JOURNEYS
Sharing Urban Transport Solutions
L T A A C A D E MY
SINGAPORE
ISSUE 12 | NOV 2014
JOURNEYS
Publisher
LTA Academy
Land Transport Authority
1 Hampshire Road
Singapore 219428
Editorial Team
George Sun
Evan Gwee
Lim Seow Chin
Augustine Low
All feedback, suggestions and contribution of papers for future issues are welcomed.
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JOURNEYS
LTA Academy
Land Transport Authority
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© 2014 LTA Academy, Land Transport Authority, Singapore
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form
or by any means without the prior written permission of the LTA Academy, Land Transport Authority,
Singapore. The opinions and views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the LTA Academy or the Land Transport Authority, Singapore.
ISSN: 1793-494X
Contents
Sustainable Urban Transport
05
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
TAN Cheon Kheong and THAM Kwang Sheun
12
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
Stelios RODOULIS
Best Practices
21
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
Bruno VANTU and Dominique HURBIN
33
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
Craig TOWNSEND
44
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
Mahmoud MESBAH and Neema NASSIR
Reference
54
Passenger Transport Mode Shares in World Cities
2
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Dean’s Words
Looi Teik Soon
Dean
LTA Academy
T
his issue of JOURNEYS addresses
Tham Kwang Sheun discuss the challenges,
pertinent
issues
possibilities and benefits associated with
transport
planners
that
confront
to
making such a breakthrough for our
implement or integrate new and emerging
land-scarce city. They highlight potential
technology
infrastructure.
applications of the technology as well as
With autonomous transport becoming an
key areas of research required to make such
increasingly popular concept, we investigate
future mobility solutions a reality.
with
existing
looking
the potential impact and concerns driverless
vehicles bring to both personal and public
Meanwhile, Stelios Rodoulis explores the
transportation. The papers in this issue also
transformative potential of autonomous
examine how the Light Rail Transit (LRT)
vehicle technology and its impact on the
system can help to renew urban form and
transport operation of cities. The paper
enhance mobility experience, as well as
reviews the efficiency and sustainability of
explore new ways of conducting transport
autonomous technology, and also raises
data analyses and evaluation of facilities to
possible challenges in its implementation.
better meet the needs of tomorrow.
The author advises city planners to anticipate
the effects of autonomous transport, calling
The concept of driverless vehicles is an
for early adoption and preparation in the
exciting idea. Could Singapore possibly
form of enabling legislation to fully realise
introduce autonomous vehicles in the
the maximum benefits of the technology.
foreseeable future? Tan Cheon Kheong and
JOURNEYS | November 2014
3
Bruno Vantu and Dominque Hurbin detail
Cycling is an effective and sustainable
the evolution of the Light Rail Transit (LRT)
mode of transport for developed countries.
in France, starting from humble beginnings
However, transport planners and authorities
to its growth as the preferred form of
often adopt conventional methods of
urban public transport for French cities. The
investigating cycling that is limited by
paper showcases the gradual integration
the scope of independent development
of the French LRT and its re-invention as a
projects. Mahmoud Mesbah and Neema
tool to reshape and breathe new life into
Nassir suggest an alternative method of
urban centres. They highlight scenarios of
evaluating cycling facilities that produce
how French citizens have enjoyed greater
accurate,
travelling experiences and enhanced quality
leading to cities having more efficient urban
of life through these urban renewals.
transport networks.
Measuring and monitoring transit data over
As we pave the road for future transport
time can be a daunting and meticulous
systems, it is crucial that planners continually
task. Craig Townsend explores a new
review and update evaluation methods for
method of analysing transit frequency
existing facilities. This will better prepare
together with street network data, in order
us to ensure that our infrastructure can
to better understand transport variations
accommodate
in metropolitan areas. He delves into two
new transit technologies. I would like to
pioneering studies which have utilised
thank the authors for adding their wealth
this new approach, shedding light on the
of knowledge and expertise to this issue.
challenges faced by the teams as well as
They have generously shared their insights,
offering potential solutions for the future.
perspectives and case studies for transport
realistic
and
inevitable
robust
results,
reforms
and
planners and developers to call upon in
building sustainable, efficient transportation
for our cities.
