campground and subsequent debris flows down Tahoma Creek in 1986, 1990, 1991, and 1992
washed out sections of the Westside Road. The typical debris flow involves a few tens of thousands of
cubic meters of material. A cohesive lahar deposit, the Tahoma lahar, has been constrained to between
1479 AD and 1530 AD (Pringle et al., 1994; Crandell, 1971). The depth of the flow was between 27 and
37 m near Fish Creek (3 kms north of our study area).
Figure 3. Surficial geology in and around the wetland study area. According to this map, acquired from the Park Service, the surficial
geology of the entire study area (outlined in red) is alluvium. Field mapping indicated a more varied landscape.
Geomorphology of the Study Site
A cursory examination of the surficial deposits and an understanding of the surficial processes that
occurred in this area have led to the following interpretation of the geomorphic development of the study
site. A more detailed investigation of these landforms is warranted but was beyond the scope of this
project.
The landforms in and around our study site have been categorized as (a) glacial till, (b) lahar deposits, (c)
colluvium, (d) fluviolacustrine, and (e) alluvium. Figure 4 shows the location of these sediments. We
suggest that the geologic history of this site involved:
• The proto-Nisqually glacier advanced during the Evans Creek Stade 19,000 years ago and
subsequent retreat starting around 15,000 ybp. The glacier stalled to the east of our study site
and a terminal moraine developed across the valley. This terminal moraine has been dissected
by the Nisqually River but the northern part of the moraine remains as a pair of ridges that
trend northwest (Figure 4).
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•
Colluvial deposits developed along the base of Tumtum Peak, at the base of the steep slopes
carved by the glacier.
•
Debris flows that moved down the Nisqually drainage encountered the moraine which acted
as a barrier to the flow. Some material went to the north of the moraine and the rest went to
the south, creating a berm between the river channel and the wetland. Debris flows down
Tahoma Creek created another berm that parallels that channel. These lahar deposits created
a topographic depression behind the moraine.
•
Streams drained into this depression, both from the north and the east. Fluvial sediments were
deposited in the channels, lacustrine deposits were deposited in the center of the depression
where open water existed, and deltaic deposits accumulated between. These have been
classified as fluviolacustrine.
•
The Nisqually River has maintained a channel south of the study area which contains young,
alluvial material.
Figure 4. Surficial geology of the Kautz-Tahoma wetland area. A prominent ridge of glacial till bounds the eastern side of the
wetland. Surficial geology found in Surface geology.shp.
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Topographic Survey
Digital Elevation Models (DEM)
The Kautz-Tahoma wetland straddles two USGS 7.5 minute quadrangles, Sawtooth Ridge and Wahpenayo
Peak (figure 5). Three DEMs were acquired for these quadrangles:
Pixel Size
Source
30 meter
10 meter
Downloaded from http://duff.geology.washington.edu/mdbrg/data/index.htmlSawtoo30, Wahpen30
Downloaded from http://duff.geology.washington.edu/mdbrg/data/index.htmlSawtoo10, Wahpen10
File Name
Figure 5: Location of the Sawtooth Ridge and Wahpenayo Peak quadrangles
None of the DEMs were accurate enough to show a prominent ridge (25 meters high) that extended into
the northeast part of our study area; requiring us to undertake a topographic survey in order to create our
own, more accurate DEM (see next section). The 10-meter DEMs (Sawtooth Ridge, Wahpenayo Peak,
Mount Wow, Mt. Rainier West) were used to delineate the watershed that contributes to the studied
wetland.
Autolevel Survey
In order to assess the topographic variations of the Kautz-Tahoma wetland, specifically the western study
site, a detailed autolevel survey was conducted in a 500 meter by 500 meter grid. A north-south baseline
was established along the eastern margin of the survey grid and transects were completed from east to west
off the baseline every 100 meters. The baseline and first transect (00) were surveyed using a redundant
method so that data for two independent topographic cross sections could be compared and the precision of
the method could be assessed. Figure 6 shows the results of these redundant surveys. These surveys
indicate that students were able to reproduce the autolevel surveys to within two meters although the
baseline survey shows a consistent 2.5 meter offset starting at 225 meters (survey 2 elevated relative to
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survey 1 beyond this point). A survey error also occurred on the 300 transect. Between 106 and 116
meters the survey showed a negligible slope but in walking the traverse it is apparent that a consistent slope
exists through this region. To compensate for this error a correction was made that assumed a uniform
slope.
Relative Elevation of Baseline Survey
25
Baseline Transect 1
Baseline Transect 2
20
Relative Elevation (meters)
15
10
5
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
-5
Distance (meters)
Relative Elevation of 00 Traverse Survey
20
00 Transect 1
00 Transect 2
Relative Elevation (meters)
15
10
5
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
-5
-10
Distance (meters)
Figure 6. Two redundant autolevel traverses, one along the baseline (north-south), the other along the 00 traverse (east-west). These
show the reproducibility of the method. Other than a mistake at the 250-meter mark of the baseline traverse (which was corrected),
the surveys were very consistent.
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These elevation data were saved as a dbf file (Autolevel.dbf) from an Excel file (Autolevel.xls ).
Handlevel Survey
A handlevel and orthophoto were used to complete the topographic survey between the autolevel survey
transects and to constrain relative elevation changes in the relatively flat and open wetland region. The
handlevel elevation data points were tied into the autolevel survey grid, allowing a relative elevation value
to be recorded (relative to origin of the autolevel survey). These elevation data were imported and saved as
two shape files of elevation points (Relative elevation 2.shp, Relative elevation 3.shp). Figure 7 shows the
location of the handlevel elevation data and the autolevel elevation data.
Figure 7. Map of the wetland study area showing the locations of the elevation data points collected using handlevel and autolevel
methods. The 1-meter contours were created using these data.
