/0!*&"*10*'2"*34#5"16*7"6"#89:*;<,,+=:*Mental Health: A Report
of the Surgeon General. >1&?)(99"@*ABC*D3*!4E9(&*F"89'2*
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(6*FHRS*I0#(&86*IO"#(&86*2"'"#1$"T489*86G*21O1$"T489*
U1O"6:*Journal of Gay and Lesbian Medical Association,
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Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 11@*+,aL++a:
Resegregation of the Nation’s Public Schools: The Problem for
the 21st Century and Beyond
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A1#"214$"*N199"5"
Abstract
This paper argues that the nation’s public schools, with some
exceptions, will remain segregated during the twenty-first century
and beyond due to the pervasive undying and deeply entrenched
racial attitudes and behavioral propensities that make up the
American ethos. Race has played a particularly central role in
the area of education, as the nation has confronted an enduring
struggle to desegregate its public schools. The tactics examined to
thwart the implementation of Brown v. Board of Education are an
integral part of America’s deeply entrenched racial attitudes and
historical experience as well as a crucial part of its culture. The
historical and contemporary evidence presented here shows quite
clearly that the certainty of racism and segregated schools is on par
with the certainty of taxes and death. This reality will unfortunately
remain a permanent feature of American society for many years in
the future.
“The battle against pernicious racial discrimination
or its effects is no where near won.”
LK4$'(&"* ]24#511G* A8#$2899@* B($$"6'(65* (6* City of
Richmond v. J.A. Croson Company*;+.-.=
“One wonders whether the majority still believes
that race discrimination or, more accurately, race
discrimination against non-whites is a problem in
our society, or even remembers that it ever was.”
K4$'(&"*F8##_*M98&?O16@*B($$"6'(65*(6*Wards Cove
Packing Company v. Antonio*;+.-.=
!"#$%"&'()"$*
+,-
!"#$%"&'()"$*
+,.
The Significance of Race in Desegregation Policy
Making
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0/F*3.&"*#"$"G#"G.'(/09
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And We Are Not Saved @+ABCD?*E:'*0/*'(5"*4.$*#.&"*$>(%%"6*3.#*6/F0*
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6()(6"6*.06*$"G#"G.'"6*$/&("'J?*F4(&4*($*0/1#($4"6*2J*#.&($5*.06*
6""%>J*#//'"6*.06*"0'#"0&4"6*(0*'4"*0.'(/0I$*%/>('(&.>*&1>'1#"9**
:$*=">>*@+AAVD*$'.'"$W
What appears to be progress toward racial justice
is, in fact, a cyclical process. Barriers are lowered
in one era only to reveal a new set of often more
sophisticated but no less effective processes that
maintain blacks in a subordinate status*@%9*XD9
Are blacks generally discriminated against in
getting a quality education?
Whites: 11% Yes
Blacks: 37% Yes
Do blacks receive Equal treatment in the Justice
System?
Whites: 61% Yes
Blacks: 20% Yes
Compared with whites, blacks have equal or
greater opportunity for promotion to supervisory or
managerial jobs?
