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Joanna Purgał–Popiela
Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing
Companies on International Markets
Expatriation is becoming very a very important tool in the area of the develop­
ment of organizations on new markets as well as of its employees, the diffusion of
know–how, exerting control, maintaining internal cohesion, etc., in the process of
internationalization of company operations, starting with the placement of sales
units abroad. Nevertheless, its traditional, long–term form is even more frequently
being replaced by alternative solutions. Thus, the goal of this article is showing
classic and nonstandard forms of expatriation as applied in today’s companies
operating on foreign markets in the context of changing strategic orientations,
reflecting the perspective of the organization as a whole.
Key words: expatriation (ekspatriacja), international assignment (misja zagraniczna), inpatriation
(inpatriacja), internationalization (umiędzynarodowienie), strategic orientation (orientacja
strategiczna)
Introduction
The dynamic development of international economic and trade collaboration observed
over recent decades has had a significant impact on changes occurring in organizations
as well as in their surroundings. This process is generally referred to as globalization. In
the broad view, globalization involves ongoing integration of the world economy tak­
ing place through the cooperation of institutions and businesses, trade, international
monetary turnover, mutual penetration of cultural models, lifestyle preferences, etc. In
a narrower context, the concept is applied to a business in both the attributive and op­
erational sense. The former reflects the set of qualities characterizing the global compa­
ny—a company with its own coordinating and control mechanisms making possible the
management of its worldwide resources that is capable of offering the same product or
service on various markets realizing a defined competitive strategy in various countries
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
38
Joanna Purgał–Popiela
[Koźmiński, 1999]. In its turn, the main area of interest of the operational approach is
changes taking place in the business, especially their dynamics and diversity of forms of
the process of internationalization—e. g. international franchising, establishing interna­
tional joint ventures, and mergers and takeovers [Rymarczyk, 1996]. P. J. Dowling and
his colleagues describe the model development path aimed at being a global company
showing it as a sequence of phases, such as the undertaking of export activity, the startup
of a sales unit abroad, the establishing of departments implementing several functions
(inclusive of production), and the transformation of the business into a global network
organization, at the same time seeing the helpful role of activities involving the sale of
licenses or the use of subcontractors [Dowling et al., 2008, pp. 26–27]. At this point it
should be stressed that specific personnel problems—expatriation1—are linked with the
listed phases of internationalization.
The role of expatriation has become very significant in the initial phases of placing
organizational units responsible for sales on foreign markets and remains an important
challenge for personnel managers and specialists in all forms of company operations that
require the flow of workers between countries [Pocztowski, Editor, 2002, pp. 12–13]. It
is also for this reason that this article will look at expatriation within the framework of
phases and forms of the internationalization process that is linked with the above–indi­
cated quality.
The main intent of the author is to demonstrate various solutions in the area of
international assignments as applied by contemporary businesses over the course of in­
ternationalization of their operations, especially in the context of their strategic orienta­
tion that, in this case, reflects the point of view of the organization as a whole (or more
precisely, its management). Solutions examined in this article are based on literature in
the area of international management and human resource management as well as the
results of empirical research conducted in 2011 at the Chair of Human Capital Man­
agement (KZKL).2 The following questions were discussed in line with the assumed
1 This paper uses the concept of expatriation in its broad sense, referring to a temporary
delegation of the employee to a different country in order to perform a mission (international
assignment) as entrusted by the sending organization. It encompasses the transfer of employees
from the head office to foreign divisions, between divisions in various countries, and from divi­
sions to the head office, and thus takes into account employees from various countries (not only
the country of origin of the company). Moreover, both concepts—expatriate and international
assignment—are used interchangeably.
2 The mentioned research study is a continuation of a project started in 2010—“Managing
Expatriate Groups in Businesses Operating on International Markets.” The article only uses the
part of results received in 2011 by way of questionnaire–based studies conducted on representa­
tives of 100 international companies selected by way of targeted sampling on the basis of the
“2000 List,” a supplement to the Rzeczpospolita [daily] of October 27, 2010. Fifty–seven from
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing Companies...39
objective of the paper: essence and place of expatriation in international businesses,
classic and alternative forms of expatriation, and evolution of strategic orientation in the
development of company activities on foreign markets and its impact on the objectives,
directions, and forms of expatriation.
