ARTICLE
10.1177/1066480703261932
THE
Carlson
FAMILY
et al. / JOURNAL:
A MULTICULTURAL
COUNSELING
DISCUSSION
AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES ANDAMILIES
F
/ April 2004
❖ Articles
A Multicultural Discussion
About Personality Development
Jon Carlson
Governors State University
Yoshiya Kurato
Kansai University
Elizabeth Ruiz
Governors State University
Kok-Mun Ng
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Julia Yang
Governors State University
The use of knife and fork common in Western cultures has influenced
Japanese people not only in terms of eating habits but also Japanese
personality characteristics. This influence fosters the notion of segmentation—that all areas of life, including people, can be sectioned
into parts and so analyzed. Mind and body are considered two discrete elements. Likewise, Western influence in clothes, housing, and
language has also brought the Japanese a great deal of change in
their value system. The change has affected family structure; thus
there is confusion to the extent the Japanese seem to be at loss as to
what to do and how to deal with daily life. The authors also discuss
how strongly personality theories mainly developed in Western cultures have influenced personality development and child rearing in
Japan (Kurato).
Keywords:
knife and fork; segementation; value system; confusion (Kurato)
W
hy can’t we come to some agreements about human
personality development? There are many theories
but none that are generally accepted. Some are complex,
whereas others are simple and clear. Freud, Jung, Adler,
Skinner, Rogers, and Beck are among the most popular theorists. Their theories all have their roots in Europe and emanate
from a male perspective. Is personality viewed differently by
different cultures and genders? Might a different perspective
provide an accepted view?
This discussion took place in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, at the
2003 International Counseling Conference.
This article discusses personality theory in relation to culture. Prominent social scientists present the perspectives of
the Japanese, Hispanic, Malay, and Taiwanese cultures.
Each culture has differing beliefs on the issue of responsibility. Is a person determined by his or her heredity and environment, or can he or she make choices? Each culture has differing beliefs about how to prove the validity of its approach.
Some require rigorous experimentation and some require
logic, whereas others need nothing because questioning
doesn’t occur. Each culture has differing beliefs about time;
some emphasize the importance of the past, some the future,
others the present. Each culture has a differing emphasis on
the importance of consciousness, and each culture also has a
differing emphasis on the importance of learning. Most believe in learning but debate over what kinds of learning might
be needed.
To make this program consistent, each of the participants
was asked to address the following questions:
1. How do cultural differences and the definitions of mental
health and illness affect personality development?
2. How do cultural differences and the expression of emotion
affect personality?
3. How do cultural values affect personality development?
4. How do cultural differences in gender roles affect personality
development?
5. Do cultural differences in attachment or parenting affect personality development?
6. Will the change in cultural demographics in the world lead to
an integration of Western and non-Western theories?
THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES, Vol. 12 No. 2, April 2004 111-121
DOI: 10.1177/1066480703261932
© 2004 Sage Publications
111
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112 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / April 2004
very cold in winter, but this looseness or openness in housing
influenced the building of family bonds or ties.
Japan is an industrialized country to which globalization
Family members living in a household do not ordinarily
has come too quickly. To a large extent, this globalization has
have rooms of their own. Individualism is not encouraged.
breached boundaries between other cultures and the JapaSharing almost everything in the house supports a “we-ness.”
nese. Therefore, it is not easy to pin down how cultural differThis housing milieu influenced personalities enormously.
ences are affecting personality development. The Japanese
The Japanese have built a so-called group ego, as opposed to
have already been influenced significantly and are becoming
the ego that has been conceptualized in Western culture.
more or less cosmopolitan, with a collective, unique personAs to the Japanese language, it is said that it is a product of
ality. This writing attempts to describe what is seen in couna high-context culture, whereas English emanates from a lowseling sessions, including some observations of daily life.
context culture. There are often discrepancies between what
First, the use of knives and forks, which is a common way
is spoken and what is left unsaid, such as the expression of
of eating in Western culture, was introduced in Japan more
feelings and desires. “No thank you,” which is often the
than a century ago. It has influenced Japanese people in terms
response to an offer of ice cream, for example, usually means
of not only an eating custom but also Japanese personality
“Yes” in terms of what is underneath, or one’s feelings or
characteristics. In Western culture, people chop meats or vegdesires. Thus, the person who is doing the offering is required
etables with knives and forks. In contrast, the Japanese pick
to interpret what is beneath what is actually verbalized—what
up food with chopsticks, symbolizing an acceptance of cirthe true feeling or wish of the receiver is. Consequently, the
cumstances as they present themselves. This concept fosters
person who is doing the offering is expected to ask again,
the notion of segmentation, that all areas of life, including
“Are you sure you don’t want ice cream?” The response tends
people, can be sectioned into parts and so analyzed. Mind and
to be “Yes, I’ll have some.” This is an example of how it was in
body are considered two discrete elements, an influence of
the past and may still be in some social situations. In a highDescartes’s dualisms. This contradicts Japanese
context culture, there is much vagueness.
culture. The Japanese believe that all things are
Both the person who is doing the offerintegrated. Mind and body are not separate, but
ing and the receiver have a lot of free
one. Because they are a unit, the view of a mindspace in their interpretations of what is
and-body dichotomy, one that is still popular
spoken, and all is dependent on context.
