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Most Esteemed Delegates,
It is our utmost pleasure and honor to welcome you to the NYUMUNC VIII Contemporary
China committee!
My name is Amara Thomas, and I will be the Chair for this glorious committee. I am a junior on
the pre-med track, majoring in Spanish and minoring in Chemistry and Global Public Health. I
had been involved in MUN in high school, and decided in my first year here at NYU to continue
developing my love for debate through NYU’s Model United Nations. That being said, I hope to
see engaging discussion!
Our Crisis Director, Yun-Da Tsai, is a sophomore majoring in International Relations and
minoring in Chemistry. He, too, has been involved in MUN since his first-year. His extensive
interests in Chinese-Taiwanese relations and his meticulous background research has enabled us
to prepare crises that emulate realistic scenarios for the country.
Expect to explore a unique and factionally divided simulation of an otherwise one Party state.
Prepare yourselves, especially by keeping a sharp eye on the news. In this day and age, no one
can deny China’s prominence in international debate. If not only to ready yourselves for the
conference, monitor the news simply to be aware of shifts in the world occurring around you!
This, too, will be crucial should the committee choose to interact extensively with its JCC
partners: Australia, India, Japan, Myanmar and Thailand.
If you have any questions, do not hesitate to ask. Feel free to email. During the conference, we
will be here to guide you happily from the frontroom and the backroom.
We look forward to seeing the culmination of your work, and highly anticipate productive
debate.
Sincerely,
Amara Thomas
Chair, Contemporary China
NYUMUNC VIII
[email protected]
Yun-Da Tsai
Crisis Director, Contemporary China
NYUMUNC VIII
[email protected]
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History
ruthless political campaigns designed to
silence those perceived as political enemies:
war criminals, bureaucratic capitalists,
counterrevolutionaries and corrupt leaders.
Mao then proceeded to attack artists and
writers for not recognizing his politics and
mandated that all literature and culture
reflect the principles of the working class.
In 1965, Mao reassumed control of the party
and launched the Great Proletarian Cultural
Revolution in the following year. The
Chinese state apparatus was paralyzed as
the ensuing decade of turmoil saw massive
cultural, social, economic, and political
upheaval ranging from the destruction of
the “Four Olds” — old ideas, old culture, old
customs, old habits, which entailed much of
the cultural heritage of China — to
paramilitary vigilantism in rooting out and
dealing with the perceived enemies of Mao.
Mao Zedong died in October 1976, following
Zhou Enlai who had died in January. The
“Gang of Four” led by Mao’s wife was ousted
by Hua Guofeng, Mao’s successor, for
crimes against the party and state; Hua then
brought the Cultural Revolution to an end
after a decade of paralyzing turmoil. Deng
Xiaoping, having being reinstated in the
party in 1977 as vice chairman alongside two
of Hua’s subordinates, called for proper
party reform, reorganizing the bureaucracy,
reforming education and overturning the
Cultural Revolution-era views on literature
and art. Deng, from the pragmatic reformer
faction of the CPC, outmaneuvered Hua in
the 1978 National Party Congress and forced
Hua into early retirement by 1980; Deng
then rescinded the ‘two whatevers’ (support
whatever Mao says and follow all Mao’s
instructions)
and
introduced
new
agricultural
policies
which
loosened
restrictions on peasants and allowed for
more independence, all the while never
holding the post of State Chairman or Party
Chairman. Further liberalizing reforms of
In 1928, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the
Kuomintang, KMT), under the leadership of
Chiang Kai-shek, pacified the north and
established a central government in
Nanjing, unifying a formerly-feudal china.
Then, infighting between the KMT and the
newly-formed Communist Party of China
(CPC) over control of the government
started the Chinese Civil War. The Japanese
invasion of 1937 and the Second SinoJapanese War devastated the country and
halted the Civil War as the KMT and the
CPC formed a quasi-united front to repel
the Japanese. The Chinese Civil War
recommenced after the Japanese surrender,
and the KMT suffered a string of defeats
that left them control of sections of southern
China and Taiwan while the rest of
mainland China fell to the CPC by 1949.
Postwar China
After the KMT retreated to Taiwan and
formed an exiled government in Taipei, the
People’s Republic of China was established
by Mao Zedong on October 1st, 1949. In this
new state, there were four social classes —
workers, peasants, the petite bourgeoisie
and the national-capitalists. Mao quickly
established the state’s adherence to the
international socialist movement, signing
the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and
Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union in
February 1950, which guaranteed Soviet aid
and technical experts while reserving top
positions in the People’s Liberation Army to
Soviet “advisors.” With the backing of the
Soviet Union placating his main foreign
policy concerns, Mao seized Tibet in
November 1950 and turned towards
domestic reforms.
While supporting North Korea in the
Korean War, Mao embarked on increasingly
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Commission, thus Commander in Chief of
the armed forces. Xi has elucidated his goals
with his “Chinese Dream,” calling for
greater Party efficiency and anti-corruption
efforts; continued economic reforms to
make China a fully developed nation by
2049; governing under the strengthened
rule of law; and emphasizing nationalist
aspirations of the Chinese nation guided by
the CPC. Xi has also pursued a more
assertive and aggressive foreign policy, most
notably in maritime claims in the East and
South China Seas, while strengthening Party
control over domestic politics - including
announcing the election of Hong Kong’s
chief executive from a Party-approved list
and posting more soldiers to restive Tibet
and Xinjiang.
the economy (the “Four Modernizations”)
opened up China to foreign trade in 1978,
and the United States formally recognized
the People’s Republic of China on January
1st, 1979.