The Place of Expatriation in the Operations of International
Companies
Expatriates form a special category of workers that serves the meeting of organizational
needs, such as the filling of defined positions in foreign units, the finding of and pre­
paring of competent successors from among the local staff, the transfer of unspoken
knowledge, the providing of direct monitoring over the implementation of organiza­
tional procedures and practices, and the guaranteeing of integration, coordination, and
communication on a company–wide scale [Dowling et al., 2008, pp. 88–89; Zarządzanie
grupowa …, 2010, pp. 9–10]. It is characterized by ever growing diversity in terms of the
nationalities of those being delegated as well as forms of performing the international as­
signment. Earlier aspects of expatriation accented the input of the person sent through
the transfer of solutions from more affluent countries that were home to the internation­
al company head office to remaining ones. Currently, the group of expatriates includes
employees temporarily working and residing in the host country, where they might be
from either the home country of the given company or from a third country [Dowling
et al., 2008, p. 4; Perkins, 1997, p. 71]. At this point it should be noted that the classic
(traditional) expatriate is a reference to workers sent by the head office to local (foreign)
units, usually for a period of one to five years [Dowling et al., 2008, p. 90; Perkins,
1997, p. 75; Collings and Scullion, 2007, p. 127]. Nevertheless, recent years have shown
that international organizations are looking for alternative forms of delegating more and
more often. What is more, other directions of expatriation are gaining in importance—i.
e. the flow of employees among local units and inpatriation, which is a stay at the head of­
fice by persons from a foreign division. This last form serves the exchange of know–how
between the division or branch office and the head office. B. S. Reiche identifies two ba­
sic roles for “inpatriates”—delivering managers at the head office contextual knowledge
that allows them to effectively act on foreign markets and direct (on location) absorbing
of corporate culture [Reiche, 2006, p. 1580].
among the examined businesses are Polish companies operating abroad, while the rest are divi­
sions of international companies (the title of the 2011 project is “Managing Expatriates from the
Perspective of the Stakeholders of International Companies” headed by Prof. A. Pocztowski,
Ph.D., Habil.).
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
40
Joanna Purgał–Popiela
The wealth of contemporary (alternative) forms of expatriation also finds expression
in diversity in terms of duration of the stay. In addition to classic long–term international
assignment it is possible to identify:
„„ Business trips – up to one month,
„„ Short–term contracts – one to three months, and
„„ Medium–term contracts – three to twelve months.
Moreover, the international mobility of workers may also be manifested in uncon­
ventional forms such as regular short–term business trips in connection with the per­
formance of defined types of tasks, regular commuting to work abroad during business
days, participation in international research and development project teams, and regular
brief foreign business trips.
The parallel use of many forms of expatriation is becoming a popular practice in in­
ternational businesses. For example, GMAC Global Relocation Services LLC indicates
that in 2004 almost 70% of all international assignments lasted no longer than twelve
months and in the case of 65% of companies they are an alternative solution to tradi­
tional expatriation [as cited by Starr, 2009, p. 286].
According to P. J. Dowling and his colleagues, typical applications for international
assignments involve taking care of a competency gap between the staff of the head
office and the local one, development in the area of management, and organizational
development [Dowling et al., 2008, pp. 88–89]. C. Bartlett and S. Goshal [1992] see
the objectives of expatriation in a similar manner. They identify the following categories:
1) Control and coordination,
2) Know–how and skill transfer by filling posts in the foreign units, and
3) Managerial development, which means expanding on international experience
and preparing workers for future roles [as cited in Mayerhofer et al., 2004, p. 1372].