Prominent social
and practiced in the field of medical engineerThis cultural uniqueness, however, is
ing, does not fit the Japanese culture. To the Japchanging, having been affected by
scientists present
anese, it is not only wrong but also impossible to
globalization.
do a heart transplant, no matter how well it
The globalization described above
the perspectives
operates mechanically.
has influenced the family structure in
In relation to clothing, Japanese men ordiJapan. The Japanese family context, in
of the Japanese,
narily wear suits or jackets with ties and pants.
general, was the place where members of
This is referred to as Western dressing. It is a
a family fulfilled, to a larger extent, their
Hispanic, Malay,
Western influence. Western clothes are funcdesires of self-actualization. In most
tional and are easy to move in. Japanese tradicases, it provided basic physiological
and Chinese
tional clothes, consisting of everyday-use kimoand security needs. It was also a place to
nos for ordinary people, are not suited for such
learn not only knowledge and skills but
cultures.
tasks as housekeeping, baseball, tennis, and
also how to cope with difficulties. Howother sports or occasions. The style of clothing
ever, as globalization has influenced the
that is worn influences daily-life activities.
Japanese family at a tremendously accelThese in turn affect the personality. The Japaerated speed, the Japanese family has not
nese become more functional minded, making
been able to sufficiently fulfill members’
it easier to understand roles. They respond very quickly. Condesires. Fathers are either away from home (living separately
sequently, an outgoing nature in personality is fostered. This
because of factory branches being located in remote places)
outgoing nature is highly valued while wearing Western
or function inadequately (not taking responsibility for
clothes.
parental discipline).
In regard to housing, formerly, the Japanese lived in
On one hand, the recent development of technology has
houses that were built of wood. In a house, every room was
been a positive influence on families. For instance, the microseparated by a sliding door so that if there was a large number
wave oven has been not only a great convenience but a joy for
of guests, the sliding doors could be opened to provide addicooking purposes (only 26.6% of the participants in my study
tional space. It was convenient, especially during extended
reported that they felt stressed when manipulating microfamily visits. However, houses were not built airtight. It was
electric systems; Carlson et al., 1999).
JAPANESE (YOSHIYA KURATO)
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Carlson et al. / A MULTICULTURAL DISCUSSION 113
On the other hand, because the Japanese are inclined to
depend on technology that is convenient to use, they may
have developed a dependence that is similar to substance
abuse. For instance, the Japanese depend on computers to
look up Japanese kanji words (Chinese characters), instead of
consulting dictionaries. Also, convenience tends to produce
low tolerance. We don’t hesitate to switch on air conditioners
when it may not be necessary. Globalization has brought a
great deal of change in the Japanese people. These changes
include Japanese value systems. Changes in value systems
have facilitated gravitation toward the paternal principle and
away from the matriarchal principle: In Jungian theory, the
paternal principle is thought to be something that fragments
and cuts away, whereas the matriarchal principle is inclusive and nurturing. This change in the value system has produced a great deal of confusion. The Japanese people seem
to be at a loss as to what to do and how to deal with the change.
This confusion is bound to continue for some time, and the
Japanese people will suffer from it. Meanwhile, it can only
be hoped that because change means a “chance,” according to
a Chinese proverb, the people may accustom themselves to
it, overcome it, and create a new stage of personality
development.
How Do Cultural Differences and the
Definitions of Mental Health and Illness
Affect Personality Development?
Formerly, the Japanese culture respected vagueness, as
exemplified by our rural country areas’ rice fields, with their
smoky or hazy atmospheres, especially after the “fire of the
fallen ears,” and dark farmhouses and barns. This vagueness
affects personalities in light of the reluctance of the Japanese
to say “No” and the resulting uneasiness if it is said.
Some characteristics of healthy personalities are endurance, obedience, group conformity, and industry. The cheerfulness of women is desired as a charm point. Those individuals who do not work hard or get along well with others are
sometimes labeled “insane.”
However, saying “No” or speaking out became popular
as westernization took place. Consequently, there are some
young people today who are confused about whether to adopt
a traditional mindset or a new way of behaving. They have
half a mind to say “No.”
How Do Cultural Differences and the
Expression of Emotions Affect Personality?
For the Japanese, the word emotion is also a concept, but
the people are still not accustomed to practicing it. The Japanese infrequently express emotions and tend to suppress what
is being experienced. This affects personalities to the extent
that people are usually reserved and withdrawn. Today, many
of our young people have begun to express their feelings and
emotions, but some remain inhibited. According to the Ministry of Education and Science, there were more than 1 mil-
lion young people in 2001 who could not detach from their
family-of-origin homes.
How Do Cultural Values Affect
Personality Development?
The maxim “Patience wins the day” was often quoted and
highly valued. Everyone knows this proverb and tries to practice it. Typically, the Japanese are very patient and work hard.