Post-Tiananmen China
Jiang Zemin became Paramount Leader in
the twilight of Deng Xiaoping’s influence.
While Jiang continued the push for Deng’s
new “socialist market economy” (essentially
a capitalist market economy heavily
regulated by the state), Jiang also
consolidated his power by elevating key
supporters to high positions, abolishing
ostensibly outdated Party committees
(usually comprised of members from other
factions),
and
reinvigorating
the
propaganda work of the CPC.
Hu Jintao peacefully succeeded Jiang Zemin
to
become
General
Secretary
and
Paramount Leader in 2002. A more
technocratic and career Party-man, Hu
governed through consensus to an extent
not seen in the Party since the early days of
Mao and reintroduced some state control
into certain economic sectors deregulated
by his predecessor. Hu presided over
consistent economic growth (albeit with a
growing environmental cost) and continued
development of China’s economic and
political power all the while maintaining a
tight control over domestic stability. Hu
presided over the 2008 Beijing Olympics
and the 2010 Shanghai Expo — two major
events showcasing China’s place in the
world stage.
Xi Jinping succeeded his predecessor
without issue, as Hu Jintao quietly retired
from his high-ranking posts in deference to
his successor. Xi is (among other titles)
currently General Secretary of the CPC, thus
leader of the Party; President of the People’s
Republic of China, thus head of state; and
Chairman
of
the
Central
Military
Government
The Communist Party of China has been in
control of the nation for over sixty-three
years and is committed to maintaining a
monopoly over control of the government.
The Party Constitution stipulates four
demands for the Communist Party: to
uphold the party’s basic line; adhere to the
principle of emancipating the mind and
seeking truth from faces; persist in serving
the people wholeheartedly; and uphold
democratic centralism. To that end, the CPC
has established the National Party Congress,
the Party Politburo, and the Party Central
Committee as the leading bodies of the
Party. The Party Congress and Central
Committee have executive control over
matters relating to the Party. Although the
constitution has allocated a large amount of
power to the NPC, the body is often
perceived as a “rubber stamp” that approves
decisions already made by the Party
Congress, the Party Central Committee, and
the Party Politburo.
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is intolerant of those who question its right
to rule; leadership politics is a black box,
and civil society and the right to free speech
and association are severely constrained.
The State Council serves as the highest
administrative organ of the state. This
council acts as a unified leadership
presiding over micro-levels of government,
including the state, local, provincial, and
municipal levels of government. This
council regulates the day to day government
functions. The Premier of China oversees
the State Council as head of government
and is responsible to the National People’s
Congress for the actions of the State
Council.
The head of state is the President of the
People’s Republic of China. Under the
Constitution, the President holds mainly
ceremonial
powers,
approving
and
promulgating laws made by the NPC;
approving or removing members of the
State Council on advice of the Premier; and
serving as the representative of the People’s
Republic of China in foreign affairs.
In practice, the government of China works
very differently than what is written in the
State Constitution. State institutions, while
legally vested with the powers granted to
them, serve as “rubber stamps” for carrying
out Party decisions. The President of the
People’s Republic wields supreme and
paramount power through his other
positions in the Party — namely, General
Secretary of the CPC, thus leader of the
Party; and Chairman of the Central Military
Commission, thus Commander in Chief of
the armed forces. The CPC maintains its
monopoly over the governance of China via
four distinct pillars of control: the military
(People’s Liberation Army, People’s Armed
Police, internal security forces), personnel
appointments across political institutions
(including the State Congress), state owned
corporations, and a parallel system of Party
institutions to mirror State institutions. By
controlling
these
four
pillars,
the
Communist Party has essentially become
identical and inseparable from the State. It
Demographics
Urbanization
Urbanization has transformed living
standards in China. The majority the
population - 55.6% in particular - live in
urban cities, the most urbanized cities being
Shanghai, Beijing, Chongqing, Guangdong,
Tianjin and Shenzhen in order from most to
least populated.
Those in urban areas have more access to
improved drinking water than those of rural
areas (97.5% to 93%), as well as sanitation
facility access (86.6% to 63.7%). In regards
to public health, HIV/AIDS is of low
priority; as of 2012, AIDS/HIV prevalence
was only 0.1% out of the whole country. The
most susceptible infectious diseases are
bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever
and Japanese encephalitis (transmitted
through mosquitos).
Ethnic Diversity
The largest ethnic group in China, as well as
the world, is the Han Chinese. The Han
Chinese constitutes 91.6% of the total
population, and is concentrated mostly
along the Yellow, Pearl, Yangtze Rivers, as
well as the Songliao Plain. The Zhuang, at
1.3%, constitute the second largest ethnic
population, and are mostly concentrated in
the province of Yunnan and the Guangxi
Zhuang Autonomous Region; the Zhuang
share a similar cultural values to the Han,
which has helped build mutual respect
between the communities. The remaining
7.1% of the population is split between
several ethnic groups, including the Hui,
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Manchu, Tujia, Tibetan, Mongol and
Kazakh populations. The government of
China has, over recent years, implemented
policies to promote equity, acceptance,
tolerance and unity amongst the ethnic
groups by introducing regional autonomy;
communities, then, could establish their
own townships and run their own affairs.