4
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
TAN Cheon Kheong and THAM Kwang Sheun
Abstract
Since Google unveiled its driverless-car technology in 2010, several car manufacturers
have announced plans to introduce autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicles. As the
technology evolves, some countries are testing the technology or are planning to do so.
In this paper, we discuss the potential applications and benefits of autonomous vehicles
for a land-scarce city like Singapore, the challenges ahead and the research needed to
realise the applications.
Introduction
December 2013, to allow driverless cars to be
Vehicles that drive themselves are no longer
tested on public roads. Other countries have
just fantasies. In 2010, Google unveiled its
also jumped on the bandwagon. In Britain, the
driverless-car technology. It has been testing
government is supporting the implementation
self-driving cars on public roads in the United
of driverless cars. In Sweden, Volvo is planning
States (Figure 1). Not to be outshone, several
to conduct trials involving 100 of its driverless
automakers, such as Mercedes-Benz, Nissan,
cars on the streets of Gothenburg in 2017
Volkswagen and Volvo, have announced
(Knapman 2013). In Japan, Nissan received the
plans to introduce driverless cars or semi-
authorities’ approval in 2013 to test its electric
autonomous models.
car equipped with an advanced driver assist
Figure 1: Google’s self-driving car in California
system on public roads. It plans to launch selfdriving cars by 2020 (Nissan 2013).
In Singapore, French company Induct and the
Nanyang Technological University (NTU), in
partnership with JTC Corporation (JTC), began
to test a self-driving electric vehicle (which was
manufactured by Induct) at CleanTech Park, an
eco-business development in Jurong, in 2013
Photo by: Google, United States
(Figure 2) (NTU 2013). The 3.5 metre-long
The U.S. leads the way in the pursuit of
vehicle has standing room for 10 people. It
autonomous
states
could potentially be offered as a shuttle to ferry
having
students on the campus of NTU and to transport
passed laws in 2012, followed by Michigan in
workers across compounds of factories.
(Nevada,
vehicles
Florida
and
with
three
California)
JOURNEYS | November 2014
5
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
Besides,
the
Singapore-MIT
Alliance
for
dynamic routes within towns. A network of
Research and Technology (SMART), a research
shared vehicles within a town could address
enterprise established by the Massachusetts
“first mile, last mile” issues.
Institute of Technology (MIT) in partnership
with the National Research Foundation of
Third,
developments
in
the
automotive
Singapore, is testing autonomous golf carts
industry in the long term could make it viable
(Counts 2013), as well as a driverless car, at
to adopt autonomous cars on a large scale. An
the National University of Singapore. Industry
integrated network of driverless vehicles could
experts believe that highly automated vehicles
include self-driving taxis and autonomous car-
would become viable by 2020 and fully
sharing. A network of autonomous vehicles
autonomous ones could be common by 2030.
could make it viable to introduce smart
expressway lanes, on which the vehicles move
Figure 2: The driverless electric vehicle along the
road outside CleanTech Park in Singapore
in platoons to increase throughput of the
roads (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Toyota’s Automated Highway Driving Assist
(AHDA) System being tested on roads. Such research
could lead to automated highways in future
Photo by: Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Potential Applications
Do autonomous vehicles have a place in land-
Photo by: Toyota, Japan
scarce Singapore? Transport experts seem to
believe that these vehicles could potentially fit
Smart
into Singapore’s future transport landscape.
implemented, whereby driverless vehicles drop
parking
systems
could
also
be
their passengers off, go find a parking space
First, autonomous buses could improve
themselves and park closely to each other. This
productivity, safety and reliability of bus
saves space while potentially rendering parking
services of fixed routes and scheduled timings.
offences a thing of the past. Other applications
They could overcome the lack of bus drivers.
may include driverless commercial vehicles that
ply in the middle of the night to optimise road
Second, autonomous vehicles could serve
space. This would save manpower on drivers
as new mobility modes to offer customised
and minimise traffic congestion.
and demand-responsive transport services of
6
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
Smart parking systems could
also be implemented, whereby
driverless vehicles drop their
passengers off, go find a parking
space themselves and park
closely to each other. This saves
space while potentially rendering
parking offences a thing of the
past.