This coincides with enduring severe natural disasters such as
earthquakes, typhoons, and floods. These tragedies are regarded as visitations from God in response to the sins of the
people, and in extreme cases, myths were created out of these
disasters.
Seniority, an influence of Confucianism, was (and hopefully still is) respected. Seniority affects personalities in that
there is obedience and deference to senior persons. It also
established the importance of discipline and mutual cooperation. As a result, families or even companies are in good order
and well functioning. Japanese companies are often compared to families.
How Do Cultural Differences in Gender Roles
Affect Personality Development?
Traditionally, women remained at home and took care of
household duties. They were not accustomed to social activities such as parties, social gatherings, or interest groups.
Being isolated from the community caused women to withdraw and have low self-esteem. Some anorexia nervosa clients have said that their mothers, to whom they would have
liked to look as their ideal images, were disgusted to note how
miserable and tired their own mothers were in doing only
household duties. These women felt trapped, and they did not
know what was going on in the outside world. The anorexia
nervosa clients did not want to become like their mothers,
resulting in a refusal to eat and thrive. If they refused to eat,
they thought that they could refuse to become motherlike
adults. This is one example of how individuals can become
pathological. Contrarily, in extreme cases in present-day
Japan, “democracy” is practiced at home by young couples
that share household duties. This includes child rearing.
Many women have been afraid of child rearing, and some
develop child-rearing neuroses that sometimes escalate into
child abuse. Thus, a propensity to practice “democracy” in
the home has accelerated.
However, in spite of this inclination, some young people in
present-day Japan still do not seem to want to marry or have
children. For them, marriage is troublesome. Young women
think it unwise and unfair to be expected to perform household duties and child rearing without the help of their husbands, and they fear the possibility of this becoming their
realities.
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114 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / April 2004
Do Cultural Differences in Attachment or
Parenting Affect Personality Development?
“The child is father of the man” was a key concept for
parenting. The Japanese still value male children. Male heirs
inherit a family’s property, and the family can maintain its
family tree. Because the eldest son was the automatic successor of the family, he was treated differently, receiving special
attention. This is no longer practiced. However, people still
tend to give special attention to the eldest son and have unrealistic expectations of him. Hence, it is burdensome. School
phobia is greatest among eldest sons. In some cases, female
babies are treated and dressed like boys. As they grow older,
they are asked to behave like male children. This leads to gender identity disorder. It is a phenomenon that is increasing in
Japan, and counselors are struggling with it.
Will the Change in Cultural Demographics
in the World Lead to an Integration of Western
and Non-Western Theories?
It is inevitable that the change in cultural demographics in
the world will lead to an integration of Western and nonWestern theories. However, when the Japanese cultural identity and pride are taken into consideration, it is hoped that the
theories that have been kept for centuries are preserved. I
hope that we continue to respect them and that Western and
non-Western theories contribute to each other from the standpoint of their special uniqueness.
HISPANIC (ELIZABETH RUIZ)
Traditionally, most personality theorists did not consider
the impact of culture on personality development. Theorists
such as Freud and Skinner applied their theories universally
to all individuals, regardless of cultural background, religion,
or gender. In essence, the U.S. and Western European perspectives dominated personality theory. More recently, however, the study of personality is focusing more attention on
cultural influences. An increasingly diverse population in the
West and increased contact with other cultures due to technological advances in communication fuel this attention.
Hispanics constitute one of the fastest growing cultural
groups in the United States. U.S. census data indicate that
Hispanics will be the largest minority group by 2050 (U.S.
Census Bureau, 1992). In providing mental health services to
such a large segment of the population, mental health professionals have begun to recognize that traditional theories are
not culturally relevant for Hispanics (Bauer, 1998; SantiagoRivera, 1995). This section summarizes cultural factors that
can have an impact on personality development among Hispanics. Although Hispanics are a heterogeneous group composed of people from various countries, races, and historical
and political backgrounds, common beliefs generally shared
by Hispanic groups are the focus.
Cultural Factors Influencing Personality
Worldview
Elements of the Hispanic worldview that must be considered include the culture’s views of nature, time, and social
relationships.
Nature. Most Hispanics believe that human beings are at
one with nature. Rather than trying to control and master
nature, as in the West, Hispanics generally accept that they
have little control over it. As a result, they must work with,
rather than against, the forces of nature (Bauer, 1998).
Time. Hispanics tend to focus on the present and have a
more flexible attitude toward time. Moreover, the quality of
an interpersonal relationship, rather than the amount of time
spent with someone, is of higher importance (Marín & Marín,
1991).
Social relationships. Traditionally, Hispanics accept a hierarchical order in their relationships in which deference to
authority is customary (Bauer, 1998). Often, the respect Hispanics have for authority makes it difficult for them to speak
up and assert themselves when necessary (Garcia-Preto,
1996a).