However, the Tibetan people accuse the
Chinese government of marginalization,
claiming they were forced to conform to
Chinese customs and recurrent unsettling of
the Tibet Autonomous Region.
Chinese couple only had one child include
the following: making contraception widely
available; imposing economic sanctions on
violators; and (in early 1980s) encouraging
abortions and primarily female sterilization.
From the establishment of the One-Child
Policy bubbled a general preference for sons
amongst the public. It was tradition for sons
- especially firstborn - to inherit the family
name and property, as well as care for the
parents in their old age; the daughter would
most likely marry into her husband’s family.
In the light of the One-Child policy and this
preference for males, female fetuses often
aborted as soon as sex was determined
using ultrasound, and young girls
abandoned in orphanages. Over time, these
practices has caused a gender imbalance
across the country, where the number of
men outnumber that of women.
The effects of this mass-population
regulation has defined the demographics of
present-day China. The policy did not
completely stem the population growth; as
of July 2016, the population count is
1,373,541,278, making China the most
populated country in the world. It did,
however, blunt birth rates and imbalance
the sex ratio. During the implementation of
the One-Child Policy, Chinese longevity
rates increased simultaneously as birth rates
plummeted. While the elderly are able to
live longer (the average life expectancy
being 73.5 yr old for males and 77. 9 yr old
for female population), there are less
children to take care of these senior citizens.
And now, with the largest age demographic
being between 25 years old and 54 years old,
demographers predict that this generation
One Child Policy
The legacy of the single-child policy,
arguably, is single-most contributing factor
responsible
for
current
Chinese
demographics The policy originally began in
1949 under Chairman Mao Zedong as a
broad means of implementing birth control
and population regulation. Until Mao
Zedong’s death, these government efforts
were not strengthened or enforced.
However, under Deng Xiaoping’s leadership
into the 1970s, the booming population
growth was given serious consideration. In
response,
the
central
government
standardized
the
one-child
policy
nationwide in 1980, ensuring that the
enforcement of the policy was even amongst
the provinces; the one-child policy in place
in 1978 and 1979 was not as successful in
the rural areas as in the urban - where
smaller, nuclear families were the norm.
The enforcements placed to ensure each
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international trade and economic activity
and is therefore worth recognizing that
China plays a highly influential role in
global economics and politics.
By dint of significant economic reforms in
the 20th century, China has been known as
the manufacturing hub of the world. In
December, 2001, China joined the World
Trade
Organization
which
chiefly
contributed to bolstering the country’s
trade. As an economy heavily integrated
into the global economy, China benefitted
hugely in terms of a steady growth of trade
since 2000. China’s external position is
therefore extremely solid. The Foreign
Direct Investment has also performed
strongly in the last decade, with record
inflows of nearly $250 billion in 2015.
Chinese financial institutions are primarily
state owned and governed and around 98%
of all banking assets are state owned. The
chief bodies in this sector are the People’s
Bank of China and the Ministry of Finance,
both under the mandate of the State
Council. The Chinese have been a recipient
of loans from multiple agencies including
the World Bank, a number of United
Nations’ programs, and various countries,
including Japan.
The very rapid rate of economic growth,
however, has given way to new economic
and social challenges. At the grassroots’
level, China still possesses severe economic
inequalities, lasting environmental hazards,
and an aging population, all of which have
to be dealt with in order to retain their
economic status. China has also been under
criticism for its unjust trade practices such
as
simulated
currency
devaluation,
intellectual property theft, protectionism,
and vernacular favoritism due to a single
party oligopoly by their Communist Party
and its socialist market economy.
will retire and leave a gaping rift in China’s
workforce without a large group of young
Chinese to fill it.
In light of this, contemporary China has
seen the end of the One-Child Policy. Since
January 1st, 2016, couples have been
allowed to have two children instead of one.
The hope is that increasing birth rates will
compensate for the ever-growing elder
generation. This proposal, however, is
believed to come too late. Demographers
and economists state that the change in
policy may not be enough to make up for the
generation gap, as the generation born from
the two-child policy will not enter the
workforce until further into the 2030s and
2040s. A large demographic will, still, age
out of the labor force without support from
the younger generations for many years to
come.
Economy
The economy of the People’s Republic of
China has remained a topic of conversation
amongst leading economists over the past
few decades for a multitude of reasons. The
Chinese economy is the world’s second
largest economy by nominal terms at $11.4
trillion, and it overtook the American
economy of late to become the world’s
largest economy by purchasing power parity
at the staggering figure of $21.3 trillion.
Bagging the title of “The workshop of the
world,” it is the largest manufacturing
economy in the world and has been credited
as the world’s largest exporter at $2.3
trillion. It is also the world’s largest growing
consumer market, amid rapid economic
growth and the rise of the middle class, and
the second largest importer of goods at $1.5
trillion. It is therefore evident that China is
the world’s largest trading nation and plays
a monumental role in influencing
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Military
also rotates military units among the
various theatres, thus limiting the influence
of local politicking and regional party
strongmen on the PLA. A map of the five
theatre commands with their respective HQ
seats marked is shown below.
The military of the People’s Republic of
China is the People’s Liberation Army
(PLA), which is the world’s largest standing
military force, numbering 2.3 million
service members spread among five service
branches: the PLA Ground Force (PLAGF),
the PLA Navy (PLAN), the PLA Air Force
(PLAAF), the PLA Rocket Force (PLARF,
formerly the Second Artillery Corps), and
the PLA Strategic Support Force (PLASSF).