Improved fuel efficiency, lower transport
costs and time savings - Self-driving vehicles
could choose the best route. This lessens
road congestion, fuel usage and carbon
emissions. Instead of owning and operating
a car, households could book a driverless
taxi when they need to commute. Driverless
taxis could better match the demand for taxis
because they would work harder than human
drivers, and this enhances fuel efficiency and
boosts customer satisfaction. Alternatively,
Benefits
households could opt for autonomous car-
These autonomous applications could benefit
sharing, which optimises the use of cars.
Singapore in other ways.
Improved
road
safety
-
Data
from
Singapore’s Traffic Police shows that there
are many motorists with dangerous driving
habits. There was continued increase in the
number of speeding and red-light running
violations. In 2012, 2,917 people were
arrested for drink-driving (Channel NewsAsia
2013), and there were 168 people killed and
9,106 injured in road accidents in Singapore
(Singapore Police Force 2013). In self-driving
Self-driving vehicles could choose
the best route. This lessens road
congestion, fuel usage and carbon
emissions. Instead of owning and
operating a car, households could
book a driverless taxi when they
need to commute ... Alternatively,
households could opt for
autonomous car-sharing, which
optimises the use of cars.
vehicles, irresponsible driving behaviour and
human errors in driving would be eliminated.
Optimisation of land needed for transport
With fewer road accidents, there would be
- With autonomous vehicles moving in platoons
less traffic jams, injuries and fatalities, lower
in smart expressway lanes, road capacity would
medical costs associated with accidents, fewer
be increased tremendously, besides reducing
insurance claims and hence lower premiums.
traffic jams and improving fuel efficiency.
Car rides could be less stressful for the drivers,
Driverless taxis and autonomous car-sharing
who would instead spend their time on other
would also use up less land for roads and
activities in the cars.
parking lots.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
7
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
Mitigating manpower constraint for bus
only if the certificate of compliance certifies
services - Autonomous buses could alleviate
that the vehicle is capable of being operated in
the heavy reliance on manpower to drive
that manner. California, Florida and Michigan
buses. Economic growth and job opportunities
require the driver to be seated at the driver’s
in emerging economies in the region could
seat monitoring the safe operation and he has
lead to fewer people wanting to work as bus
to be capable of taking over immediate control
drivers in Singapore.
in an event of technology failure. Similarly,
Singapore would need to revise its traffic
Enhanced mobility for elderly and disabled
regulations and be prepared for the day when
- In 2012, Google released a video of a blind
autonomous vehicles become commercially
man sitting in the driver’s seat of its test self-
available.
driving car (with a passenger as backup),
being driven around to purchase fast food
Unexpected situations - Despite advancements
and pick up his dry cleaning. That illustrated
in
that self-driving vehicles could give the elderly
vehicles be able to make the right decisions
and disabled more freedom and mobility,
in unexpected situations? Can they adapt and
which would be advantageous for cities like
respond to the dynamic traffic conditions and
Singapore with an ageing population.
interactions with other road users, like what
artificial
intelligence,
would
driverless
human drivers can do? Could an autonomous
Managing Challenges
vehicle make a value judgment between
However, there are several challenges that
avoiding a pedestrian and causing harm to its
cities need to overcome in their desire to reap
own passengers? What if a child or anyone
the benefits of autonomous vehicles.
without a normal driving licence gets into
a self-driving car and activates its “human
Regulatory considerations - Policymakers
override” function, which would then enable
have to sort out regulatory and liability
him to drive the car like a normal vehicle? Trials
issues. Would a driving licence be required
need to be rigorously conducted to surface
for one to operate a self-driving vehicle? If a
such scenarios.
driverless vehicle is involved in an accident,
does responsibility fall on the carmaker and/
High costs - For autonomous vehicles to
or the technology supplier? Can the passenger
work well, roads, road signs and signals may
sue them for loss and injury? Regulators are
need to be mapped or made intelligent. These
still reviewing such issues. Even in the U.S.,
would involve costs. Who should pay for them:
Nevada’s legislation allows for the vehicle
the owners of autonomous vehicles or the
under testing to be operated in autonomous
general tax-payers?
mode without the presence of the operator
8
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
•
Despite
advancements
in
artificial intelligence, would
driverless vehicles be able to
make the right decisions in
unexpected situations? ... Trials
need to be rigorously conducted
to surface such scenarios.
Regulations for actual deployment of
autonomous vehicles on public roads; and
•
Infrastracture needed for the autonomous
vehicles.