Cultural Values and Scripts
Cultural values and scripts play an important role in shaping thoughts and behaviors among Hispanics. Among these
are collectivism, simpatia (smooth, pleasant relationships),
personalismo (individualized self-worth), respeto (respect),
familismo (familialism), marianismo (female self-sacrifice),
and machismo (male self-respect and responsibility). Because these concepts do not translate well into English (even
the word respect takes on a stronger flavor in Spanish), the
Spanish words are typically used when referring to them in
English.
Collectivism. Hispanics come to the United States from
collectivistic cultures, which contrast with the individualist
culture of the United States. Collectivistic cultures view their
accomplishments as being dependent on the outcomes of
others. Consequently, they value the needs, goals, views, and
beliefs of the group over those of the individual (Hofstede,
1980). Collectivistic cultures also emphasize family relationships and team efforts. Interactions in these cultures tend to be
positive, direct, and personal. Conflict, however, is avoided,
and work with others, including authority figures, emphasizes cooperation rather than competition.
Simpatia. Triandis, Marín, Lisansky, and Betancourt (1984)
described simpatia as “a permanent personal quality where
an individual is perceived as likeable, attractive, fun to be
with, and easy-going” (p. 1363). A person’s ability to maintain harmonious, positive relationships is particularly valued.
It is understood that a person with simpatia empathizes with
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Carlson et al. / A MULTICULTURAL DISCUSSION 115
others’ feelings and therefore treats others with dignity and
respect.
Personalismo. Hispanics value the uniqueness of each individual and the qualities that give a person his or her sense of
worth. This value is linked to the importance of a person’s
dignity and respect for authority (Garcia-Preto, 1996a). In
addition, personalismo reflects the value Hispanics place on
personal contact and social interactions (Bernal & Shapiro,
1996). Personalismo evolved out of the poor socioeconomic
situation in which many Hispanics have lived for centuries.
Focusing on a person’s inner qualities allows a person to feel
self-worth regardless of his or her material wealth (GarciaPreto, 1996b).
Respeto. Being respected by others, particularly by authority figures, is highly valued (Forst & Lehman, 1997).
With regard to parents, children are expected to show a sense
of respect that includes dutifulness and emotional dependence (Falicov, 1996).
Familismo. Although many cultures value family relationships, Hispanics emphasize and place a priority on family
relationships (Forst & Lehman, 1997). They identify strongly
with and attach to their nuclear and extended families. Furthermore, family relationships involve strong senses of loyalty, solidarity, and reciprocity that are reflected in three
ways: (a) feeling obligated to provide for the material and
emotional support of family members, (b) relying on family
members for help and support, and (c) viewing family members as role models of behaviors and attitudes (Marín &
Marín, 1991). Because of the high dependence on family,
reliance on outsiders or institutions is low (Falicov, 1996).
Marianismo. A mother’s self-sacrifice for her children is
admired (Santiago-Rivera, 1995). This value is derived from
a strong Catholic belief in the Virgin Mary that views women
as being more capable of enduring suffering than men because of their superior morality and spirituality. Also implied
in this value is the expectation that a woman will suppress and
sublimate her sexual desires (Garcia-Preto, 1996b). As a
result, this value has implications for a woman’s socializing
outside of her home. Family members expect unmarried
women to restrict their contact with men outside of the family
(Gillin, 1960). If any woman repeatedly socializes with a man
without the prospect of marriage, she is considered immoral
and risks ostracism from respectable circles (Allen, Amason,
& Holmes, 1998).
Machismo. The male head of a household is responsible
for ensuring that his family is cared for and protected. Rather
than the negative, stereotypical view Westerners have that
describes machismo as being sexist, the Hispanic view of
machismo emphasizes a man’s use of strength and power to
protect and care for others (Forst & Lehman, 1997;
Gabrielidis, Stephan, Ybarra, & Dos Santos Pearson, 1997).
Social Behaviors
Part of the concept of simpatia relates to the value Hispanics place on positive social behaviors. These include loyalty
and dignity toward others and admiration for others’ accomplishments (Forst & Lehman, 1997). Negative behaviors,
such as criticizing, confronting, speaking to others in a demeaning manner, or bossing others around, are strongly
discouraged.
Implications for Personality Theories
The Hispanic worldview and cultural values contrast dramatically with those of Western cultures. The Western worldview holds that humans should control nature and that time is
of the essence, with the future having more importance than
the present. In addition, most Western cultures strive for a
sense of egalitarianism in their relationships, with little patience for those who rely on hierarchical structures. Western
values emphasize individualism, competition, and the material wealth these values produce more than interpersonal relationships. Moreover, the West encourages less reliance on the
family. Parents strive to have their children separate, individuate, and become autonomous. Traditional personality theories embody these values, even though they are not consistent
with those of Hispanic cultures. As a result, traditional theories may result in misunderstanding, misdiagnosing, and ineffectively treating individuals from Hispanic cultures. It is
imperative, therefore, that we broaden the perspective of traditional theories to more accurately describe the experience
of one of the fastest growing populations in North America.