Nevertheless, in the face of the growing application of short–term and other un­
conventional forms of international assignments, there are certain doubts appearing
regarding any difference between applied alternative forms as compared with classic,
long–term expatriation. Thus, it is the view of T. L. Starr and G. Currie that the former
primarily support the development goals of young workers in the early phases of their
careers [Starr and Currie, 2009, p. 1422]. Moreover, G. Currie and M. Kurrin note that
both inpatriation and flexpatriation (this applies to employees who often go abroad for
brief periods of time on business, but without moving) play a special role in the trans­
fer of information, sharing knowledge, and developing a global network of relations
[Currie and Kerrin, 2003, pp. 1027–1045]. According to R. Mead and T. G. Andrews,
expatriates delegated for a period shorter than one year concentrate on the execution
of concrete tasks, often things like creating new systems, explaining corporate strategy,
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing Companies...41
implementing training, making inspections and assessments, and conducting in–house
consultations [Mead and Andrews, 2011, p. 476].
However, the results of empirical studies carried out in 500 European international
companies by the Center for Research into the Management of Expatriation (CReME)
as well as Polish research by the KZKL (in 100 companies) suggests that both the classic
and other types of international assignments serve similar purposes. Thus, in light of the
first, typical long–term expatriate goals apply to the transfer of skills, the development
of the managerial staff, and managerial monitoring, while the short–term ones apply to
the first two categories. On the other hand, the tasks of the flexpatriate group are broad,
encompassing the three above categories [Mayerhofer et al., 2004, p. 1375].
In accordance with the KZKL empirical studies, a total of 76% of the investigated
companies benefited from types of international assignments other than contracts last­
ing from three to five years and over five years. The most popular forms were foreign
business trips (34.4% of all indications), short–term contracts of a duration of one to
three months (35.4%), contracts of the duration of three to twelve months (26.3%),
and regular trips for a period of up to one month (20%). Overall, the goals of expatria­
tion—both classic and alternative—most often applied (a total of 72.7% of the exam­
ined companies) to the development of the organization on the new market, where in
over one–half of the companies the international assignments served the transfer of new
solutions, procedures, know–how, etc. (Table No. 1).
% of group
Non–classic
assignments*
Quantity
Total
Quantity
% of group
Geocentric
orientation
Quantity
% of group
Polycentric
orientation
Quantity
% of group
Expatriation
objectives
Monitoring branch office
operations
Improvement of head office
– branch office communica­
tions
Company development on
new market
Quantity
Ethnocentric
orientation
Table No. 1. Typical International Assignment Goals in International Companies
Active in Poland
19
47.5
4
18.2
13
35.1
36
27
35.5
18
45.0
 7
31.8
14
37.8
39
31
40.8
24
60.0
20
90.9
28
75.7
72
55
72.4
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
% of group
Quantity
Total
Quantity
% of group
Geocentric
orientation
Quantity
% of group
Polycentric
orientation
Quantity
% of group
Quantity
Expatriation
objectives
Branch office staff develop­
ment
Development of workers who
shall perform tasks outside
their country of origin in the
future
Transfer of new solutions
Building / transferring organi­
zational culture
Number of companies in the
group
Non–classic
assignments*
Joanna Purgał–Popiela
Ethnocentric
orientation
42
20
50.0
 4
18.2
18
48.6
42
34
44.7
14
35.0
11
50.0
12
32.4
37
25
32.9
21
 6
52.5
15.0
12
 6
54.5
27.3
21
10
56.8
27.0
54
22
45
16
59.2
21.1
99
76
40
22
37
* Research results from among businesses not using international assignments of a duration of
three or more years.
Source: Own work based on empirical studies carried out by the Chair of Human Capital Man­
agement (KZKL) of the Cracow University of Economics (2011) [see Zarządzanie ekspariatami,
2011].
Moreover, in approximately 40% of cases, expatriation goals were coupled with the
development of workers in the host country and of those who, in the future, will be per­
forming tasks outside of their country of origin as well as the monitoring of the foreign
unit and improving internal communication in the company as a whole. Relatively less
popular were tasks relating to other (than listed above) matters in the area of company
development as well as using expatriation as a way to manage competency gaps in the
host country (13% of indications).