Figure 4: Hitachi’s ROPITS (Robot for Personal
Intelligent Transportation System) is an autonomous
personal mobility device developed to support shortdistance transport for the elderly or those with
walking difficulties
Privacy and security concerns - As self-driving
vehicles would “communicate” with each other
in a network, there may be privacy concerns
about passengers’ locations being made
known to others. Could driverless vehicles be
manipulated by hackers or terrorists to cause
them to crash or carry a bomb? Regulators
would need to address these issues.
Towards Better Future Mobility
Driverless vehicles could benefit our society in
many ways. However, to realise their potential
Photo by: Hitachi Ltd., Japan
in Singapore, much research is still necessary
in the:
•
Identification
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) is looking
and
development
of
at ways to learn and understand the potential
new personal mobility concepts that
opportunities and challenges that autonomous
autonomous vehicles could be used for.
vehicle technology has for Singapore. To this
(Figure 4 is an example). In 2013, the
end, LTA is collaborating with the Agency for
British town of Milton Keynes announced
Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR),
the introduction of driverless cars on its
the lead agency for research and development
roads as part of a trial, beginning in 2015
(R&D) in Singapore, to set up the Singapore
with 20 pods and 100 pods by 2017. These
Autonomous Vehicle Initiative (SAVI). SAVI
cars would each carry two passengers and
provides a technology platform with a joint
first travel on special pathways separated
programme office to oversee and manage
from pedestrians but later shared with
R&D and test-bedding of autonomous vehicle
them (Halliday 2013);
technology, applications and solutions for
JOURNEYS | November 2014
9
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
industry partners and stakeholders. SAVI
It is not inconceivable that the future land
will support a 17-member Committee on
transport scene could be one where all road
Autonomous Road Transport for Singapore
vehicles are self-driving and shared like buses
(CARTS), which has been set up by the Ministry
and taxis. Seats for different destinations are
of Transport, to holistically chart the strategic
available on demand; allocation of vehicles and
direction for autonomous vehicle-enabled land
road space is optimised for resource effciency
mobility concepts in Singapore.
and energy consumption. The autonomous
mobility solution could bring our City to
To support the R&D of autonomous vehicle
another level of excitement and liveability.
technology, LTA will work towards a framework
When integrated with mass public transport, it
that allows autonomous vehicles that meet
would make commuting no more a hassle and
safety standards to be tested on Singapore’s
driving no longer necessary.
public roads. As a start, LTA and JTC have
identified One-North, a 200-ha development,
as the first public test site in Singapore for
the testing of driverless vehicles. This will
take effect from January 2015 (LTA, JTC and
A*STAR 2014).
References
Channel NewsAsia. 2013. “10 Arrested for DrinkDriving in Island-Wide Operation.” Channel
NewsAsia.com, April 19. Accessed September 16,
2013. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/
singapore/10-arrested-for-drink/643770.html.
Counts, Natalie. 2013. “SMART Driverless
Golf Cart Provides a Glimpse into a Future of
Autonomous Vehicles.” MIT News, December 9.
Accessed December 20, 2013. http://web.mit.edu/
newsoffce/2013/smart-driverless-golf-cart-providesa-glimpse-into-a-future-of-autonomous-vehicles.
html.
Halliday, Josh. 2013. “Driverless Cars Set to
Roam Milton Keynes from 2017, Says Vince
Cable.” The Guardian, November 7. Accessed
November 15, 2013. http://www.theguardian.com
technology/2013/nov/07/driverless-cars-coming-tomilton-keynes.
10
Knapman, Chris. 2013. “Large-Scale Trial of
Driverless Cars to Begin on Public Roads.” The
Telegraph, December 2. Accessed December
6, 2013. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/
news/10484839/Large-scale-trial-of-driverless-carsto-begin-on-public-roads.html.
Land Transport Authority, JTC Corporation and
Agency for Science, Technology and Research. 2014.
“Joint Release by the Land Transport Authority, JTC
& A*STAR – A SAVI Step Towards Autonomous
Transport.” News Release, August 27. Accessed
August 29, 2014. http://app.lta.gov.sg/apps/news/
page.aspx?c=2&id=29525082-5265-4139-bc3b0241a4639d46.