MALAY (KOK-MUN NG)
Malaysia has about 22 million people. It is located south of
Thailand and the Philippines and north of Singapore and
Indonesia. Ethnically, Malays and other indigenous population groups constitute about 58%, ethnic Chinese 26%, Indians 7%, and others 9%. With regard to religion, Malays are
Muslims; Chinese are Buddhists, Confucianists, or Taoists;
and Indians are Hindus. About 8% of the population is Christian, with various ethnic backgrounds, mainly Chinese, Indians, and the indigenous peoples from the eastern part of the
country. Animism is still practiced among many indigenous
people. The Malay language is the official and national language. English is used in the business world. Most people are
at least bilingual. Literacy is about 85%. Detailed demographic information can be obtained online at http://www.
jobs.net/locations/my/people.html.
Chinese Malaysians can be generally categorized into
English-speaking and Chinese-speaking individuals. The
former received their formal education mainly in English and
the latter in Chinese. Generally, the English-speaking Chinese are more westernized than their Chinese-speaking kin.
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116 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / April 2004
The Chinese-speaking people are more invested in the Chinese culture and traditions as well as concerned over social
issues confronting the Chinese community in the country
than the English-speaking people. Apparently, similar categorizations and differences exist within other ethnic groups.
This indicates the influence of Western culture via education
exposure.
Human Nature
Conflicting ancient teachings on human nature have been
passed down to the Chinese. There were those who taught that
human nature is good and those who argued that it is bad.
Most Chinese Malaysians seem to hold the negative view of
human nature. This seems to express itself in a general mistrust of others. It is a common understanding that the Chinese,
as a people, are very disunited and clannish. Such characteristics can also be observed among Chinese Malaysians. It is my
belief that this is probably related to a negative view toward
human nature and hence an unwillingness to trust. Because of
immigrant history, the hostility the Chinese community at
times encounters may also be contributing to its general mistrustful attitude.
On the other hand, the Malays seem to be more united as
an ethnic group, though presently, the Malays are politically
divided as a result of a differing of the understanding and
interpretation of their religion, which once was the strongest
element that held them together. The Malays seem to believe
that whatever they are born with is their fate and gift from
God. The Malays generally seem to be more trusting of others. But skepticism toward the government among the Malays
seems to have risen in recent years because of the political
atmosphere of the country. In the past, because of their religious beliefs and practices, many Malays did not interact
freely and closely with people from outside of their religion.
There is more integration among ethnic groups, including the
Malays, in recent times, especially among the younger generation. However, because of dietary practices and other religious prohibitions, Malays tend to exclude themselves from
other ethnic groups in certain social settings, for example,
restaurants that serve pork and places that serve alcoholic
drinks.
Nature or Nurture
Chinese Malaysians in general view that there are aspects
of human personality that are inborn as well as aspects that
are learned. However, the general opinion is that environment
plays a greater role in personality formation. Many Chinese
Malaysians do share the views of their forefathers that the
early years of individuals lay firmly the foundation of their
personalities. It is the parents’ job to shape the character of
their children.
The study of personality formation among the Chinese has
not been popular or prized, nor is the study of psychology in
general. Hence, most Chinese people do not have a clear idea
of which aspects of personality are innate and which are
learned. In fact, the definition of personality is vague to most
people. However, the more westernized, English-speaking
Chinese Malaysians tend to adopt more Western psychological views of personality because of their exposure through
education and mass media. Presently, there is increased interest in psychology-related subjects among the Chinesespeaking community.
With regard to the role and extent of cultural influence on
the formation of personality, the answer is affirmative. Most
believe that one’s parents and living environment shape one’s
personality traits directly. The belief in filial piety, a foundational Confucian principle of social and relational ethics,
motivates parents to instill such values in their children. The
Chinese culture considers filial piety to be a very desirable
character trait. Filial piety results in children being taught to
respect their elders by obeying them, caring for parents when
they become dependent later in life, not voicing their own
opinions, and adhering strictly to socially sanctioned and prescribed behaviors. Chinese schools reinforce the value of
filial piety through teaching methodology and content. An
extroverted child is discouraged from being expressive, especially in social settings. Parents discourage inquisitive children from asking many questions because that is considered
rude or a challenge to the authority of elders. Teachers encourage rote learning and exact strict discipline in class. Individualistic characteristics are discouraged. Group work is
encouraged. Although there is moral emphasis in the curriculum of Malay medium schools (elementary through high
school), the general consensus among the Chinese community in Malaysia is that students in Chinese medium schools
in general are more disciplined, are more respectful of their
elders, are more aware of Chinese cultural beliefs and practices, adhere more to these beliefs and practices, are more
hardworking, and achieve better academic results.
When observing closely, one can often distinguish Chinese-educated persons from English-educated persons. The
former tend to be more reserved socially, whereas the latter
are more confident and upfront. Many Chinese seem to agree
that English-educated individuals tend to be more adaptable,
whereas Chinese-speaking individuals tend to be less confident and to find it hard to adapt to situations outside of their
culture. Hence, the “China man” stereotype is perpetuated
within the Chinese community. Chinese-speaking individuals are more open to cultural elements from Hong Kong and
Taiwan that are the bedrock of modern Chinese culture. English-speaking individuals, on the other hand, tend to prefer
Western influences.