Relative elevation DEM
The three files with relative elevation data for the wetland (Autolevel.shp, Relative elevation 2.shp,
Relative elevation 3.shp) were then used to create a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) using ESRI Spatial
Analyst. A shape file with all relative elevation data (Relative elevation total.shp) was used to create the
DEM (Interpolate grid). The extent of the DEM was limited to the surveyed grid and the pixel size of the
grid was 1 meter. The interpolation method was IDW Nearest Neighbor (6) with Power = 2 and no
barriers. The resulting DEM is RelElev (grid file).
Estimated accuracy of relative data:
In the open wetland +- 1.0 meter
In the forested lowlands +- 2.0 meter
In the forested uplands +- 5.0 meter
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Establishing Absolute Elevation
A GPS (Trimble GeoExplorer), digital altimeter, and an analog altimeter were used to define the absolute
elevation of the elevation survey. The digital and analog altimeters were calibrated at a benchmark located
on the bridge over Tahoma Creek, approximately 800 meters from the center of our study area. The
elevation of Site 3 (near center of the wetland) for the digital and analog altimeters was 657 m and 649 m
respectively. Three-dimensional GPS data were collected from the benchmark and several sites within the
study area. The vertical component of these data was very inconsistent (variations of up to 20 m at the
benchmark). Because of the significant differences in absolute elevation using these three methods, an
absolute correction was not made to the relative elevation data.
Coordinates
E-W
N-S
Determining Absolute Elevation of 00-00
585,295
5,176,650
This is based on GPS locations within the study area (especially in the open area) and interpretation of the orthophoto.
Digital altimeter calibrated at benchmark (2147ft)
00-00 elevation 2183 ft.
655.3 m
Site 3 elevation 2129 ft
648.9 m
Site 4 elevation 2137 ft
651.3 m
Site 1 elevation 2142 ft
652.8 m
Analog and digital altimeters
Site 4 elevation
Site 5 elevation
Site 3 elevation
657 m
657 m
657 m
GPS
Benchmark elevation (2147 ft = 654.4 m)
GPS = 706.9 m from geoid
geoid correction 654.4 – 706.9 = -52.5 meters
Site 2 elevation
686.6 – 52.5 = 634.1 m
Site 3 elevation
656.0 – 52.5 = 603.5 m
Site 4 elevation
669.4 – 52.5 = 616.9 m
Site 5 elevation
686.5 – 52.5 = 634.0 m
13
Orthophoto Registration and Rectification
In order to aid in the wetland survey and delineation, two digital orthophotos were obtained, one from Mt.
Rainier National Park (Darin Swinney) and the other from the Washington State Department of Natural
Resources (DNR). Neither of these digital orthophotos had the resolution necessary to identify individual
trees or features such as beaver dams and downed logs. In order to obtain a high-resolution orthophoto of
the study area, a 1:12,000 scale orthophoto from DNR was digitized. This photo was taken in 1996 and
was digitized with a flatbed scanner at 2400 dpi. This resulted in a pixel size of 13 cm (5 inches)*.
The digitized image was rectified using thirteen (Trimble GeoExplorer) GPS registration points from the
wetland area. The location of these registration points can be seen in figure 8. The registration points that
were selected were easily distinguishable on the orthophoto and represented very precise spatial features
such as downed logs that crossed, snags, stumps, and distinctive shorelines. The horizontal precision of the
registration points ranged from 0.73 to 1.91 meters (see Georec2-utm.shp). ArcInfo was used to rectify the
image, and the registration information is described below.
Registration and Rectification Data
Scale (x,y) = (0.154, 0.151) Rotation = 0.431 degrees
RMS error (image, cover) = (24.250, 3.709)
Link Evaluation: [in coverage coordinates]
Registration information taken directly from Arc/Info.
*The scale of the photo was 1:12,000 (1 inch = 1000 ft.), at a scan resolution of 2400 dpi, 1 pixel = 0.43 ft or 5 inches (13 cm).
The high resolution rectified image, Tahoma2400, was used extensively as a base map for work done in the
wetland.
14
Figure 8. Location of registration points in wetland study area used to rectify the orthophoto.
15
Hydrology
Climate and Precipitation
The weather patterns of Mt. Rainier are influenced by the Pacific Ocean, elevation, and aspect. Humid air
masses coming from the west are forced over the mountain, generating considerable orographic
precipitation. During the winter, precipitation is dominantly snow at the higher elevations (greater than
5,000 feet), but rain in the low elevations of the Nisqually River valley. Climate data from Longmire,
approximately 4.5 kms east and 80 meters higher in elevation, is representative of the climate in our study
area. Table 1 contains precipitation, snow fall, and temperature data collected at Longmire between 1979
and 2000. This part of the Nisqually River valley experiences moderate temperature fluctuations, with an
average minimum of 26.1 F in December to an average maximum of 74.1 F in August. There are distinct
seasonal fluctuations in precipitation, with a very wet Fall and Winter and drought conditions in the
summer (Figure 9).
Table 1. Longmire Climate
Precipitation in inches
Jan
Feb
average
10.56 9.18
sd
5.42
4.56
minimum
0.86
0.53
maximum
21.67 18.91
March
6.82
3.11
1.80
15.31
Snow fall in inches
July August Sept
average
0.00
0.00
0.00
std dev
0.00
0.00
0.00
minimum
0.00
0.00
0.00
maximum
0.00
0.00
0.00
Temperature in Fahrenheit
Jan
Feb
average max 36.7
40.4
average min 26.4
26.9
April May June July August Sept
6.33 4.51 3.83 1.96
1.50
3.89
2.35 2.01 2.31 1.50
1.06
2.52
2.42 1.22 0.80 0.03
0.05
0.04
10.75 9.67 9.20 5.97
3.40
7.92
Oct
7.50
4.44
0.20
16.00
Nov
13.59
5.80
3.68
28.49
Dec
11.48
4.69
2.89
21.62
March April
18.34 11.57
16.92 6.97
0.00
2.00
49.50 29.80
May
1.23
2.82
0.00
12.50
June
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Nov
41.8
30.7
Dec
35.8
26.1
Oct
1.45
3.53
0.00
14.00
Nov
15.45
16.17
0.00
68.00
Dec
30.59
24.28
0.80
79.80
Jan
Feb
29.71 27.17
25.97 26.57
0.00
4.00
73.40 103.10
March April
46
51.2
29.5
32.4
May
58.7
37.9
June
65.3
42.7
July August Sept
72.7
74.1
68.3
47.1
47
42.5
Oct
56
36.2
Historical Climate data from Longmire collected between 1979 and 2000. These data were downloaded from the Western Regional
Climate Center (www.wrcc.dri.edu/index.html) and can be found in Longmire P&S DATA.xls.