At this point it is worth noting that even if organizations that do not use three–year
and longer contracts are excluded, this will not have a significant impact on the order
of specified objectives or their results calculated as percentages. Thus, it may cautiously
be concluded that alternative forms of expatriation support, or even replace, long–term
assignments in achieving the various tasks of organizations active on international mar­
kets, including those linked with their development in its broad sense. Nevertheless, the
results of the mentioned research encompass the objectives of expatriation in a statisti­
cal manner, while it may be suspected that the set of “areas of interest” of various types
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing Companies...43
of international assignments, their priorities, and directions of delegating employees may
change in line with ongoing processes of the internationalization of company operations.
Forms of Expatriation in the Development of International Activities
by Companies
The process of internationalization of company operations finds expression in not only
the structural changes mentioned in the first section, but also in a geographical–cultural
and time–related dimension as well as in ways of creating values and in scope of integra­
tion [Pocztowski, Editor, 2002, pp. 13–14]. In other words, properties differentiating
organizations conducting international activities are:
„„ Number of countries of operation as well as distance, both geographic and cultural,
separating the foreign markets from the domestic one,
„„ Participation of foreign organizational units in creating value,
„„ Level and scope of internal integration, encompassing such aspects as the flow of
raw materials and materials, financial resources, information and knowledge, worker
transfer, and the shaping of corporate culture, and
„„ The duration of their activity on foreign markets.
The needs of companies in the area of delegating employees for international as­
signments change in line with the growing degree of internationalization of business
activities. Changes occurring may apply to the place of expatriation in the development
of the company, its scale, form, direction of relocation, the share of individual groups of
employees in international assignments, and the role of foreign sojourns in molding the
careers and development of employees.
An important factor in determining the course, scope, and direction of the men­
tioned changes is organizational strategy. In its turn, its choice is influenced by the pro­
cess of internationalization [Koźmiński, 1999, p. 97]. Many publications looking into
questions of the strategy of companies operating on foreign markets make reference to
the classification proposed by H. V. Perlmutter.3 It stresses the differences in assump­
tions made by the management of international companies with respect to the rela­
tions between main/parent/head office units, and the remaining ones (divisions, branch
offices, subsidiaries) in such dimensions as the making of decisions, assessment and
control, information flow, and organizational complexity (Table No. 2). It is on their
3 The original classification for strategic orientation may be found in the 1969 article by H.
V. Perlmutter, “The Tortuous Evolution of the Multinational Corporation,” Columbia Journal of
World Business, No. 4(1). An updated version is in the book edited by C. A. Bartlett, S. Goshal,
and J. Birkinshaw [Bartlett et al., Editors, 2004, pp. 63–68].
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44
Joanna Purgał–Popiela
basis that four types of orientations have been isolated—ethnocentric, polycentric, re­
giocentric, and geocentric [compare with Pocztowski, Editor, 2002, pp. 25–29; Dowling
et al., 2008, pp. 80–84].
Expatriation directions
Selected personnel strategy elements
Table No. 2. Expatriation and Selected Personnel Process Pursuant to the
Perlmutter Strategic Orientation
Ethnocentric
Filling key positions
in local units with
workers from the
company country of
origin.
Centralization of
activities in the area
of employee devel­
opment.
Assessment and
monitoring of
results achieved in
local units on the
basis of head office
standards.
Flow of control
information from
the head office to
the local unit.
Polycentric
Filling key positions
in local units with
workers from host
countries.
Activities in the
area of worker
development are
differentiated
and implemented
autonomously in the
local unit.
Evaluation and con­
trol are determined
by local conditions
and needs.
Interchange of in­
formation between
the head office and
local units is limited
to strategic issues.
Regiocentric
Filling key positions
in local units with
the best candidates
from the given
region.
Activities in the area
of development are
conducted on the
scale of individual
regions on the basis
of standards deter­
mined by regional
specifics and needs.
Intense interchange
of information
among units in the
region, weak among
them and on the
region–head office
line.
Geocentric
Filling key positions
in the whole organi­
zation with the best
candidates regard­
less of origin.