Owing to the practical unity of party and
state, the PLA is overseen by two parallel
institutions in name: the Central Military
Commission of the People’s Republic of
China, which is the constitutional body
charged with overseeing the armed forces
and responsible to the National People’s
Congress; and the Central Military
Commission of the CPC, which is
responsible to the CPC Central Committee.
While there exists a Ministry of National
Defense (headed by a Minister of National
Defense), the Ministry holds no command
authority and instead is a liaison office
designed to facilitate relations with foreign
militaries. Ultimately, the PLA owes its
allegiance to the Communist Party of China
— it is, after all, the armed wing of the
ruling party and the Constitution of the
People’s Republic of China does not
explicitly state a particular group to serve as
the armed forces of China.
The PLA previously stationed forces
according to geographic area. However, the
recent reorganization of the CMC and the
institution of five new “theatre commands”
for the PLA now assigns troops exclusively
to a theatre headquarters in charge of
theatre operations while “force management
issues” — e.g. logistics, strategic goals,
assignment of units — fall under the
authority of the service heads represented in
the CMC. This “theatre command” reform
Culture
Chinese Nationalism
The current Chinese government maintains
a heavily nationalistic agenda that has also
impacted Chinese consumers and citizens
inasmuch that they also have, in recent
years, more frequently defended their
country’s reputation across the world. With
a long history of emphasis on strict social
order, cultural influence and hegemony, and
historically tense relationships with its East
Asian counterparts and prior experience
with the West’s unequal treaties and
humiliation in the waning days of Imperial
China, Chinese nationalism forms a core
part of the country’s cultural identity and
extends to include the idea that concepts,
products, or philosophies deemed offensive
to Chinese people, history, or modern
society can quickly lead to large-scale
outrage from both the government and the
general citizenry. Another key aspect of
Chinese nationalism is a sense of unity,
including the belief that all Chinese territory
(Taiwan, Hong Kong, and other internal
territories) should remain under total
Chinese governance and cultural rule. The
current situation, with two competing
governments claiming to represent China
(albeit the Republic of China controls only
Taiwan and a couple other small islands), is
a sore point of contention for Beijing; recent
overtures by the People’s Republic have
made it clear that any move to separate
Taiwan from China (whether it be a
declaration of independence or refusal of
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geopolitical relations, as well: the Japanese
occupation of China during World War II
and the atrocities committed against
Chinese citizens during this time period are
“neither forgiven nor forgotten” and,
according to international polls, nine out of
ten Chinese think negatively of their island
neighbors.
longstanding diplomatic convention of
recognizing “One China”) will lead to
reunification by force, if necessary.
Media Censorship in China
The Chinese government has a history of
tightly controlling content and access to
media for its general citizenry. These
controls are enacted using strict policies
that include the use of monitoring systems,
firewalls, shuttering publications on
websites, and jailing journalists, bloggers,
and activists. According to the Chinese
constitution, Chinese citizens are granted
the freedom of speech and press; however,
media regulations enable authorities to
punish journalists or remove content
deemed as threats to national safety. The
government is particularly strict about
controlling content that could incite social
unrest, like official corruption and ethnic
strife. Typically, Chinese media outlets have
their own censorship systems in place in
order to gain political favor and
acceptability of their content; these
censorship guidelines are taken from the
Communist Party propaganda department
as well as the Bureau of Internet Affairs.
Socioeconomic Inequalities in
China
In order for the Communist Party to create
economic
stability and
coordination
between the agricultural and urban areas of
the country, a classification system known
as the Hukou System was created that
would classify each Chinese citizen as either
“rural” or “urban” and assign social benefits
including healthcare, education, social
security, and working rights based on these
two designations. This classification system
limited the amount of migration between
urban and rural areas and gave preferential
treatment to those in urban areas, which
was thought to calm the risk of any major
uprising against the Communist Party
because those who lived in urban areas and
were educated were more likely to protest.
In 2014, China announced a plan to reform
this socioeconomic distinction between its
citizens in an effort to provide migrant and
agricultural workers increased access to
social benefits. However, critics of this form
argue that the changes to the system,
including exemptions for major cities and
the resettlement of 100 million people in
cities over the next six years, could lead to
slums and security problems and ignore
crucial questions of land rights.
Ethnic Conflict and Racism in
China
According to the Chinese government, there
are 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in
China; however, approximately 90% of the
country’s
population
is
relatively
homogenous and of the Han Chinese ethnic
group. Conflicts in Western China,
including ongoing ethnic issues in Tibet and
Xinjiang as well as with local ethnic
minorities like the Uyghur, contribute to the
growing sentiments of resentment and
cultural isolation among minority groups in
China. Furthermore, China shares a
historically tense relationship with Japan
that has continued into contemporary
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document pointed to internal fears about
the party's vulnerability in light of China's
economic slowdown and public anger about
issues like corruption. The issues of
corruption and bad leaderships stem from
the
CPC’s
decentralized
governance
structure. Although the Politburo members
dictate policies, they are unable to
effectively enforce said policies. Chinese
provinces enjoy tremendous autonomy, and
sub provincial officials and leaders,
appointed by the central government, have
almost total control over governance.