Whites: 78% Yes
Blacks: 44% Yes
Y/>>/F(0G* .* 3.)/#.2>"* 6"&($(/0* $1&4* .$* '4"* +AZM* 81%#"5"*
R/1#'*6"&($(/0*($*Brown v. Board of Education?*5(0(5.>*%#/G#"$$*4.$*
2""0*3/>>/F"6*2J*$"'2.&<$?*#"$1>'(0G*(0*.*)(&(/1$*0/QF(0*&J&>"*.06*
5.<(0G*81%#"5"*R/1#'*5.06.'"$*%.(031>>J*$>/F*(0*(5%>"5"0'.'(/0*
.06* "03/#&"5"0'9* *O4"* &J&>(&.>* 0.'1#"* /3* #.&(.>* %#/G#"$$* '4.'* =">>*
!"#$%"&'()"$*
O4($* $4/1>6* 0/'* &/5"* .$* .* $1#%#($"* '/* .0J/0"* 3.5(>(.#*
F('4* %12>(&* /%(0(/0* (0* '4"* 70('"6* 8'.'"$9* 81#)"J$* &/0&"#0(0G*
21$(0G?* 4/1$(0G* 6($&#(5(0.'(/0?* .3!*#5.'()"* .&'(/0?* "5%>/J5"0'*
6($&#(5(0.'(/0?*.06*6($%.#.'"*'#".'5"0'*/3*2>.&<$*.06*F4('"$*(0*'4"*
&#(5(0.>* [1$'(&"* $J$'"5* #")".>* ).$'* 6(33"#"0&"$* (0* '4"* /%(0(/0$* /3*
(06()(61.>$* 2.$"6* /0* #.&"9* * \>>($* R/$"* /2$"#)"6?* (0* The Media in
Black and White*@+AACD?*'4.'*%"#&"%'(/0$*6(33"#*'#"5"06/1$>J*61"*
'/* '4"* 6(33"#"0'* "P%"#("0&"$* #.&(.>* G#/1%$* 4.)"* "0&/10'"#"69* * Y/#*
"P.5%>"?*(0*.*]10"*+AAC*%/>>?*'4"*6(33"#"0&"$*2"'F""0*'4"*/%(0(/0$*/3*
2>.&<$*.06*F4('"$*&/0&"#0(0G*"P%.06(0G*.3!*#5.'()"*.&'(/0*%#/G#.5$*
F"#"*$'#(<(0G9**Y(3'J*'4#""*%"#&"0'*/3*2>.&<$*3.)/#"6*"P%.06(0G*'4"$"*
%#/G#.5$* &/5%.#"6* '/* VV^* /3* F4('"$* @_(>$/0* `* ;(>1>(/?* +AAAD9*
a.#&1$*!/4>5.00?*(0*4($*2//<*Black Politics: Conservative America*
@+AAAD?* /2$"#)"6* '4"* 3/>>/F(0G* $'#(<(0G* 6(33"#"0&"$* (0* %"#&"%'(/0$*
2"'F""0*2>.&<$*.06*F4('"$*/0*.*0152"#*/3*$.>("0'*($$1"$W
++,
Should every possible effort be made to help
minorities?
Whites: 25% Yes
Blacks: 61% Yes
!"#$%"&'()"$*
+++
Has the United States gone “too far” in pushing
equal rights?
Whites: 51% Yes
Blacks: 26% Yes
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<'3'"$=
The Legal Attack on Segregated Public Schools
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Summary and Conclusion
H."*A/#"*#"&"0'*P9%#"A"*J/9#'*@"&($(/0:*Parents Involved In
Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1*7,;;Q<:*%#/)(@"$*
5@@('(/052* ")(@"0&"* /4* '."* 'B"0'3* !*#$'* &"0'9#3* #"$"6#"65'(/0* /4*
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#5&"*(0*$&.//2*5$$(60A"0'$=*R9$'(&"*S/1"#'$*/1$"#)"@*'.5'*'."*%250$*
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%"/%2":* &92'9#"$M50@* )("B%/(0'$=UX* F@@('(/05223:* '."* A5C/#('3*
/%(0(/0*"A%.5$(Y"@*'.5'*'."*#"$%"&'()"*%250$*45(2"@*'/*%#/)(@"*4/#*
V5* A"50(06492* (0@()(@952(Y"@* #")("B=X* H.9#6//@* Z5#$.522:* (0* .($*
@($$"0'(06*/%(0(/0*(0*Milliken v. Bradley*7+[QT<:*/1$"#)"@*'.5'*'."*
J/9#'*.5@*'5\"0*V5*6(50'*$'"%*15&\B5#@$=X*]($*/1$"#)5'(/0*($*"O95223*
5%%2(&512"*'/*'."*Parents Involved In Community Schools v. Seattle
School District No. 1*@"&($(/0:*50/'."#*904/#'905'"*12/B*'/*Brown I=*