Activities in the area
of worker develop­
ment conducted on
a world scale.
Assessment and
monitoring based on
standards deemed
universal and typi­
cally local.
Horizontal commu­
nication dominant,
based on network
relations.
Expatriation from
the head office to
local units is domi­
nant.
Expatriation is of
marginal signifi­
cance.
The flow of workers
among the local
units of individual
regions is dominant.
Expatriation in all
directions on a com­
pany–wide scale is
used intensely.
Source: Own work based on [Pocztowski, Editor, 2002, pp. 25–29; Dowling et al., 2008,
pp. 80–84].
The first is based on the conviction of supremacy of the concepts and functional
solutions of businesses in the country of origin of the company. Effectively, it is based
on the transfer of solutions from the head office to organizational units found abroad.
In its turn, the polycentric philosophy stresses the fact that there are significant dif­
ferences between conditions in the country of origin and host countries. It underscores
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Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing Companies...45
the need for using the experience of local workers in developing management concepts
adapted to the specifics of individual foreign markets.
The regiocentric orientation assumes the need for balancing tendencies in the area
of integration and differentiation of solutions by isolating relatively uniform groups of
countries (regions) and applying separate, uniform strategies, standards, and practices
in them.
The geocentric point of view is expressed in the putting of the need for integration
of individual organizational units over and above the need for taking into account local
differences. Its main task for the organization identifies coordination of geographically
dispersed operations.
The above–characterized strategic orientations have a major impact on implement­
ed personnel strategy, including the scope of application of expatriation (Table No. 2).
Moreover, according to P. J. Dowling et al., they are linked with the process of interna­
tionalization, although the company development phase is only one of several significant
determinants in selecting a strategy [Dowling et al., 2008, pp. 80–85].
Overall, the ethnocentric point of view is mainly assigned to companies in their early
phases of international development as it makes possible a limiting of risk accompanying
entry onto new markets in a situation in which information about them is insufficient or
managers expect difficulties in finding competent local staff.
It is for this reason that the dominant direction of expatriation is the delegating of
managers (and sometimes specialists) from the head office to local units. Nevertheless,
the ethnocentric approach in connection with expatriation to local units is applied in
control even in “mature” companies [Bonache et al., 2001, pp. 3–20]. In its turn, the
regiocentric orientation is perceived as a concept preceding the strategy that is appropri­
ate for mature companies—the geocentric approach4 [Pocztowski, Editor, …, 2002, p.
27]. The latter fosters intense flows of workers aimed at the development of a global
staff, the sharing of knowledge and communication on a company–wide scale, and the
support of integration processes. A general, preliminary conclusion relating to the im­
pact of the mentioned orientations on the intensity and direction of expatriation is as
follows: The evolution of management philosophy from ethnocentrism to geocentrism
brings with itself a change in mission priorities, growth in the diversity of their directions,
4 It should be stressed that in literature there is a dearth of clear indications relating to the
“placement” of the polycentric orientation in the internationalization process. However, it may
be stated that it may occur after the “ethnocentric” phase. Nevertheless, it may also be a pre­
liminary and simultaneously target philosophy in managing a company active on diverse and
specific markets that, according to the management, require separate practices adapted to local
conditions, for which the domestic market (the market of the country of origin) is of comparable
of even lesser importance than the foreign one in generating value and building success.
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
46
Joanna Purgał–Popiela
and growth in the share of workers not from the head office among all delegated, where
polycentrism is characterized as seeing a relatively small “concentration” in the flow of
workers against a background of the other orientations.
The legitimacy of the above conclusion as well as of earlier observations relating to
the evolution of strategic orientation in line with the level of internationalization is par­
tially confirmed by the results of the KZKL empirical studies.5 Their cohesiveness with
the theoretical depiction is expressed in the following:
„„ Relatively greater importance of the geocentric orientation in international com­
panies operating for eleven years or more than in the case of companies with a shorter
history (Table No. 3).
„„ Greater frequency in the occurrence of the ethnocentric or polycentric orientations
(than the geocentric one) in “young” companies that are in business for no more than
five years (Table No. 3).