During our study year (May 1999 – April 2000), there was a significant decrease in precipitation during the
late Summer and early Fall (3 – 6 inches/month) and precipitation was greater than normal during the
Winter (figure 9). There was a much higher than normal snow fall during the month of January but these
snow events melted quite rapidly, leaving very little accumulated snow pack (figure 10). The drought
conditions would have caused unusually low ground and surface water levels in the wetland area.
Especially since the previous water year (1997 – 1998) had only 69 inches of precipitation, less than the
average 81 inches. Wet conditions during the Winter would have caused near maximum inundation to the
wetland.
16
Precipitation at Longmire
Precipitation (inches)
20.00
18.00
average
16.00
study year
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
May
1 June
2 July
3 Aug
4
Sept
5
Oct
6
Nov
7
Dec
8
Jan
9
Feb
10 March
11 April
12
Month
Figure 9: Precipitation data from Longmire. The average precipitation (and standard deviation) is based on ten years of precipitation
data (1979-1999). The year that we conducted our study (1999-2000) had significantly less than normal rainfall in the late Summer
and early Spring. The precipitation data includes both rain and snowfall. Data was downloaded from the Western Regional Climate
Center (www.wrcc.dri.edu/index.html).
Snow Fall at Longmire
Snow (inches)
80.00
70.00
average (1979-1999)
60.00
study year
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
May1 June2 July
3 Aug
4 Sept
5 Oct6 Nov
7 Dec
8 Jan
9
10 March
11 April
12
Feb
Month
Figure 10: Snow fall data from Longmire. The average snow fall (and standard deviation) is based on ten years of precipitation data
(1979-1999). Data was downloaded from the Western Regional Climate Center (www.wrcc.dri.edu/index.html).
17
Drainage Basin
The Drainage basin for the entire region between Kautz Creek and Tahoma Creek was delineated using
Hydrologic Modeling v. 1.1 with a minimum watershed size of 1000 cells. The model ran on a 10-m DEM
that was created by merging the Sawtooth Ridge quad and the Wahpenayo Peak quadrangles. The total
drainage basin shape file (watershed.shp) was created by digitizing the results of the model, combining all
drainage basins that fed into the area south of the highway and between the two creeks. The total area of
the drainage basin is 340 hectares, the study area makes up 25 of those hectares (7.4%).
The drainage basin is characterized by a steep headwall to the north, on the flanks of Tumtum peak, and a
very low gradient foot in the Nisqually River valley (figure 11). A series of wetlands and streams drain
into the wetland studied, flowing parallel but north of the Nisqually River.
Figure 11. Location of the wetland study area and the watershed that contains it. This watershed is north of the
Nisqually River and between Kautz Creek and Tahoma Creek. The roads are red.
Ground and Surface Water
Groundwater elevation was monitored at several locations throughout the winter. Shallow piezometer
wells were installed using a hand auger. The wells consisted of 2-inch pvc pipe, capped at both ends. The
bottom three-feet of the pipe was screened by drilling ¼-inch holes at 2-inch intervals. Fluctuations in the
water table were recorded in two ways, (1) pressure transducers and data loggers were installed in some
wells, and (2) weekly water-level measurements were recorded at 5 different wells.
18
Figure 12. Location of the piezometers used to monitor water table elevation. The orientation of the hydrologic profile (Figure 14) is
also indicated. The blue indicates regions that are permanently inundated.
Weekly measurements were taken from the five wells indicated on the map in figure 12. A water-level
light sensor was used with a tape measure divided into 0.01 of inches. Table 2 contains summary water
level data, and Figure 13 shows the changes in water table elevation over the winter at the five sites
measured. As indicated, there was very little variation in the groundwater (Sites 4, 5, 6, 7) and even less in
surface water (Site 3).
Rain events produce a rapid response in water table elevation, but as surface water discharge from the
wetland increases to compensate for the added load, the water table drops back toward equilibrium
conditions. Short-term equilibrium conditions are controlled by:
• Surface water influx from streams, primarily from the north.
• Direct precipitation influx.
• Level of surface water impoundment by beaver activity (discussed later).
• Surface water discharge from the wetland.
Mean water level
Standard deviation
Minimum level
Maximum level
Site 4
-4.36 m
0.165
-4.03
-4.77
Site 5
-5.26 m
0.174
-5.07
-5.66
Site 6
-6.07 m
0.119
-5.78
-6.38
Site 7
-12.44 m
0.027
-12.41
-12.48
Site 3
-6.46 m
0.044
-6.36
-6.52
Table 2. Summary water depth data for the Kautz-Tahoma wet land. Raw data can be found in Biogeochemistry.xls.
The low hydraulic gradient and high connectivity with surface water helps reduce the water table
fluctuation, both during short-term storm events and seasonally. The water table remained within
centimeters of the land surface throughout the wetland and only fluctuated 0.74 meters along the margin
19
(Site 4). Because of this shallow water table, surface and groundwater are intimately related, and water
readily moves between these two reservoirs. Excess water tends to leave the system through surface water
discharge, although the flow of surface water has been severely altered by beaver activity. Groundwater
provides a source, particularly during the summer and fall, when there is limited surface water recharge of
the wetland and decreased precipitation.