Having said the above, observers of social evolution
would notice that the younger generation is less traditional
and less conservative in its values and behavior. Filial piety
has become less rigid in its expression. For example, funeral
rituals are less rigid and have become more practical. Funerals lasting beyond 3 days are more the exception than the rule
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Carlson et al. / A MULTICULTURAL DISCUSSION 117
since the 1980s. Children are given more freedom of expression. Individualistic behaviors are no longer considered to
be all bad and countertraditional. Men, especially Englisheducated ones, are more willing to take up the nurturing role
in the family. Gender roles are beginning to break down some.
Although traditionally, men are favored more than women,
many parents these days have realized the inequality and
damage such favoritism can do to their sons and daughters.
Many have become more egalitarian. Many Chinese Malaysians also report that they have begun to favor their daughters
more. They project that they will end up more dependent on
their daughters in old age because daughters apparently show
more concern for their parents. They also tend to keep closer
ties with their aging parents and families of origin compared
to sons. It is quite common to see daughters assuming more
responsibility in providing for their parents compared with
their brothers, who traditionally were expected to shoulder
such roles. However, many aspects of femininity and
masculinity continue to dominate the culture.
Changes from traditional values and practices to more
Western and contemporary ones seem to be greater in urban
settings, among more westernized communities. The
English-speaking Chinese are often more westernized in
terms of values and perspectives toward life compared with
the more traditional Chinese-speaking individuals. Englisheducated individuals appear to be more open minded to external influences, less skeptical of Western ideas, more willing
to learn skills outside of their culture, more assertive, and
bolder in challenging the status quo. The downside is that
these individuals often fail to preserve their cultural identities. It is not inaccurate to call some of them “bananas,” that is,
yellow outside, White inside.
A comment on the influence of religion in personality
development: The Malays tend to be more devout in their religious beliefs and practices. Being religious or pious is a character trait that is upheld among the Malays, whereas such is
not so apparent among the Chinese. There is a much stricter
prescription of gender role difference in Islam than in Buddhism or Taoism. For instance, Muslim women are not encouraged to interact very much with the opposite sex. Items in
commonly used personality assessment instruments that
assess extroversion are probably not valid for this population. There are far fewer Malay women taking on traditionally male occupations compared with Chinese women. As
such, career interest inventories without taking into account
such cultural variables will not be useful for the Malaysian
population.
Understanding of Mental Health
Most people tend to perceive mental health as the overall
ability to function normally in one’s daily life. It is about the
ability to cope with life tasks, responsibilities, and stress. It is
more of a pragmatic perspective. There is a positive correla-
tion between the extent of westernization and the extent of
looking at mental health in terms of emotional well-being.
Mental illness is often viewed as losing one’s mind and
becoming “crazy.” When persons become mentally ill, they
lose their mental capacity and require psychiatric attention.
Many Chinese who practice Taoism often link mental illness
to the spiritual realm. It is often believed that mental illness
results because individuals have offended the spirits or
because they are possessed by the spirits. It is common too for
Chinese people to consult the “gods” or mediums for the healing of mental illness. Such practices are also common among
the Malay community.
There is still a lot of shame associated with mental illness.
Most Chinese Malaysians would find it extremely difficult
to have to admit to suffering from depression or other mental disorders. This is one of the contributing factors to the
underuse and hence the slow development of the counseling
profession, even though psychiatric wards and psychiatrists’
offices are often filled with patients.
The Place of Emotion
Overall, Chinese Malaysians tend to downplay the role of
emotion in their lives. They are more cognitively orientated.
The ability to control or suppress one’s strong emotions, particularly the negative ones, are strongly encouraged and valued. Patience and a long-suffering attitude are upheld as great
virtues. Parents and teachers seek to inculcate such “character” among the young ones. Displaying one’s displeasure in
front of elders is considered rude and unbecoming. Often,
parents feel ashamed of their children’s “unruly” behavior.
However, some English-speaking Chinese individuals,
because of their exposure to the Western value of emotion,
tend to be more willing to consider giving greater attention
and importance to emotion. In comparison, the Malay culture
seems to give emotion greater importance. They express
more emotion verbally and behaviorally. Like Middle Eastern
people, they hug and kiss goodbye. Hugging and kissing
goodbye is not normally practiced among Chinese. The airport is a very good place to observe such differences among
races.
As a final note, I would like to mention one more thing
in this brief presentation. The paranoia level among urban
Malaysians across ethnic groups seems to be quite high as a
result of safety concerns in urban living settings. Most, if not
all, urban dwellers put grills on their doors and windows
because of the high incidence of theft, burglary, and robbery.
Friends and families tend to first alert people to the need to
grill their doors and windows and install alarm systems when
they come to visit if such security measures are not already in
place.
Effect of Globalization
Finally, it is my perception that the Malaysian society is
experiencing a time of transition and adjustment because of
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118 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / April 2004
Table 1
Complementing Forces of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism
School of Thought
Defining Philosopher
Focus
Teachings
Confucianism (6th to 5th
centuries B.C.)
Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi Social focus, moral, ethical, yang
Confucian Analects, Da
Xue—The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the
Mean
Buddhism (founded in
northeast India in the
5th century B.C.)
Siddhartha Gautama
Karma, Zen, yin
The Four Truths
Taoism (4th to 3rd centuries B.C.)
Laozi, Zhuangzi
Transsocial justification,
natural order, yin
Tao Te Ching, I Ching
the impact of Western ideology and lifestyle through media
influence and economic globalization. Will there be an integration of Western and Eastern theories of personality formation? I think that there will be some form of integration. But
the Western theories, I believe, will dominate, just as in many
other areas of life in Malaysia where Western cultural values
and practices have been strongly infused. I believe that this is
primarily due to the lack of indigenous psychological inquiry.
CHINESE (JULIA YANG)
Personality: A Quest for Meaning
What is personality and how does it develop in various
cultural contexts? A common definition of personality is
“characteristics or qualities within an individual.” Can the
sociological construct of “national personality” or “Chinese character” be observed and verified? Does personality
change over time? Do we have more in common (the etic
point of view), or are we are all unique (an emic worldview)?
How do we know? We seem to have some certainty about how
personality influences behavior. Does culture or subculture
influence personality formation, consciously and unconsciously? How do we account for the differences in individuals and on group and cultural levels?
Principles and
Practical Implications
Ethical plane: moral psychology, de (virtues of
“benevolence,” ritual
norms, loyalty to one’s
true nature, reciprocity,
and filial piety)
Religious plane: the goals
are the escape from suffering and the cycle of
rebirth and the attainment of nirvana; emphasizes meditation and the
observance of moral
precepts
Artistic plane: Tao as the
social ideal, the philosophical center, the
force or principle about
which nothing can be
predicated, but that
latently contains the
forms, entities, and
forces of all phenomena; the tradition holds
that all beings and
things are fundamentally one
Cultural differences exist not only on an individual level
but also on the group (family, work, organization, religion,
etc.) and cultural levels (race, ethnicity, etc.). Group means of
comparisons in comparative studies are thus not sufficient to
represent individual and cultural means (Yang, 1998). Challenged by multiculturalism and the postmodernist paradigm,
issues of metaphysical, epistemological, anthropological,
and ethical commensurability of various personality theories
indeed reflect the current status of Western psychology. The
same inadequacies apply to the understanding of Chinese
conceptions of reality and their modes of inquiry and
justification.
Traditional Eastern Thoughts: Complementing
Forces of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism
Central to the philosophy of ancient China are the
Confucianist, Taoist, and Buddhist schools of thought. For
thousands of years, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism
have complemented one another in their far-reaching cultural
influence in China and the neighboring countries. Comparative philosophy studies suggest that Western or Christian
philosophy tends to be systematic argumentation and theory
driven, whereas Chinese philosophy is based on “wisdom”
literature and is invitational in nature. Table 1 highlights the
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Carlson et al. / A MULTICULTURAL DISCUSSION 119
key defining figures, concepts, principles, and practical implications of these traditional thoughts.
Unity of Heaven and Men: The Ideal
In Chinese tradition, heaven is father, earth is mother, and
the human societies are the children in between. Although the
way of heaven is the birth of new life, the way of man is to rely
on the wisdom and virtues bestowed by heaven to play out
one’s inherent nature. The Confucian conception of the good
life focuses on both humanity (humanity’s inborn sense of
what is moral, right, selfless, and broad love for all) and righteousness (ritual, courteous, respectful action to honor the
humane order of society). This parallels values observed in
Protestant ethics and humanism in a society such as the
United States. Proponents of Taoism and Buddhism espouse
essentially the same principles, with the aesthetic dimension
that no internal conflict is felt (no parallel of the Western psychological concept of ego vs. superego).
The universe is run by a single principle: the Tao, the ultimate truth that is divided into two opposite principles, yin and
yang. Each of the opposites produces the other cyclically and
constantly. In Chinese society, Confucianism functions like
the “yang” force (the principle of maleness, the sun, creator,
heat, light, heaven, dominance), whereas Taoism and Buddhism operate under the “yin” principle (femaleness, the
moon, completion, creation, cold, darkness, submission,
etc.). For example, one may first pursue a political career goal
rigorously (prochoice, yang) yet later retreat to a rural and
poetic lifestyle, with total acceptance of the lack of political
attainment (fate, yin).
Buddhism pertains to metaphysical concerns or psychological escape without fixed answers to human suffering.
Central to Buddhist belief is the concept of karma, an Indian
philosophy, the influence of an individual’s past actions on
his or her future lives or reincarnations. It is based on the conviction that the present life is only one in a chain of lives. The
accumulated moral energy of a person’s life determines his or
her character, class status, and disposition in the next life.
Confucian teaching portrays the ideal ethical behaviors
and relations hierarchically for the individual, family, government, and society, whereas Taoism and Buddhism provide
an emotional outlet and intellectual break so that individuals
can see life as a larger whole, larger than our own endeavors.