„„ Dominance of international assignments (of various durations) from the head office
to foreign units in companies declaring an ethnocentric orientation (Table No. 4).
„„ Clearly greater frequency of short– and long–term transfers of workers in various
directions in companies with a geocentric orientation (Table No. 4).
„„ Popularity of the mission that is classic and an alternative of a “monitoring” char­
acter, improving the efficiency of communications with the head office as well as of
a “transfer” character in organizations with an ethnocentric management philosophy
(Table No. 1).
Table No. 3. Strategic Orientation and Company Age: Examples of International
Businesses Operating in Poland (KZKL 2011)
Strategic
orientation
Ethnocentric
Polycentric
Geocentric
TOTAL
Up to 5 years
Quantity %
 5
33.3
 7
46.7
 3
20.0
15
6–10 years
Quantity
16
 6
 6
28
%
55.2
20.7
20.7
11 years and
more
Quantity
%
19
33.9
 9
16.1
28
50.0
56
Total
Quantity
40
22
37
99
%
40.4
22.2
37.3
100
Source: Own work based on empirical studies carried out by the Chair of Human Capital Man­
agement (KZKL) of the Cracow University of Economics (2011).
5 At this point it should be noted that the KZKL study bypasses the regiocentric orientation.
This was caused by its similarity to the geocentric model whose assumptions in the area of inte­
gration and coordination of organizational operations are limited to defined regions in this case.
More on this topic may be found in [Zarządzanie ekspatriatami …. 2010].
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Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing Companies...47
Table No. 4. Strategic Orientation and Expatriation Direction: Examples of
International Businesses Operating in Poland (KZKL 2011)
Direction
of expatriation
From the head office
to branches
From branches to the
head office
From the head office
to branches and from
branches to the head
office
Between branches and
the head office within
the framework of the
whole company
TOTAL
Ethnocentric
orientation
Quantity %
19
47.5
Polycentric
orientation
Quantity %
 9
40.9
10
25.0
10
45.5  4
10.8 24
24.2
 9
22.5
 1
4.5
12
32.4 22
22.2
 9
22.5
 3
13.6 15
40.5 27
27.2
22
37
99
40
Geocentric
orientation
Total
Quantity %
Quantity %
 8
21.6 36
36.4
Source: Own work based on empirical studies carried out by the Chair of Human Capital Man­
agement (KZKL) of the Cracow University of Economics (2011).
The divergence from the model depiction may be sought in the relatively frequent
application of inpatriation in companies with the polycentric orientation (Table No. 4),
the significant role of the classic and alternative missions aimed at development of work­
ers from the branch offices of ethnocentric companies (Table No. 1), and also the domi­
nance in popularity of companies with a relatively long history—from 6–10 years (Table
No. 3). Perhaps, in the first case, in spite of the relative autonomy of foreign divisions in
organizational practice and solutions, the delegating of local workers to the head office
is a distinctive means against excessive disintegration or it is a symptom of the evolution
of the management philosophy towards a geocentrism tied with the development of
a global staff. This last explanation may be linked with a clearly more frequent (as com­
pared with other orientations) use of expatriation, both classic and unconventional, in
the development of workers who, in the future, are to work “globally” (Table No. 1). The
second divergence may be the result of similar circumstances—i. e. the developmental
pressure of branch office workers may signal that the dominant strategic orientation
is pushing out or supplementing an approach closer to geocentrism. Nevertheless, the
receiving of confirmation for the above suppositions requires in–depth study. In its turn,
the third doubt is much more difficult to explain. This is because the age of a company
is no basis for suggesting a “mature” stage in the process of internationalization. This
is especially true in connection with the elimination of restrictions in the flow of capital
HRM(ZZL) 6-2012eng_Purgal-Popiela_J_37-52
48
Joanna Purgał–Popiela
and labor and within the limits of the European Union, and as a result of galloping
progress in the realm of information and telecommunication technology, where certain
newly established businesses begin operation on an international scale in a short period
of time. This last comment is tied with a significant limitation on the usefulness of the
KZKL study in the attempt at catching links between the mentioned maturity of the in­
ternational organization and strategic orientation undertaken here. Another problematic
question is also the way of assessing strategic orientation itself, which is based exclusively
on the choice by respondents of characteristics best describing, in their view, the overall
approach of the management to the head office – branch office relationship.