Depending on the season, this wetland acts as a groundwater recharge zone and surface water recharge
zone. During the wet season, the water table is above, or near, ground surface level and the shallow,
unconfined aquifer is recharged (figure 14). Once the water table has risen, infiltration is reduced and there
is increased overland flow and surface water drainage of the wetland. As precipitation decreases during the
summer and fall, the water table starts to drop and surface water discharge also decreases. Baseflow
maintains some discharge in the primary streams both entering and leaving the wetland. The drop in the
water table allows rapid infiltration during the occasional precipitation event.
Relative Water Levels
Based on Origin of Autolevel Survey Grid
Site 3
Site 4
Site 6
Site 7
Site 5
0.00
-2.00
Elevation (meters)
-4.00
-6.00
-8.00
-10.00
-12.00
-14.00
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Figure 13. Changes in water table elevation between October and May of 1999-2000. Ground surface elevation for each location is
drawn as a line. Raw data can be found in Biogeochemistry.xls.
20
Figure 14. Hydrologic profile across the wetland from the southwest to northeast. The water table
remained at or near the ground level throughout the monitoring period. The topographic profile was generated by the
Avenue script, Profiler. The inferred water table is constrained by four wells and surface inundation. The piezometer data
was collected on December 2, 1999. Water level data and profile elevation data can be found in Biogeochemistry.xls.
Subsurface movement of water is probably very important in transferring water out of the basin,
particularly during the dry season. Ground water discharge rates were not addressed in this project, but a
“back of the envelope” calculation can be made to assess the magnitude of this flux. Using the Dupuit
equation for an unconfined aquifer (Fetter, 1994):
q’ = 0.5K[(h 2 2 – h 1 2 )/L]
Dupuit equation
Assuming a hydraulic conductivity (K) of 10-1 cm/s (a reasonable number for the silt, sandy silts, and till that probably underlay the
wetland) and the Nisqually River (- 23.0 m) as the base datum for the head elevations.
The discharge would be 3.4x10-4 m2 /s per unit width of the aquifer. Assuming the groundwater discharge
occurs along 1000 m (two sides of our grid), the total discharge over that kilometer would be 12.0 cfs. This
would be in the range of average annual discharge considering all of the precipitation that falls on the
drainage basin that feeds the wetland (Table 3). This is not an attempt to quantify the subsurface flow, but
it does suggest that subsurface flow may be just as important as surface drainage in terms of transferring
water out of (and in to) the wetland.
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
July
August
Sept
Total
Volume 3.1+E7 1.9+E7 1.6+E7 1.2+E7 1.5+E7 1.0+E7 8.8+E6 3.8+E6 2.7+E6 2.4+E7 4.5+E7 4.1+E7 2.3+E8
Ave. Dis. 11.89
7.88
6.09
4.69
5.74
3.90
3.30
1.43
1.07
9.21 17.42 15.54
7.35
Table 3. Volume of precipitation (in cubic feet) that fell on the drainage basin that feeds the wetland (340 Ha) based on an average
precipitation. The Average Discharge (Ave. Dis) is the discharge (in cfs) that is needed to transport that volume of water (Longmire
P&S Data.xls)
Beaver Activity
Beaver have been quite active in the wetland, particularly in the lower wetland where there is an extensive
system of dams, channels, dikes, and lodges. These structures impede the flow of surface water, especially
during between storm events when water levels are below the top of the dams. Location of some of the
major beaver structures can be found in Beaver.shp.
21
Biogeochemistry
Precipitation, surface water, and ground water quality were monitored regularly through the study period in
order to assess some of the biogeochemical cycling that is occurring in the wetland. The following data
were collected:
Air Temperature
pH
Nitrates
Water Temperature
Total Dissolved Solids
Dissolved Oxygen
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Calculator Based Labs (CBLs) made by Texas Instruments were used with Texas Instruments graphic
calculators (TI-89). The probes used were made by Vernier and complete specifications can be found at
http://www.vernier.com. Complete description of methods can be found in Appendix A.
Precipitation was collected in two locations in the wetland, one collection site was in the red alder stand
(Site 6) and the other was in the open scrub-shrub region of the wetland (Site 3). The quality of the
precipitation was, as expected, quite pristine. The precipitation was slightly acidic and had extremely low
conductivity and nitrate levels. Summary water quality data for precipitation can be found in Table 4.
Site 6
Site 3
pH
Mean
6.65
6.80
Min
5.48
5.93
Max
7.79
7.82
TDS
Mean
1.22
1.94
Min
0.09
bd
Max
4.96
8.72
Nitrate
Mean
0.10
0.20
Min
0.02
0.01
Max
0.33
0.99
Table 4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and nitrate concentrations reported in ppm, bd = below detection. Raw data can be found in
Biogeochemistry.xls.
Surface and ground water was also collected from September to May. Surface water was collected at sites
1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 & 9 and ground water was sampled at sites 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7 (Figure 15). Surface water was
collected in precontaminated (rinsed with water to be sampled) 500 ml poly bottles from standing water
(sites 3 & 7) and flowing water (sites 1, 2, 5 & 8). Ground water was collected using a bailer in 2-inch pvc
wells. Samples were stored in a cool environment and chemical analysis were completed within 5 hours of
collection. A complete table of the water quality data can be found in the Excel file, Biogeochemistry.xls .
22
Figure 15. Sample sites in the Kautz-Tahoma wetland. Surface water was sampled at sites 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, & 9. Ground water was
sampled at sites 3, 4, 5, 6, & 7. Precipitation wa s collected at sites 6 and 3.
Air and Water Temperature
The temperature of stream water is also an important water quality parameter. Temperature influences the
rate of reactions (photosynthesis) and the solubility of gases (dissolved oxygen). Shade is very important to
the health of a stream or wetland because of the warming influences of direct sunlight. Air temperature
also affects water temperature; seasonal and daily air temperature fluctuations is often reflected in the
temperature of surface water. Temperature also influences the metabolic rates of ectotherms. As
temperature increases, metabolic reactions increase and with decreased temperature metabolic rates are
retarded. This can significantly affect the incubation rate of eggs.