Policies can originate haphazardly in
bureaucracies and ministries, within the
committee, inside the NPC, or from think
tanks and advisers. This lack of
accountability has compounded grievances
over income inequality, lack of consumer
protection, land grabs, and human rights
issues. Many of these concerns have been
brought to light across the country by the
Internet, which has heavily eroded the
CPC's control over political communication.
The Communist Party
of China
The Chinese Communist party is the
founding and ruling party of modern day
China. The party’s goal is to maintain its
monopoly of political and government
control in China. The party's grip on power
is focused mainly around three general
areas: control of personnel, propaganda,
and the People's Liberation Army. Around
77 percent of its members are men, and
farmers make up roughly one-third of its
membership.
Governance
In order to effectively rule China, the CPC
must quickly adapt to the recent economic
rise of China globally. Today's party is all
about joining the highways of globalization,
which in turn translates into greater
economic efficiencies, higher rates of return,
and greater political security. Yet, the party
continues to struggle in achieving this
control in the face of the progression of
Chinese society. Many Chinese people are
growing more sophisticated. They are better
educated and have more contact with the
outside world. An increasing number travel
overseas. People are less likely to accept
injustice at the hands of local authorities;
some even make the lengthy trek to Beijing
to demand justice. Fears of social unrest are
persistent. In the spring of 2013, a memo
named Document No. 9 that was distributed
within the CPC outlined seven dangers that
threatened the party's control, including
Western constitutional democracy, human
rights, pro-market neoliberalism, and
Western-inspired
ideas
of
media
independence and civic participation. The
Territorial Disputes
Maritime Claims and Disputes
In the South and East China Sea, China and
neighboring countries have overlapping
claims to areas rich in hydrocarbons and
natural gas and through which trillions of
dollars of global trade flow. As it sought to
expand its maritime presence, China had
been met by growing assertiveness from
regional claimants like Japan, Vietnam, and
the Philippines. The increasingly frequent
standoffs
spanned
from
the
Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands on China’s eastern
flank to the long stretch of archipelagos in
the South China Sea that comprise
hundreds of islets.
In February 2016, Beijing deployed surfaceto-air missiles on Woody Island (of the
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Controversially, China, as a result, prevents
any international body or organization from
investigating human rights conditions in the
PRC. A statement released by the Chinese
government ensured that China “is
committed to the promotion and protection
of the human rights and fundamental
freedoms of the Chinese people, and has
worked unremittingly towards this goal.”
Even before joining the HRC, China has
been involved in human rights agendas in
the international community. China ratified
a total of six United Nation’s human rights
treaties: Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women, International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination, Convention Against Torture
and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment, Convention on
the Rights of the Child, International
Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights, and the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities.
While the People’s Republic of China claims
they are committed to upholding human
rights conditions, the actual state of human
rights in China fails to uphold the standards
they have committed to. China continues to
restrict various human rights ranging from
the denial of the freedom of expression to
the discrimination of minorities to torture of
detainees.
Paracel Island chain) according to U.S. and
Taiwanese officials. U.S. and regional
officials warned that the deployment may
signal a militarization of the maritime
disputes, while China argued that the
installation of missiles fell within its rights
for defense on what it considered sovereign
territory. Some experts suggest that the
move might have been a response to U.S.
freedom of navigation operations in
disputed waters. The People’s Liberation
Army Air Force also stationed J-11 fighter
aircraft in the Paracels in October 2015.
In July 2016 The Permanent Court of
Arbitration in The Hague ruled in favor of
the Philippines in a case opened in 2013
against the People's Republic of China. The
tribunal found that China's declared “ninedash line” has no legal basis for its claims to
historic rights to resources in the South
China Sea. The court also ruled that none of
the land features fit requirements under the
UN Convention on the Law and the Sea
(UNCLOS) to generate a 200-nautical-mile
exclusive economic zone for China; many of
the features are the result of extensive
Chinese land reclamation. The court says
Beijing violated its obligations as a member
of UNCLOS, saying its island-building
activities harmed the marine environment
and its vessels' unsafe practices heightened
navigational risks. China's foreign ministry
says it neither accepts nor recognizes the
court's award.
Restriction of the Freedom of
Expression
Human Rights in
China
While the Chinese constitution does grant
freedom of speech and press to citizens, the
government can still restrict these
fundamental human rights through claim of
protecting national security, claiming state
secrets at risk of exposure. The vague
definition of “state secret” enables the
government to easily restrict freedom of
The People’s Republic of China has had a
difficult history with the maintenance of the
human rights of their people. In 2013, China
was elected onto the Human Rights Council,
an international body dedicated to ensuring
that all nations respect human rights.
9
nyumunc viii
expression by manipulate the language.
Thus, the Chinese government can control
media to influence public opinion and
maintain a favorable opinion of the
government and its agenda. Its tactics often
entail
strict
media
controls
using
monitoring
systems
and
firewalls,
shuttering publications or websites, and
jailing dissident journalists, bloggers, and
activists. Chinese media outlets usually
employ their own monitors to ensure
political acceptability of their content.
Censorship guidelines circulate weekly from
the
Communist
Party
propaganda
department and the government Bureau of
Internet Affairs to prominent editors and
media providers. Certain websites that the
government deems potentially dangerous—
like Wikipedia—are blocked during periods
of controversy, such as the June 4
anniversary of the Tiananmen Square
massacre. Specific material considered a
threat to political stability is also banned,
including controversial photos and search
terms. The government blocks, particularly,
reports of issues that could incite social
unrest like official corruption and ethnic
strife. This censorship is not only prevalent
in traditional media outlets, but has led to
the control of social media and the internet.