Nanyang Technological University. 2013. “NTU
to Trial Singapore’s First Driverless Vehicle on the
Roads.” News Release, August 16. Accessed August
29, 2013. http://media.ntu.edu.sg/NewsReleases/
Pages/newsdetail.aspx?news=635afd55-4f9b484a-a658-2187e2bb788d.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Autonomous Vehicles, Next Stop: Singapore
Nissan Motor Corporation. 2013. “Nissan Leaf with
Highly Advanced Driver Assist System Gets First
License Plate for Public Road Testing in Japan.”
News Release, September 26. Accessed October
20,
2013.
http://www.nissan-global.com/EN/
NEWS/2013/_STORY/130926-04-e.html.
Singapore Police Force. 2013. Traffic Police Annual
2012. Accessed September 16, 2013. http://www.
spf. gov.sg/prints/tp_annual/2012/index_tp_12.htm.
Tan Cheon Kheong is a Senior Researcher in the Future Mobility
Division of the Land Transport Authority (LTA), Singapore. His current
research areas include emerging strategic issues in land transport.
He holds a Master of Business Administration from the Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore, and a Bachelor of Social Sciences
(Honours) in Economics and a Bachelor of Science (with Merit) from
the National University of Singapore. Prior to joining the LTA in
2013, he was a researcher at the National University of Singapore.
Tham Kwang Sheun is the Manager of the Future Mobility Division
of the Land Transport Authority (LTA), Singapore. His current portfolio
includes futures thinking and planning strategic research and testbeds of future mobility solutions. Before joining the LTA, Mr Tham
was with other Statutory Boards in Singapore, working on energy
R&D planning and managing academic research in the physical
science and engineering felds. He holds a Master of Engineering
degree in Computer Engineering by research and has several years
of industry R&D experience in electronics and consumer products.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
11
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
Stelios RODOULIS
Abstract
Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are under active development and they are the hottest
topic in transport. They offer enormous potential to improve the safety, efficiency and
sustainability of road traffic, especially in cities. Users will experience significant benefits
including less time spent in traffic and wasted time looking for parking, more productive
in-vehicle time and reduced risk of accidents and delays. AV’s can radically change the
need and type of infrastructure. Subsequent impacts on land uses are inevitable in
the long term. Urban and Transport Planners need to anticipate the impacts, develop
enabling legislation and plan for these changes in order to gain the maximum benefits.
Introduction
current patterns of mobility and land use, as well
Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) – cars that drive
as replace or change existing transport modes.
themselves with little or no human input
Ultimately, AVs will need no input from vehicle
– are the hottest topic in transport. Self-
occupants other than advising the destination.
driving vehicles are undergoing tests on our
AVs will communicate with each other and
streets today, and many cars already feature
interact with smart infrastructure. They will
autonomous technology such as auto-braking,
be able to operate themselves without human
automatic parking and adaptive cruise control.
occupants, deliver items and park on their own.
This article is designed to be thought provoking
While travelling in an AV, users will be able to
by examining the most significant changes to
sleep, eat, email, work or even meditate! AVs
cities, with impacts anticipated on roads, traffic,
will become a place of activity rather than just
parking, infrastructure investments and land use.
a means of transport.
Characteristics of AV Technology
Transformative Technology
AVs are poised to be the next transformative
technology in transportation. Figure 1 illustrates
the indicative transformative impact of new
Figure 1: Passenger mobility trends (indicative)
Horse
Water
Rail
Traditional car
Two wheel
Air
Bus
Autonomous vehicles
modes such as rail, cars and aviation in history.
A challenge for city planners and managers is
to understand how quickly AVs will transform
12
1800 1850 1900
JOURNEYS | November 2014
1950
2000
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
AVs will communicate with each
other and interact with smart
infrastructure. They will be able
to operate themselves without
human occupants, deliver items
and park on their own.
Safety
The World Road Association (2013) estimates
that human behaviour is a contributing factor
in more than 90% of road accidents. More
than one million people are killed every year in
road accidents worldwide, with 20-50 million
suffering non-fatal injuries. By 2020, under
current trends, the World Health Organisation
AVs promise significantly improved safety,
(2013) estimates that annual fatalities will
economic efficiency, smarter, faster and
increase to 1.9 million people worldwide.
more reliable travel, low emissions, increased
Now - 2025
POTENTIAL IMPLEMENTATION
• Increasing automation of driving functions, even on
affordable cars
• Vehicles park themselves
• Vehicle to vehicle communication
• Vehicles drive themselves in traffic jams or highways
(adaptive cruise control)
• Early-adopter entrepreneurs start to hire out AVs
• Taxi industry disruption
• Standardisation of communication and
technology protocols
2025 - 2035
TIMESCALE
• Car ownership declines - car sharing increases.