The measured air temperature ranged from 20.4 C (March 4th ) down to –0.3 C (January 28th ). As expected,
air temperature fluctuated considerably. Water temperature ranged from 16.0 C (September 24th ) to 0 C
(January 14th ). Surface water experienced more severe fluctuations than ground water (Figure 16). A
general trend can be seen; air temperature dropped quickly with significant fluctuations during the winter
months. Surface water temperatures followed this trend with a slight lag time and reduced fluctuations.
Ground water temperature followed surface water temperature with another lag interval and even less
fluctuations due to the insolative properties of the soil. The opposite trend is seen in the spring, air
temperature is the first to rise, again with significant fluctuations, followed by surface water and finally
ground water.
This lag in water temperature appears to be driven by both the seasonal air temperature variations and
rainfall. Rainfall (and snowfall) during the cold winter months would bring cold-water recharge into both
the surface and ground water systems. Since surface water responds more rapidly to precipitation recharge,
the temperature lag time would be less than ground water. Temperature of surface and ground water is
regulated by both convection (recharge) and conduction.
23
Air and Water Temperature at Sites 1 & 4
14
Air Temperature
12
Water Temperature
Ground Water Temperature
Temperature (C)
10
8
6
4
2
0
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Figure 16. Air and surface water temperature from site 1 and ground water temperature from site 4.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Oxygen gas dissolved in water (DO) is vital to the existence of most aquatic organisms. Oxygen is a key
component in cellular respiration for both aquatic and terrestrial life. As a result of photosynthesis and
respiration, DO levels may fluctuate during the day, rising throughout the morning and reaching a peak in
the afternoon. At night photosynthesis ceases, but plants and animals continue to respire, causing a
decrease in DO levels. Large fluctuations in dissolved oxygen levels over a short period of time may be the
result of an algal bloom. While the algae population is growing at a fast rate, dissolved oxygen levels
increase. Soon the algae begin to die and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria, which use up the oxygen.
As greater number of algae die, the oxygen requirement of the anaerobic decomposers increases, resulting
in a sharp drop in dissolved oxygen levels. Following an algal bloom, oxygen levels can be so low that fish
and other aquatic organisms suffocate and die.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen (or the oxygen saturation deficit) is frequently used as an index for
water quality. Dissolved oxygen enters water by diffusion from the atmosphere. By increasing the
water/atmosphere interface or the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere, the rate of diffusion can be
increased and the dissolved oxygen content of the water will likewise go up. The maximum amount of
dissolved oxygen (saturation) is dependent on the temperature of the water and atmospheric pressure. As
the water temperature decreases, the maximum concentration of dissolved oxygen increases. When
assessing dissolved oxygen content of a stream, the level must be compared to the saturation level for water
at the streams temperature.
Dissolved oxygen data was collected for both surface and ground water. Prior to analysis, water samples
were stored in poly bottles that were sealed without any air bubbles. Since saturation levels for dissolved
oxygen are a function of both temperature and partial pressure (altitude), the DO probes were calibrated in
the field and samples were analyzed within four hours of collection.
The level of dissolved oxygen in the ground water is significantly less than the concentration in surface
water, particularly in the wetland proper (sites 4, 5, 6 & 7). Lack of contact with the atmosphere, slow
recharge and discharge, and a high organic content in the subsurface are the reasons for this disparity.
When the dissolved oxygen data are represented as percent saturation using the saturation curve in Figure
17, surface water is consistently 30% higher than groundwater throughout our study interval (figure 18).
24
Figure 17. Dissolved oxygen saturation relative
to temperature at 700 mm Hg atmospheric
pressure. This is approximately equivalent to an
altitude of 2500 feet. The equation used to
calculate saturation levels at various temperatures
is included.
Dissolved Oxygen Saturation
14
13
2
y = 0.0042x - 0.3318x + 13.372
2
R = 0.9998
DO (ppm)
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Temperature (C)
Organic material is broken down by aerobic bacteria and dissolved oxygen is consumed. The high organic
content of the wetland subsurface results in depressed dissolved oxygen levels in the ground water, which
in turn retards organic decomposition. This dynamic equilibrium between dissolved oxygen flux and
organic degradation has been well documented in wetlands, and anoxic soils are recognized an indicator of
saturated soils. The flux of dissolved oxygen into the ground water is directly related to ground water flux
(and temperature).
Dissolved Oxygen Percent Saturation
100.00
Average Surface Water
90.00
Average Ground Water
80.00
Percent Saturation
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Figure 18. Average percent saturation of dissolved oxygen for both ground and surface water. Surface water values are consistently
approximately 30% higher than groundwater. The disparity between the surface water values and ground water values appears to be
greater prior to the winter rains and after the winter rains, when water quantity and recharge rates are lower.
25
When there is a high rate of exchange between surface and ground water, ground water dissolved oxygen
levels will be elevated. During periods of low exchange (stagnant) ground water dissolved oxygen levels
will fall. This relationship can be seen in the Kautz-Tahoma wetland. During the rainy months (October
through February), the difference between average surface and ground water dissolved oxygen decreases,
and in the dryer months (when recharge decreases) the disparity increases (Figure 18).
The high organic content of the soils (histosols) would quickly exhaust the dissolved oxygen in the ground
water due to aerobic decomposition. Since diffusion of oxygen into soil is an extremely slow process, if
the wetland ground water was stagnant it would become anoxic and remain so (Lyon, 1993). Ground water
was sampled at relatively shallow levels (within a half meter of the water table) but throughout the study
interval, including the period prior to the Fall rains, ground water never reached anoxic conditions. The
minimum dissolved oxygen levels measured was 1.0 mg/l at site 7, but average ground water levels were
between 2 mg/l and 6 mg/l (Figure 19). This suggests that even during dry periods, there is still significant
exchange between surface and shallow ground water. Due to the structure of the wetland (gradient from
north to south), shallow ground water exchanges with surface water much more frequently than deeper
ground water flow. It is also recharged by precipitation infiltration (vertical recharge). This keeps the
dissolved oxygen level relatively high, avoiding true anoxic conditions.