The minister of education even continues
this censorship in the Education system,
where he has banned foreign textbooks
because they might spread wrong Western
values. Many people fear this continual
restriction on the freedom of expression to
be determinantal for the economy, as a large
number of China’s economic growth is
dependent on web.
on their rights. Strict family planning
policies have finally been revoked, but
China continues to place restrictions on a
woman’s reproductive freedoms. Sexual
harassment persists as a prevalent issue in
China because there are no safeguards
against it. In March of 2015, at least 10
women’s rights activists were taken into
custody by police for plans to post signs and
distribute leaflets to raise awareness about
sexual harassment in three Chinese cities.
Five were soon released, but the others were
held for 37 days on charges of picking
quarrels,
sparking
a
widespread
international outcry. Though the five were
released on bail, continuing restrictions on
their movements and police harassment led
them to close their organization, the Wei
Zhiming Women’s Center in Hangzhou.
While there still are women’s rights abuses
in China, the government has begun to take
a progressive step toward to the protection
of women against domestic violence.
China’s legislature reviewed a draft of the
long-awaited
Law
against
Domestic
Violence. While a step in the right direction,
the draft falls short of international
standards, particularly in its definition of
domestic violence. Cases of domestic
violence in which local authorities fail to
respond appropriately continue to occur
with worrying regularity.
Freedom of Religion
Article thirty-six of the Chinese constitution
states that Chinese citizens enjoy freedom of
religious belief. It bans discrimination based
on religion and it forbids state organs,
public organizations, or individuals from
compelling citizens to believe in—or not to
believe in—any particular faith. The Chinese
government restricts the practice of religion
to five officially recognized religions,
Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Protestantism,
and Catholicism. The government continues
Women’s Rights
Although China rhetorically commits to
upholding Women’s Rights through the
international documents it ratifies, its
policies toward women continue to infringe
10
nyumunc viii
to exert full control over religious
institutions. The government audits the
activities, employee details, and financial
records of religious bodies, and retains
control
over
religious
personnel
appointments, publications, and seminary
applications.
remain in custody, most in secret locations
without access to lawyers or family, some
beyond the legal time limits; most have been
accused of being part of a major criminal
gang that seriously disrupted public order.
The individuals that the government deems
high risk are often subject to torture and
other forms of capital punishments. Much
of this abuse of prisoners comes from the
shortcomings in domestic law, criminal
justice system, and the difficulty of
enforcing law regarding proper treatment of
prisoners. There are frequent allegations of
police officers using torture to extract
confessions. This is despite a ruling by the
Chinese Supreme Court that forbids using
freezing, starving, extreme heat, fire
branding or extreme exhaustion on
suspects. For example, Lawyer Yu
Wensheng was tortured during his
detention from October 2014 to January
2015 at Daxing Detention Centre in Beijing.
He was questioned for 15 to 16 hours every
day while seated on a rigid restraint chair,
handcuffed for long hours and deprived of
sleep. Furthermore, the condition of prisons
in China are often less than adequate. Many
prisoners are often denied basic health care
in these prisons or they did not have access
to adequate medical treatment.
Sexual Orientation and Gender
Equality
Although homosexuality was decriminalized
in 1997, yet many people still face
discrimination for being homosexual. There
is still no law protecting people from
discrimination on the basis of sexual
orientation or gender identity, and there is
no recognition of same-sex marriage or
partnership. Citizens continue to challenge
to rhetoric in China. Recently, a couple
pushed for same-sex marriage by taking
legal action after authorities refused the
couple’s request to have their relationship
officially recognized as a marriage on their
first anniversary together. The result of such
legal action is did not change the status quo,
as same-sex marriage is still illegal in The
People’s Republic of China. Furthermore,
the stigma against LGBT people is very
prevalent. A 2014 report by a Chinese
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender
(LGBT) organization revealed that very few
Chinese textbooks portray LGBT people
using objective and non-discriminatory
language.
International
Relations
Torture and the rights of
prisoners
Australia
The People’s Republic of China and the
Commonwealth of Australia have strong
economic ties colored by political and
strategic differences. While the first formal
relations with post-imperial China were
established in 1941 with the Nationalist
Republic of China, Australia did not
formally recognize the victorious People’s
Many people in China are detained for their
political views, human rights activism, or
any
activity
against
the
Chinese
government. Between July and September,
about 280 human rights lawyers and
activists were briefly detained and
interrogated across the country. About 40
11
nyumunc viii
India
Republic of China and continued to
recognize the exiled Republic of China in
Taipei as the legitimate government of
China until 21 December 1972. Economic
liberalization in China opened up
investment opportunities for Australian
capital; the growing Chinese economy
demanded mineral resources and natural
gas in exchange for capital and
manufactured goods; today, China is
Australia’s largest trade partner. Further
economic cooperation takes the form of the
China-Australia Free Trade Agreement
(which came into force December 2015) and
both
countries’
membership
on
transnational forums such as the East Asian
Summit and the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation, which spans the majority of
the entire Pacific Rim. Australia has
previously expressed concerns about the
human rights situation in China, especially
regarding treatment of ethnic minorities
(e.g. Tibet) and repression of political
dissidents. A tit-for-tat style of diplomatic
interaction persisted through a low patch in
Sino-Australian relations in 2007 to 2009,
ranging from the Australian prime minister
meeting the Dalai Lama in 2007 drawing
sharp criticism from China to a series of
diplomatic disagreements over Australian
visa-issuance to an Uyghur activist, Chinese
arrest of Australian mining executives for
espionage, and Aluminum Corporation of
China’s failed bid to purchase a higher stake
in British-Australian mining giant Rio Tinto
Group. Relations have improved since then
— with Chinese President Xi Jinping
making a state visit to Canberra in
November 2014 — although diplomatic
interaction between the two countries in the
present-day currently revolves around
China’s suspicion of Australia’s continued
military ties with the United States and
Australia’s rejection of China’s “nine-dash
line map” claims to the South China Sea.