Demand for parking starts to decline
• Bus service disruption - segregated or guided busways
become fully driverless bringing costs down
• Logistics industry disruption
• Vehicle to vehicle, and vehicle to infrastracture
communication technology matures
• Accidents/collisions significantly reduce
2040 - 2045
Timeline
Figure 2: Potential 30-year AV implementation scenario.
• Vehicle size/weight/emissions reduce. New vehicle platforms
• Catalyst for alternative mass produced propulsion
systems - electric
• Catalyst for fiscal incentives (road charging, pay as
you go)
• Urban road-space optimisation - narrower lanes, tighter
intersection etc
• Reduced need for urban parking - re-inventing/relocating
car parks, on-street parking space for other uses
(walking, cycling, market stalls)
• Vehicles on demand - no reduction in availability or
quality of services
2045 - onwards
d
productivity and enhanced quality of life.
• Maturing technology, convergence and standardisation.
Artificial intelligence on vehicles ‘learns to read’ the road
• Eradication of congestion on highways
• Elimination of accidents/collisions
• Significant reduction in urban congestion
• Ubiquitous autonomous door to door travel
• Increased urban sprawl
Figure 2 gives a possible scenario for AV
introduction over the next 30 years or so.
Vehicle manufacturers and other organisations
are developing autonomous technology very
quickly; some aim to have AVs available by
2020, although their saleability may depend
on how jurisdictions adapt traffic regulations
to permit their use. Initially they might be
limited to certain roads, or with a requirement
that a human driver is available to take over
control at any time (although this may soon
prove to be a retrograde step, from a safety
point of view).
As the technology matures, rapid take-up
is possible similar to other leaps forward in
technology. It may be that transportation
authorities find themselves having to respond
to the trends much quicker than currently
anticipated.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
13
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
AVs could significantly reduce the risk of road
Smarter, Faster and more Efficient
accidents through co-ordination between
AVs will produce smoother, faster traffic flows,
vehicles and infrastructure, faster reaction times
reducing congestion. On average, motorists in
and elimination of driver error. Communication
London spent an average of 82 hours in traffic
between vehicles will also allow AVs to
jams in 2013, 10 hours more than 2012 (British
modify their routes, thus avoiding hazards.
Broadcasting Corporation 2014). According to
Economics
TomTom’s annual Congestion Index (2014), the
A study by the US Department of Transportation
(2010) estimated the economic cost of road
accidents in the US for a single year. In 2010
there were 32,999 fatalities, 3.9 million nonfatal injuries and 24 million damaged vehicles,
which
cost
the
economy
approximately
US$277 billion. AVs can greatly reduce this
cost by dramatically reducing both the number
and severity of accidents.
such as driver wages and parking will also
reduce. By removing the cost of a driver, it
would become cheaper and more attractive
to summon an AV on demand than to own
and drive a car exclusively. Thus, vehicle
ownership patterns will change as AVs extend
the concepts of personal public transport and
car sharing schemes.
respectively, than when traffic is flowing. AVs
will adjust speed according to road demand,
capacity,
environmental
conditions
and
geographic area. This eliminates traffic jams
caused by speed inconsistencies and temporary
slowing down. AVs will predict traffic changes
and alter their routes. They could also analyse
optimal time or route to travel.
Productivity will improve because people can
use their travel time for working or leisure. AVs
would free up peoples’ time when travelling
unoccupied, for instance carrying out tasks
like grocery collection or delivering items
unattended.
AVs using efficient, smooth acceleration
AVs will also make the vehicle fleet more
efficient through increased utilisation. Shared
vehicles will be in use more of the time, which
will greatly reduce time spent idle in garages or
14
74% and 62% more time behind the wheel
conditions before setting out and suggest the
As future scale is achieved, operating costs
parked between uses.
average driver in Moscow and Istanbul spend
will enable optimal energy use and reduced
emissions. Additionally, their inherent safety
will reduce requirements for heavy protective
equipment, thus shedding weight. This will
generate lower emissions both on the road
and during manufacture.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
AVs using efficient, smooth
acceleration will enable optimal
energy use and reduced emissions.