26
Difference between surface and ground water DO
60.00
50.00
Percent DO
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Precipitation
16
14
Precipitation (inches)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
Sept
1
O c2t
Nov
3
Dec
4
Jan
5
Feb
6
March
7
April8
May9
10
Month
Figure 19. Upper plot shows difference in percent dissolved oxygen between surface and ground water in the Kautz-Tahoma
wetlands. Average DO values for ground water sites 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7 were subtracted from the average DO values for the surface water
sites 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 & 9. Lower plot is the total monthly precipitation for the same study interval. The difference in DO levels
decreased during the rainy Winter months and increased in the dryer months of the Fall and Spring. This suggests an increase in
ground water recharge and discharge during the wet months.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The oxidation of organic matter results in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in a water body. Biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) is an expression of this organic material. This depletion in dissolved oxygen can be
detrimental to aerobic organisms such as fish. In wetlands, only vegetation that has adapted to saturated
soils and low DO will survive. Frequently, stagnate water bodies and wetlands become stratified with
respect to dissolved oxygen with the surface waters being saturated and deeper waters depleted or anoxic
(Johnson et al., 1999).
27
Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by biochemical processes
over a standard incubation time (5 days) and temperature (21 C). The dissolved oxygen is consumed by
aerobic bacteria as it decomposes organic material. The water samples are incubated in opaque bottles so
that photosynthesis, which increases DO, is negated.
BOD values ranged from 0 to 6.8 mg/l with average surface water values less than ground water values.
When compared to initial DO values (Figure 20), it is clear that BOD removes a more significant
proportion of the dissolved oxygen in the subsurface, driving ground water to more anoxic conditions. An
exception to this trend is found at site 3; samples taken from the open water in the center of the wetland
show very high BOD values in late Fall and again in the Spring (Figure 20). These high surface water
BOD values may be the result of warm water temperatures that facilitate aerobic metabolic processes.
Average Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Average Surface Water
Average Ground Water
Average Surface Water DO
Average Ground Water DO
Site 3
11.00
9.00
BOD (mg/l)
7.00
5.00
3.00
1.00
-1.00
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Figure 20. Average BOD for ground and surface water in the Kautz-Tahoma wetland. Average surface and ground water DO are also
shown to illustrate the greater proportion of ground water DO that is lost due to biochemical processes than surface water. Surface
water from Site 1 showed an unusual trend, with high BOD values in the Fall and Spring. This might be the result of elevated surface
water temperatures that promote increased aerobic metabolic processes in the water column.
pH
The pH of water is a measure of a single dissolved constituent, the hydrogen ion (H+) that is also referred to
as the hydronium ion (H3 O+). In most natural systems the pH of steam water is dependent upon how acidic
the precipitation is and the extent of subsequent neutralization. Acidification of precipitation (acid rain)
occurs when sulfur and/or nitrogen compounds are released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil
fuels (internal combustion engines and coal-powered electrical generators). These compounds dissolve in
precipitation (rain or snow) and are chemically converted to strong acids (sulfuric or nitric acid). Once
they reach the watershed, if they are not neutralized by soil/rock interactions, they reduce the pH of the
stream or lake water. Low pH can stress or kill aquatic flora and fauna. Natural acidification can occur
adjacent to fumeroles/hotsprings and in bogs and swamps.
pH is the negative log of the hydronium concentration. Neutral water has a pH of 7.0 at room temperature
(25°C), a higher pH represents a basic solution and a lower pH represents an acidic solution. Temperature
influences the extent that water dissociates, thus, at lower temperatures neutral solutions have a pH slightly
greater than 7.0 and at higher temperatures neutral solutions have a pH slightly less than 7.0. In nature, the
CO2 in the atmosphere will dissolve (in proportion to its partial pressure), producing a weak acid, carbonic
acid, and a precipitation pH of less than 7.
28
The pH values of both surface and ground water are very consistent, ranging from a maximum of 7.9 (site
2, surface) and a minimum of 5.3 (site 6, ground). Average daily values, as seen in Figure 21, show very
little variation over time and between ground and surface water. In fact, the pH values of the wetland water
are consistent with that of the precipitation.
Average pH
8.0
Average Surface Water
Average Ground Water
7.5
pH
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Figure 21. Average pH for surface and ground water in the Kautz-Tahoma wetlands.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
A variety of solids dissolve in water. These include simple salts like NaCl which produce the cations and
anions Na + and Cl- respectively as well as complex ions such as phosphate (PO4 3+), nitrate (NO3 -), sulfate
(SO4 2-), and bicarbonate (HCO3-). These solutes are picked up in the atmosphere and/or during rock/soil
interactions.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a common measure of water quality. Since the electrical conductivity of a
solution is proportional to the concentration of ions, a measure of the electrical conductivity of a water
sample can be used to measure the dissolved solids as well. Conductivity meters allow dissolved solids to
be measured in the field. Electrical conductivity increases as the quantity of ions (dissolved solids) in the
water increase. Conductivity and temperature data can be converted to concentration (mg/l).
The TDS data from both the surface and ground water shows a significant decrease (or dilution) when the
Winter precipitation begins (Figure 22). The flux of surface and ground water increases significantly and
the influx of precipitation with characteristically low TDS (1.2 mg/l) drives the surface and ground water
TDS down.