The People’s Republic of China and the
Republic of India enjoy cordial, albeit
strained, formal diplomatic relations. India
and China have cultural and economic ties
dating back at least 2,000 years, ranging
from the trade along the Silk Road in the
200s BCE to the joint effort to halt Japanese
expansion into Asia as part of the Allies of
World War Two. Modern ties were
established when the then-Dominion of
India cut ties with the Republic of China
exiled in Taipei and became the first noncommunist country to recognize the
People’s Republic of China based in Beijing
as the sole legitimate government of China
on 1 January 1950. Ties have been generally
friendly between the two regional giants,
although territorial disputes concerning
Tibet and the inconsistently demarcated
border in the Himalayas led to three brief
wars in 1962, 1967, and 1987, all of which
failed to conclusively settle the status of
Aksai Chin (claimed by India but
administered by China), Arunachal Pradesh
(claimed by China as part of Tibet and
administered by India), and portions of
northern Sikkim. Thawing of relations in
2003 allowed for massive expansion of
trade and security ties.
China became
India’s largest trading partner in 2008; the
BRICS group formed in 2009 — and both
countries have continued to hold annual
joint military exercises and expanded SinoIndian strategic relations. However, a
rivalry between the two giants is becoming
increasingly apparent in the present day:
China maintains strong strategic ties with
Pakistan to counter Indian influence in
Central Asia; India’s efforts to seek a
permanent seat on the UN Security Council
are stymied by the Chinese veto.
Furthermore, India has extended overtures
to the West and Japan in an attempt to curb
12
nyumunc viii
“Diaoyu” Islands in China or “Senkaku” in
Japan. In 2010, Japan arrested a Chinese
fishing vessel captain near the islands,
resulting in Chinese outrage. China in turn
increased maritime patrols around the area,
upsetting the Japanese. However, Chinese
patrols in the area have become less
frequent and more predictable since late
2013s, reducing the chances of accidental
incidents. Recent events regarding this area
of dispute include Japanese protests over
Chinese coast guard ships and 230 fishing
vessels entering disputed territory on 6
August 2016, a month after Japan called out
to Beijing to adhere to The Hague ruling
over the South China Sea dispute.
rising Chinese influence in the South China
Sea. As such, both countries are (and have
good reason to be) wary of the ambitions of
the other as they jockey for leadership of
Asia on the global stage.
Japan
The People’s Republic of China and the
State of Japan have historically suffered
strained relations. According to a BBC world
service poll conducted in 2014, 90% of the
Chinese population hold negative views of
the Japanese, while 73% of Japanese hold
negative views of China. China’s less than
favorable views of Japan stems from Japan’s
stance regarding certain events in WWII,
and in more recent years, territorial
disputes. China believes that Japan lacks
willingness to confront their aggression
during their occupation of northern parts of
China during World War II, where millions
of Chinese were killed. Recent offerings
given by Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo Abe
to the Yasukuni Shrine for Japan’s war
anniversary flares up tensions between the
two countries, even though Shinzo Abe did
not physically visit the shrine, which serves
as a mark of Japan’s militarism.
Japan’s unfavorable views towards China
seems to step from more recent events
rather than World War II, where Japan’s
3.3164 billion yen (30 million USD) Official
Development Assistance funds to China did
not result in any return in favorability. Yet
China’s continued grievance towards Japan
for events in WWII did seem to rub off on
Japanese citizens. In a different survey,
Japanese poll-takers cited Chinese criticism
of Japan over historical issues as one reason
for their dislike.
In recent years, China and Japan had had a
series of maritime territorial disputes. The
particular island in dispute is called the
Myanmar
The People’s Republic of China and
Myanmar have maintained a complex and
strained relationship since the end of World
War II. Both nations maintained positions
of political neutrality during the Cold War,
however, this political alignment did not
translate to cordial foreign relations
between the two countries as a result.
Despite the Chinese Communist Party’s
support of General Ne Win’s Burma
Socialist Programme Party until 1989, the
party itself stoked xenophobic anti-Chinese
sentiment in then-Burma. This political
separation also led to vastly different paths
of economic development, with China
becoming the economic hegemony in the
region as well as Myanmar’s number-one
foreign investor. In 2011, the leader of the
military-backed quasi-civilian government
in Myanmar, President U Thein Sein, began
to harden its stance towards China and
suspended
the
Chinese-backed
hydroelectric dam project at Myitsone.
China went on to back Myanmar’s National
League for Democracy candidate Daw Aung
San Suu Kyi’s election, leading to a landslide
victory for the party and maintaining
13
nyumunc viii
leaders, hosting high-level visits and sidemeetings that surpass those Thailand has
with other countries. In light of their recent
cooperation, the Thai Navy bought
submarines from China instead of Germany
and South Korea as originally planned and
further military cooperation between
Thailand and China (instead of with the
West) seems to be looming on the horizon.