Caution in the interpretation of the above results in the looked at scope is also in­
dicated because a so–assumed strategic orientation as well as its range of influence on
managing expatriation involves the impact of many intra–organizational and external
factors. The first include ways of creation (greenfield / brownfield investments, acquisi­
tions, joint ventures), level of maturity, and role / function of individual divisions or
branch offices in the company (e. g. sales representative offices, production / assembly
plants, off–shoring centers, service divisions).
For example, the delegating of workers to a foreign joint venture company usually
serves to monitor its operations and establish a division whose development typically
requires the filling of key positions with expatriates from the head office. In its turn, an
international assignment to a foreign production and assembly plant facilitates the ac­
quisition of know–how, the exchange of experience in the area of technological solutions
applied, the gaining of needed skills by workers, or the achieving of the required qual­
ity level [Mead and Andrews, 2011, pp. 410–415; Rozkwitalska, 2011, p. 213]. From
among external factors that may, at times, determine the goals and forms of international
assignments undertaken on various markets to a greater degree than strategic orienta­
tion, it is the character of the industry and type of activity, the qualities of the host coun­
try (especially seen as how it is different or alien), and its current situation that should be
noted. Moreover, conditions linked with the country of origin of the organization (where
the country of origin of the company is not necessarily tied with the location of the head
office and is more a case of its history, or rather that of the domestic market where it
launched its operations) should be noted.
At this point what should be stressed is the stance taken by the management with
respect to representatives of other cultures and countries that may, to a significant de­
gree, mold their view and expectation in connection with head office – branch relations,
while simultaneously staying within the range of influence of the parent national culture.
It is especially dimensions of this culture such as the distance of authority and evading
uncertainty that can influence:
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Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing Companies...49
„„ A tendency on the part of the management (head office) to fill key positions at
branches with their own workers as well as the placing of great weight on monitoring
functions in expatriation (fostered by a high level of evading uncertainty and significant
distance from authority), and
„„ The creation of conditions for inpatriation as well as the transfer of parallel workers
from various countries within the framework of international structures (which corre­
sponds with a low level of evading uncertainty and a short distance to authority) [Hofst­
ede and Hofstede, 2007, pp. 70, 206].
The presence of “national preferences” in practices linked with expatriation con­
firms the results of many empirical studies. Examples of the manifestation of the impact
of the country of origin of the corporation have been noted in the implementation of
position filling in the branch offices and in level of centralization [Lubatkin et al., 1998,
pp. 679–680; Employment Practices …, 2007], control mechanisms (including through
employment) and strategies for internationalizing the company applied [Harzing and
Sorge, 2003, pp. 96–118], and the use of inpatriation and the flow of employees be­
tween branches in the context of the diffusion of organizational knowledge [Employment Practices …, 2007], for example.
There can be no doubt that the above comments do not take into account the entire
configuration of related factors relating to strategic orientation as well as selection of
types, directions, and goals of expatriation. Firstly, this is caused by limitations stemming
from the form and assumed objective of this article. Secondly, responsibility lies with the
decidedly incomplete topical literature available at the time of the development of this
study, complete with numerous doubts and inconsistencies. Nevertheless, bearing in
mind the several reservations accompanying the discussed results of the KZKL research,
it may be stated, on their basis, that expatriation in classic and unconventional form
serves various, important organizational goals that may change, just like directions of
international assignments, over the course of international development in connection
with the evolution of the strategic orientation.
Final Remarks
Literature studies as well as the results of empirical studies suggest that alternative forms
of expatriation over recent years are becoming an ever more common tool for achieving
objectives in the development of the organization and employees used by international
companies and in many cases successfully replace classic, long–term solutions. Variety
in types of international assignments may be observed in the start–up stages of sales
units for new markets and in global organizations with complex, network structures.