29
Site 1 surface
Total Dissolved Solids (Surface Water)
Site 2 surface
90.00
Site 3 surface
80.00
Site 5 surface
70.00
Site 7 surface
TDS (ppm)
60.00
Site 8 surface
50.00
Site 9 surface
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Total Dissolved Solids (Ground Water)
Site 3 ground
TDS (ppm)
90.0
Site 4 ground
80.0
Site 5 ground
70.0
Site 6 ground
60.0
Site 7 ground
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
8/28/1999
10/17/1999
12/6/1999
1/25/2000
3/15/2000
5/4/2000
6/23/2000
Date
Figure 22. Concentration of TDS in surface and ground water. Both charts show a distinct decrease in TDS during the wet, winter
months.
There appears to be a general trend of decreased TDS as the water progresses through the wetland. Both
the surface and ground water shows a steady decrease in dissolved solids from the principle tributary
stream (sites 1 & 2) to the outlet (site 9). Figure 22 shows that the concentration of dissolved solids in the
ground water decreases as you move down the hydraulic gradient. By the time the water reaches site 7,
TDS is down to less than 15 mg/l. The one exception to this trend is at site 3, the reason for this
anomalously high average value is not known. Similarly, surface water also shows a decrease in TDS as it
travels through the wetland. This decrease in dissolved solids is probably a function of the water source
and adsorption.
30
As water enters the wetland from stream flow (site 1) and subsurface flow (site 4) it has elevated TDS due
to chemical weathering of mineral soils. Once the water reaches the wetland the organic-rich substrate is a
poor source of ions and precipitation, a third source of water, dilutes the concentration of ions in both the
ground and surface water. This explains the consistent decrease in TDS as the water migrates away from
the surface water tributary and the margins of the wetland. Surface water TDS increases once the water
leaves the wetland (site 7) and ground water from mineral soils mix with the water from the wetland (sites
8 & 9).
Organics in soils (humic materials) have been recognized as having a high exchange capacity, specifically a
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of 100 – 500 meq/100g (Toth and Orr, 1970; Thurman, 1985; Langmuir,
1997). This CEC of the organic material is pH dependent because reactions are dominated by surface
charge imbalances, causing sorption and desporption on the material surface (Langmuir, 1997). The
sorption of ions onto organic material in the wetland soils is probably contributing to the decrease in TDS
as the ground and surface water flow through the Kautz-Tahoma wetland (figure 23). The consistently high
pH of the groundwater (near neutral) would only enhance the CEC of these soils.
Average Total Dissolved Solids
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
TDS (mg/l)
30.0
25.0
20.0
Ground Water
15.0
Surface Water
10.0
5.0
0.0
0
Site 1
1
Site 2
2
Site 4
3
Site 5
4
Site 6
5
Site 3
6
Site 7
7
Site 8
8
Site 9
9
10
Sites
Figure 23. This chart shows the progressive decrease in TDS in both ground and surface water as it flows through the Kautz-Tahoma
wetland. The sites are in order, from up - to down-gradient, but horizontal distance is not to scale.
Nitrates
Most nitrogen on earth is found in the form of atmospheric nitrogen gas, N2 (about 80% of air). Nitrate
(NO3 -) is a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants and animals to produce amino acids and proteins.
Since nitrate is commonly a limiting nutrient in aqueous environments, high nitrate concentrations can
initiate algal blooms and cause eutrophication. Unpleasant odor and taste of water, as well as increased
turbidity and decreased DO, often accompany this process. Although nitrate levels in freshwater are
usually less than 1 mg/l (ppm), anthropogenic sources of nitrate may elevate levels above 3 mg/l.
Nitrate levels were consistently low in both surface and ground water, ranging from 1.2 mg/l to nearly zero.
No trends in concentration levels were observed.
Discussion
Prior to a discussion of the biogeochemical data it should be reiterated that these data were collected by a
over 60 individuals, participants in the academic program, Introduction to Environmental Studies: Mt.
Rainier and these researchers had varying degrees of expertise with the probes and data loggers. Triplicate
31
samples were run occasionally in order to assess equipment reproducibility (precision) and the probes were
always recalibrated in the field with standards to increase accuracy but the day-to-day accuracy remains
questionable. Despite these limitations, the data collected in and around the Kautz-Tahoma wetland reveal
several interesting processes.
(a) Water quality of the wetlands, as well as entering and leaving the wetlands is extremely high.
(b) These data demonstrate the intimate relationship between water quality and water quantity.
(c) The pH of the waters is extremely consistent, even in the organic-rich, less-oxic soils of the
wetland.
(d) There is a consistent decrease in the concentration of dissolved load as water passes through
the Kautz-Tahoma wetland.
Based on the water quality parameters that we monitored (temperature, pH, DO, TDS, BOD, and nitrates),
precipitation, ground and surface water in and around the Kautz-Tahoma wetland remained in a pristine
state throughout the late fall, winter, and early spring. Precipitation showed no evidence of significant
strong acids. Both surface and ground water conditions remained stable throughout the study interval,
providing exceptional conditions for flora and fauna of the Kautz-Tahoma wetland.
Because all of the water quality parameters (other than temperature) are measured as concentrations, there
is an intimate relationship between water quantity and water quality. Prior to the wet season, baseflow was
the dominant source of both surface water and shallow ground water in the wetland. This “low flow”
period produced water chemistry with relatively high TDS, a characteristic consistent with a mineral soil
source. DO also increased in the shallow ground water because there was increased recharge from surface
water during the winter. The change in the quantity of water flowing into the wetland, and the change in
source (base flow, interflow, runoff, and precipitation) is reflected in changes in water chemistry in the
wetland.
The pH of all water tested, particularly the ground water, remained very consistent throughout the study
interval. The pH of the shallow ground water remained close to neutral, despite the high organic content of
the histosols in the wetland. The buffering of the pH within the soils is very important in providing a
chemical environment that promotes sorption of ions on the humic material. Fluctuations in pH would
significantly affect sorption/desorption reactions and the progressive decrease in TDS as water passed
through the wetland would not have been observed.