Thus, individual flourishing is inextricably intertwined with
communal needs. The locus of control is both internal and
external. The interplay of these seemingly contradictory but
indeed complementary philosophical thoughts may explain
why Chinese agree with respect to some common characteristics: stability, simplicity, naturalism, patience, “passive
aggressiveness,” biological productiveness, hard work, no
pursuit of luxury, family orientation, peacefulness, contentment, humor, and conservativeness.
Low Religion: Pragmatism
Although the Western view of reality is two tiered (religion and science), other non-Western views have been three
tiered (high religion, low religion, and nature and social science). Chinese cherish the common goal of self-actualization
by meeting the needs of society as prescribed by high religion. On the other hand, their tolerance of and resiliency to
unpredictable life changes, hardship, disasters, and unhappiness throughout history can be explained by low religion
practices. Family and village rituals and spiritual practices
provide answers to questions involving spiritual practices in
folk religion, ancestor worship, shaman therapy, and Chinese
astrology. Chinese astrology is an age-old art based on math
and science that has its root in the I-Ching (the theory of
change). Taoist concepts and descriptions of signs and elements have yielded the most popular Chinese personality
typology. The concepts of feng shui (the psychology of
space) and the lunar calendar (the psychology of time) are the
foundations of fortune telling, guiding actions to balance
forces between one’s own doing and the way of fate. The low
religion of Taoism and Buddhism has had great influence on
Chinese daily life in all areas: health, food, career, education,
entertainment, art and literature, housing, business, and relationships, to name just a few.
Unity and Diversity:
Chinese Personality Character
The universal (like all others), cultural (like some others),
and the unique (like no others) aspects of the cultural similarity and differences of Chinese are very difficult to portray.
There are some global constants shared across cultures in
the biological, psychological, and spiritual realms and processes. In cultural understanding, one must not embrace only
one reasoning process, because that would lead to stereotypes
or bias. Similarly, radical relativism would deny universality
and the uniqueness of humanness. Convergence theory, thus,
cannot speak to the core of cultural dynamics, regardless of
how modernization and technological advances tend to mislead Western theorists to believe that the social progress of
non-Western societies denotes internalized influences from
the West, such as divorce rates, democracy, capitalism, and
so on.
A Constructivist View
In the past two decades, studies of the worldviews of
numerous cultural groups have utilized Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck’s theoretical model. This has yielded rather inconsistent results among themselves and is contradictory of the
conventional speculations of cultural variations. Findings of
these cross-cultural comparisons are not absolute but closer
to what Gergen termed relational realities (Brotherton,
1991).
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120 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / April 2004
Social progress and modernity result in altering social and
relational structures as well as necessitating a new value system of social adjustment and integration for Chinese societies
that experience rapid transitions from agriculture to the
industrial and postindustrial era.
From cultural psychology’s viewpoints, the Chinese are
not only the recipients of cultural influences but also constructionists of their own cultural patterns in relation to familial, societal, and cultural contexts through the passage of time
(Triandis, 1988; Shweder, 1990). To theorists such as Kelly
and Lewins, individuals are producers of their own development, and development is contextual. Variations of how Chinese use and misuse traditional standards in the definition of
mental health, family relationships, work ethics, and community await further understanding. Although the traditional
Chinese concepts of norms (classifications of human experiences) are still deeply embedded, let us adopt the view that
culture is in the making of the individual, who actively participates in his or her ever-changing world (Brotherton, 1991;
Ellis, 1997; Ivey, Ivey, & Simek-Morgan, 1997; Pedersen,
1994; Rigazio-Digilio, Ivey, & Locke, 1997).
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Jon Carlson is a professor at Governors State University.
Yoshiya Kurato is a graduate of the University of Massachusetts; a
professor emeritus at Osaka City University; president of the Japa-
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Carlson et al. / A MULTICULTURAL DISCUSSION 121
nese Association for Humanistic Psychology; and a member of Phi
Delta Kappa, Chi Sigma Iota, and the New York Academy.
and family counseling. He often returns to Malaysia to conduct
counselor training workshops and psychoeducation seminars.
Elizabeth Ruiz is a professor of psychology at Governors State University and a licensed clinical psychologist in part-time private
practice specializing in therapy with children and families, trauma,
and cultural issues, as well as clinical consultation.
Julia Yang is a professor of counseling at Governors State University. She teaches courses in school counseling and career development. Born and raised in Taiwan, she received her Ph.D. from Ohio
State University. She has taught at Shippensburg University, California State University at Fresno, and National Kaohsiung Normal
University in Taiwan, where she was the founding chair. Her
research and practice have focused on developing clinical scales
measuring youth risk status and Chinese personality types using
Jungian type theory.
Kok-Mun Ng is an assistant professor at the University of North
Carolina at Charlotte. He is a licensed professional counselor and a
national certified counselor. He is also a licensed counselor in Malaysia. His interests include cross-cultural multicultural counseling
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