A project that may change these relations is
the Thai-Chinese Belt and Road Initiative,
in which China and Thailand plan to launch
a 845-km railway linking Bangkok to Nong
Khai (in the north, near Laos), in hopes of
connecting the new railway to the preexisting China-Laos railway. It cannot be
said whether relations will improve or
worsen as of late due to the contentious
nature of the project; the estimates have
proven to be 50% higher than initially
anticipated, and much debate over interest
and rights to develop areas around the
railroad are still under works as of March
2016. Nevertheless, the overarching vision
for the railroad will allow rice to be sent to
China in 18 hours at a third of the price of
road or sea transport.
The detainment and deportation of Chinese
activists out of Thailand has also sparked
questions regarding the developing PCRThai relations. A recent example includes
the detention of 19-year old Joshua Wong in
October 2016, a Hong Kong pro-democracy
activist who attempted to attend a
university event in Thailand before being
detained at Bangkok’s airport by Thai
government. The Thai government stated
China did not request or demand Wong’s
arrest; rather, the arrest served as a
preventative
measure,
avoiding
the
escalation of political conflict between the
two countries that Wong’s presence may
have caused. However, The Nation, an
English-language newspaper in Thailand,
China’s strong infrastructural influence in
Myanmar.
Early last year, in Northern Myanmar, a
conflict between Myanmar’s army and
ethnic-Chinese in the Kokang region of the
Shan State rebels spilled into the Chinese
side of the border, threatening peace efforts
and risking political backlash from China.
This bloody conflict is considered the worst
security incident against China since the
attacks on the Beijing embassy in Myanmar
in 1967. Tens of thousands of refugees have
fled into China’s Yunnan province since
fighting in Kokang first flared up in early
February; the risk of contagion of this
conflict onto others is quite high. The state
media in Myanmar, however, portray the
conflicts as a war against renegades, and as
ethnic groups in Myanmar who are involved
in increasingly “faltering” peace talks with
China get involved with the Myanmar Army,
experts say that this conflict is likely to
spread further.
Thailand
In 2014, the Royal Thai Armed forces (RTA)
launched a coup d’état, causing the second
overthrowing of the elected government in a
decade. General Prayuth Chan-ocha, leader
of the RTA, was installed as prime minister
and chief of the junta and the majority of
the Thai Constitution was suspended.
Although the US, UK, and Australia did not
recognize the new government, China did
not condemn the change in power and only
stated that Thailand should resolve its
domestic conflicts peacefully. Although
China and Thailand have shared cordial ties
since Beijing’s military supported Thailand
in its offense against expansionist Vietnam
in the 1970s, the recent overthrow marked a
significant strengthening of PCR-Thailand
relations - which previously was limited to
bilateral trade. In addition, China has
increased its attention towards Thailand’s
14
nyumunc viii
defeated Vietnam’s small navy, but on
ground the Vietnamese forced Chinese
troops to withdraw. Both sides claimed
victory.
Currently, Vietnam is part of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and
has liberalized its economy following
China’s example. Vietnam and China are
still engaged in border disputes, particularly
in the Gulf of Tonkin over fishing rights and
access to natural resources. China claims
most of the Gulf of Tonkin based on history,
but Vietnam disputes that claim. The
Vietnamese have deep resentment towards
the Chinese, who they saw as oppressors
and invaders despite transcending cultural
and political parallels. In response to China,
Vietnam has in recent years diversified its
foreign investors and military partners,
including South Korea, Japan, and the
United States. The strategic location of
Vietnam to the U.S. and the proposed
establishment of an American military base
in there would be pose a significant
challenge to China’s claims in the South
China Sea.
cited an official at Bangkok’s airport saying
the request came from China.
Many speculate that China pressured
Thailand to return Wong back to Hong
Kong and that Thailand agreed, acting as
China’s overseas enforcer. This, too, has led
to the belief that the junta, in exchange for
obeying
Chinese
demands,
receives
sufficient diplomatic, economic or strategic
dividends to outweigh possible political
risks. This coincides with the junta’s actions
in the last year, as the government sent
more than 100 Uighur refugees back to
China’s
restive
Xinjiang
province;
repatriated human-rights activists Dong
Guangping and Jiang Yefei; and refused to
give journalist Li Xin asylum before sending
her to Chinese custody.
Vietnam
China and Vietnam have a long history of
relations dating back to antiquity. Since the
Han dynasty, Chinese and Vietnamese
states have remained culturally intimate but
engaged in numerous border conflicts
through their history. Vietnamese states
often have to contend with a more populous
and coercive Chinese dynasty despite
frequent diplomatic gestures between the
two states.
Relations between the PRC and the Socialist
Republic of Vietnam began in 1949 with the
founding of the People’s Republic, where
China and Vietnam shared common cause
in communist ideology in government.
During the Vietnam War, China provided
logistical and military support to the North
Vietnamese government, but relations since
the independence of Vietnam have
deteriorated due to border disputes.
Between 1975 and 1990, China and Vietnam
fought a number of battles in the long SinoVietnamese war in South China Sea and
along their shared border. In the Spratly
and Paracel Islands, the Chinese easily
15
nyumunc viii
16
nyumunc viii
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