32
Classification of Wetland Habitats
Wetlands are defined as those lands that form a transition between true aquatic systems and terrestrial
uplands. These areas are characterized by a water table that is at or near the land surface for a significant
part of the year. The classification of the Kautz-Tahoma wetland was done using the methods described by
the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Cowardin et al., 1979) and are based on the type of wetland habitat.
This classification system is based on plants, soils, and frequency of flooding; wetlands are designated by
one or more of the following attributes (Cowardin et al., 1979):
(1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes.
(2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil.
(3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time
during the growing season of each year.
Two systems were identified in the Kautz-Tahoma system, Palustrine and Riverine. The following is a
Cowardin’s definition, description, and limits of these two systems.
Palustrine Systems
Definition: The palustrine system includes all nontidal wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs,
persistent emergents, emergent mosses and lichens, and all such wetlands that occur in tidal areas
where salinity due to ocean-derived salts is below 0.5%. It also includes wetlands lacking such
vegetation, but with all of the following four characteristics: (1) area less than 8 ha (20 acres); (2)
active wave-forming or bedrock shoreline features lacking; (3) water depth in the deepest part of
basin less than 2 m at low-water; and (4) salinity due to ocean-derived salts less than 0.5%.
Description: The palustrine system was developed to group the vegetated wetlands traditionally
called by such names as march, swamp, bog, fen, and prairie, which are found throughout the
United States. It also includes the small, shallow, permanent or intermittent water bodies often
called ponds. Palustrine wetlands may be situated shoreward of lakes, river channels, or estuaries;
on river floodplains; in isolated catchments; or on slopes. The may also occur as islands in lakes
or rivers. The erosive forces of wind and water are of minor importance except during severe
floods.
Limits: The palustrine system is bounded by uplands or by any of the other four systems.
Riverine Systems
Definition: The riverine system includes all wetlands and deepwater habitats contained within a
channel, with two exceptions: (1) wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergents,
emergent mosses, or lichens, and (2) habitats with water containing oceanderived salts in excess of
0.5%. A channel is “an open conduit either naturally or artificially created which periodically or
continuously contains moving water, or which forms a connection link between two bodies of
standing water” (Langbein and Iseri, 1960).
Description: Water is usually, but not always, flowing in the riverine system. Upland islands or
palustrine wetlands may occur in the channel, but they are not included in the riverine system.
palustrine Moss-Lichen Wetlands, Emergent Wetlands, Scrub-Shrub Wetlands, and Forested
Wetlands may occur adjacent to the riverine system, often on a floodplain.
Limits: The riverine system is bounded on the landward side by upland, by the channel bank
(including natural and man-made levees), or by wetland dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent
emergents, emergent mosses, or lichens. In braided streams, the system is bounded by the banks
forming the outer limits of the depression within which the braiding occurs. The riverine system
terminates at the downstream end where the concentration of ocean-derived salts in the water
exceeds 0.5% during the period of annual average low flow, or where the channel enters a lake. It
terminates at the upstream end where tributary streams originate, or where the channel leaves a
lake. Springs discharging into a channel are considered part of the riverine system.
33
The Kautz-Tahoma wetland is dominated by palustrine systems, with riverine systems limited to streams
that enter and leave the wetland. The classification system is hierarchical, progressing from systems and
subsystems, to classes, subclasses, and dominance types. For a summary of the various fields used for
classifying these two systems see Appendix B.
Figure 24. shows the classes that were identified. It is bound by uplands to the east and south and has a
roughly concentric structure. The margin is dominated by a forested wetland containing a combination of
Red Cedar, Hemlock, and Red Alder. A scrub-shrub wetland borders the forested wetland in most places,
and this gives way to an emergent wetland. The core of the wetland system is a series of open water ponds
that are controlled by beaver activity. The open water (unconsolidated bottom and aquatic bed) can be
further split into an upper and lower system. The upper system consists of a series of three ponds that trend
northwest-southeast and the lower system contains a series of smaller ponds located in the south central
part of the study area. All of the ponds were created and maintained by beaver activity but the lower
system contains a significant number of snags, suggesting the impoundment of surface water has been more
recent.
Figure 24. Classification of the Kautz-Tahoma wetland based on the Cowardin system. This map shows the extent of the classes of
the Riverine and Palustrine systems (Aquatic Bed, Emergent, Forested, Scrub-Shrub, and Unconsolidated Bottom are classes of the
Palustrine system and Unconsolidated Bottom is also a class of the Riverine system). This classification can be found in the ArcView
theme, Wetlands.shp.
34
Wetland Genesis
This wetland developed in the Nisqually River valley through a series of geological and biological events.
This interpretation is based on observations made in the wetland and from aerial photos, further work on
the surficial geology is needed to test this hypothesis. The wetland genesis is summarized below.
(1) The proto-Nisqually glacier advanced during the Evans Creek Stade 19,000 years ago and
subsequent retreat starting around 15,000 ybp. The glacier stalled to the east of our study site and
a terminal moraine developed across the valley. This terminal moraine has been dissected by the
Nisqually River but the northern part of the moraine remains as a pair of ridges that trend
northwest (Figure 4).
(2) Debris flows that moved down the Nisqually drainage encountered the moraine that acted as a
barrier to the flow. Some material may have been diverted to the north of the moraine and the rest
went to the south, creating a levee between the river channel and the wetland.
(3) Debris flows down Tahoma Creek created another levee that parallels that channel. These lahar
deposits created a topographic depression behind the moraine.
(4) Stream drained into this depression, both from the north and the east. Fluvial sediments were
deposited in the channels, lacustrine deposits were deposited in the center of the depression where
open water existed, and deltaic deposits accumulated between.
(5) Periodically the river levees were probably breached by discharge from the wetland but
subsequent debris flows may have maintained a dynamic equilibrium between this breaching and
rebuilding.
(6) Beaver activity has maintained open water palustrine wetlands within the wetland even when the
discharge had eroded the debris flow deposits that bound the wetland. This activity has been very
dynamic, impounding surface water in different places at various times during the wetland history.
35
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37