F* %2"'./#5* /4* P9%#"A"* J/9#'* @"&($(/0$:* 1"6(00(06* B('.*
Plessy v. Ferguson* 7+_[`<* 50@* &92A(05'(06* B('.* Parents Involved
in Community Schools v, Seattle School District No. 1* 7,;;Q<:*
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References
D"77;*E9*F+GHIJ9*And We are Not Saved. K"B*L0#MN*D4$(&*D00M$9
D"77;*E9*F+GG,J9*Race, Racism and American Law9*D0$'02N*O(''7";*
D#0B2*FP#3*"3J9
D(&M"7;*:9Q9*F+G..J9*>6"*0#(5(247*123"#$'423(25*423*'6"*$"5#"54'(029*
Harvard Law Review;*69F+J;*+RS.9
Board of Education of Oklahoma v. Dowell9*F+GG+J9*-GH*T9*U9*,PI9
Bolling v. Sharpe. F+G.-J. 347 U.S. 4979
Brown v Board of Education.*FBrown 11J9*F+G..J*P-G*TU*,G-9*
Brown v. Board of Education. FBrown 1J9*F+G.-J9*P-I*T9U9*-HP9*
Brown v. Board of Education. F+G.+J9*GH*V9*U1%%9*IGI9*W42$4$9
Brown v. State of Mississippi.* F+GS+J9* S* =4&"* ="74'(02$* O4B*
="%0#'"#;*%9*IHX9
D1#M;*=9*V9;*F+GH-J9*The Eisenhower Administration and Black
Civil Rights9*W20Y)(77"N*T2()"#$('8*0/*>"22"$$""*!#"$$9
<6"A"#(2$M8;* Z9* F,XX.J9* >6"* $"5#"54'(02* 423* #"$"5#"54'(02* 0/*
:A"#(&42*%1C7(&*"31&4'(029*[2*D05"#;*\9*]*^#!*"73;*_9*FZ3$9J;*
School Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back?*F%%9*,GR
.XJ9*<64%"7*`(77N*T2()"#$('8*0/*K0#'6*<4#07(24*!#"$$9
City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Company. F+GHGJ9*-HH*T9U9*-SG9
<0$";*Z9*F+GGIJ9*U""'6(25*(2*$(7"2&"N*>6"*2"B$*(2*D74&M*423*a6('"9*
[2*Z9*E"22($*FZ39J*The Media in Black and White*F%%9*PR+XJ9*
!($&4'4B48;*K\N*>#42$4&'(02*!1C7($6"#$9
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County. F+G.,J*+XP*
V9*U1%%9*PPI9*b(#5(2(49
E(7702;* U;* F,XXI;* U"%'"AC"#* +IJ9*:74C4A4* U&6007* ="c02(25* !742*
D#(25$* ^1'* <#8* 0/* ="$"5#"54'(029* The New York Times,*
%%9:+;*:+.9
V($6"#;*O9**F,XXXJ9*American constitutional law, Vol. 2, Third Edition9*
E1#64AN*<4#07(24*:&43"A(&*!#"$$9
!"#$%"&'()"$*
+,-
V#42M"2C"#5;* Z9* F,XX.J9* >6"* (A%4&'* 0/* $&6007* $"5#"54'(02* 02*
#"$(3"2'(47*601$(25*%4''"#2$9*[2*D05"#;*\9*]*^#!*"73;*_9*FZ3$9J*
School Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back?*F%%9*+SHR
+I-J9*<64%"7*`(77N*T2()"#$('8*0/*K0#'6*<4#07(24*!#"$$9
Freeman v. Pitts9*F+GG,J9*++,*U9*<'9+-PX9
Gebhardt v. Belton. F+G.,J9*PP*E"79*<69*+--;*HI*:9,3*HS,*FE"79*<69*
+G.,J;*G+*:9,3*+PI*E"79
\4&M$02;*E9*E9*F+GI-J9*Judges9*K"B*L0#MN*:'6"2"1A9
W715"#;*=9*F,XX-J9*Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board
of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality9*
K"B*L0#MN*b(2'45"*!#"$$9
W0c07;* \9* F,XX.J9* The Shame of the Nation9* K"B* L0#MN* <#0B2*
!1C7($6"#$9
W1#7423;* !9;* ]* <4$%"#;* _* FZ3$9J* F+GI.J9* Landmark Briefs and
Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States (Vol.