Nevertheless, it is possible to notice a dependence between the growth of “international
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50
Joanna Purgał–Popiela
experience” of a company and the intensity and multi–directionality of the movement of
workers among organizational units found in various countries.
There can be no doubt that the beneficial impact of expatriation on the develop­
ment an international company finds expression in not only the achievement of complex
foreign stay objectives, but also in skill in utilizing the knowledge and experience of
workers following their return. Prerequisite to this is the capacity to integrate policy and
practice in the area of expatriation with the overall strategy for the company’s interna­
tional expansion, the molding of global careers, and managerial talent management.
The above observations apply to both long–term and unconventional international as­
signments. However, the latter create somewhat different problems that continue to be
poorly identified in literature and require further study. Such studies are needed and are,
in fact, becoming more and more important due to current tendencies and phenomena
as taking place in the environment of businesses, where it should be expected that alter­
native forms of expatriation will become the new standards. This is fostered by factors
such as [Mead and Andrews, 2011, p. 475; Dowling et al., 2008, p. 81; Mayerhofer et
al., 2004, pp. 1374–5]:
„„ A fall in interest in classic expatriation in Western countries, which have been the
most frequent source to date of delegated workers, which is the result of such factors as
the growing professional activity of women and the popularity of the dual family model,
„„ Changes in expectations with respect to the professional sphere and the career itself
(including work–life balance and mobility), especially among the younger generation
entering the labor market,
„„ The high costs of long–term delegations and the need for their reduction,
„„ The development of information technology that sometimes reduces the need for
physical presence of the delegated workers or allows a shortening of the duration of the
required stay outside the parent organization,
„„ Increasingly better access to candidates prepared for global work, and
„„ Stress on fields of knowledge, organizational flexibility, the development of an ef­
ficient communication and collaboration network, growing in line with the internation­
alization of operations.
In connection with the above it should be stressed that there is a need to continue
research efforts that will allow for a better understanding of the specifics of the described
solutions in the area of expatriation for the support of the development of practice in
international companies. Furthermore, what is required is the continued exploration of
the configuration of factors determining the objectives, forms, and directions of delegat­
ing workers that change over the course of company internationalization.
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Modern Forms of Expatriation in Developing Companies...51
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Joanna Purgał–Popiela
“Zarządzanie ekspatriantami z perspektywy interesariuszy przedsiębiorstwa międzynarodowego”
[Expatriate management from the perspective of international company stakeholders], unpub­
lished report on chartered research by the Chair of Human Capital Management (KZKL) of the
Cracow University of Economics, Cracow, 2011.
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międzynarodowych” [Managing the expatriate group in companies active on international mar­
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(KZKL) of the Cracow University of Economics, Cracow, 2010.
Współczesne formy ekspatriacji w rozwoju ­przedsiębiorstwa
na rynkach międzynarodowych
Streszczenie
W procesie umiędzynarodowienia działalności firmy, począwszy od ulokowania za gra­
nicą jednostek odpowiedzialnych za sprzedaż, ekspatriacja staje się bardzo istotnym
narzędziem w zakresie rozwoju organizacji na nowych rynkach i jej pracowników, dyfu­
zji wiedzy, sprawowania kontroli, utrzymania wewnętrznej spójności, etc. Niemniej jej
tradycyjną – długoterminową postać coraz częściej zastępują rozwiązania alternatywne.
Celem artykułu jest zatem ukazanie klasycznych i niestandardowych form ekspatriacji
stosowanych współcześnie w przedsiębiorstwach prowadzących działalność na rynkach
zagranicznych w kontekście zmieniającej się orientacji strategicznej, odzwierciedlającej
perspektywę organizacji jako całości.
Dr. Joanna Purgał–Popiela – Assistant professor with the Chair of Human Capital
Management (KZKL) of the Cracow University of Economics, author of several dozen
scientific publications, main research interests concentrate on the international and so­
cial–cultural aspects of human resource management, questions of knowledge and intel­
lectual capital management.
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