49).*:#7(25'02;*b:N*T2()"#$('8*!1C7(&4'(02$*0/*:A"#(&49
O"B($;*:9;*F\178*+G;*+GSPJ9*V"3"#47*d135"$*(2*$01'6*$&4#"39*The New
York Times;*%9*H9
Milliken v. Bradley.*F+GI-J9*-+H*T9*U9*I+I9
Missouri v. Jenkins.*F+GGXJ9*-G.*T9*U9*PP9
McLaurin v. Oklahoma States Regents for Higher Education. F+G.XJ9*
PGG*T9U9*SPI9
^#!*"73;* _9* F+GISJ9* V"3"#47* %07(&8;* 70&47* %0B"#* 423* A"'#0%07('42*
$"5#"54'(029* [2* :9* U642M* FZ39J;* Political Power and the
Urban Crisis.*D0$'02N*`07C#00M*!#"$$9
^#!*"73;*_9*F+GGSJ9**Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal
of Brown v. Board of Education. K"B*L0#MN*>6"*K"B*L0#M*
!#"$$9
^1&6(;*a9*_9*F,XXPJ9*Making Schools Work9*K"B*L0#MN*U(A02*423*
U&61$'"#9
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District9*
F,XXIJ9*K09*+*Z>9*:O9;*..+*T9U9
Plessy v. Ferguson9*F+HGSJ9*+SP*T9U9*.PI9
!067A422;* Q9* E9* F+GGGJ9* Black Politics: Conservative America.*
K"B*L0#MN*O025A429
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+,.
/0&1"2* 34* 5+66784* The Sibley Commission and the Politics of
Desegregation in Georgia4* 9'1":$2* ;9<* =:()"#$('>* 0?*
;"0#@(A*!#"$$4
/0$":B"#@2*;4C4*5+66+84*The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About
Social ChangeD*E1(&A@0<*=:()"#$('>*0?*E1(&A@0*!#"$$4
F0G"HH2* I4* 5+67+84* Markets and Minorities4* C"G* J0#K<* LA$(&*
L00K$4
F'"%1A:2* M4;42* N* O"A@(:2* 34* 5+67P84* School Desegregation: Past,
Present and Future4*C"G*J0#K<*!H":QR*!#"$$4
Sweatt v. Painter. 5+6SP84 TT6*=4F4*-,64
M(H$0:2* 34U42* N* V(HQH(02* 3#42* 3434* 5,PP-84* American Government*
5I":'1*WX('(0:84*C"G*J0#K<*Y0Q@1'0:*Z(?!*(:*E0R%A:>4
M00XGA#X2* E4[4* 5+6.\84* The Strange Career of Jim Crow4* C"G*
J0#K<*]^?0#X*=:()"#$('>*!#"$$4
Early Childhood Education and Services for all Children:
A Call to Action for Social Science and Human Service
Professionals
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[":"''A*M"HH$2*;#AXQA'"*9$$($'A:'2*V"%A#'R":'*0?*!$>&10H0@>2*
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W#(&A*M1('"2*L4942*C0#'1*EA#0H(:A*E":'#AH*=:()"#$('>
Abstract
School readiness has become an increasing concern in the United
States over the past 40 years. Since the advent of the Civil Rights
Movement and the war on poverty, social policy makers have
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