Additionally, their inherent safety
will reduce requirements for
heavy protective equipment, thus
shedding weight.
the way infrastructure is planned, with current
transport infrastructure better utilised, and a
much-reduced need to build new or widen
existing roads.
Road Design and Traffic Management
The design of roads would largely stay the
same. However, elements such as traffic signals
and signage will change; traffic management
Improved Quality of Life
will be driven by real time, through shared
AVs can provide a solution by offering
data rather than by roadside infrastructure.
additional mobility to people regardless of
Highways could have smaller corner radii for
age, physical or driving ability. People with
exits and entries, as well as shorter merge and
disabilities, younger people and increasingly
diverge tapers. Physical traffic management
older populations would find higher levels of
infrastructure such as speed humps and safety
freedom and mobility, especially in cities where
measures like guard rails and pedestrian
traditional solutions like scheduled public
protection can also be reduced as AVs will
transport are not up to standard.
travel at speeds suited to road environments
and will automatically detect and avoid other
Technological Changes and Impacts
road users. Traffic signals might eventually be
dispensed with altogether, as AVs undertake
Road Capacity
AVs will significantly affect how roads are
all required maneuvres without them.
organised and used. They will run closer
Improved Urban Spaces - Decluttering
together, increasing highway capacity. They
Fewer hard traffic management measures,
will also collectively calculate the most
improved
efficient route selection and synchronise
noise will create a better utilised and more
key maneuvres between each other, such as
attractive
turning and merging.
safety and signage clutter in streets will
safety,
urban
lower
realm.
emissions
Removing
and
road
create more space. Streetscaping and shared
The Partners for Advanced Transit and
space schemes will become more common,
Highways [PATH] program (2012) estimated
especially since fewer cars will park on-street.
that drivers in California space themselves
Housing stock close to traffic, fumes, noise
so that only 5% of the road is occupied.
and physical segregation may become more
Tientrakool (2011) suggested that AVs could
desirable and increase in value.
increase capacity by 43% (using sensors alone)
to 273% (when using sensors and interacting
with other AVs). This would materially affect
JOURNEYS | November 2014
15
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
Parking
authorities need to have a clear appreciation of
Shoup (2006), using sixteen different studies
what land is likely to become available and a
from 1927-2001 has shown that drivers cruise
strong vision for its re-use.
for 8.1 minutes on average, when looking for
Public Transport and Taxis
a parking spot; as a result, up to 30% of all
traffic in downtown areas can be attributed to
drivers searching for parking. In some cities, up
to a third of land is devoted to parking.
AVs would drop and collect passengers when
required, decreasing demand for nearby
parking. Many will be in continuous operation
and will not park at all, or will return to depots
in less expensive locations where more land is
available. Cars with no drivers can park more
closely together. New parking lots will be much
smaller and existing parking capacity could
be doubled.
AVs will complement or replace public transport
in low-medium density / high car dependency
cities. Even with AVs, it will still be important to
have metro trains, light rail and trams to cater
for high demand concentrations.
AVs would feed commuters to mass transit,
thus shortening trips to and from transit
stations and reducing the need for car parking.
Scheduled bus routes could be replaced by
on-demand AVs transporting people door-todoor. Users could choose to share AVs with
other passengers, thus paying less. A demandresponsive, driverless service could replace
AVs would drop and collect
passengers when required,
decreasing demand for nearby
parking. Many will be in
continuous operation and will
not park at all, or will return to
depots in less expensive locations
where more land is available.
conventional
bus
services,
except
where
demand is high. Driverless buses will also
reduce operating costs significantly as the cost
of providing and training drivers will be avoided.
Taxis could arguably be replaced by AVs
early on; they would certainly be significantly
affected by the new competition from AVs.
Infrastructure Investments
Less off-street parking will be needed on
AVs could significantly impact allocation of
valuable city centre land. On-street parking
infrastructure funding. By increasing capacity
demand would also diminish, creating more
on existing roads, AVs would reduce the
road capacity for AVs or reallocated for other
need for new road infrastructure. This would
transport modes such as cycling, walking and
enable funding to be reallocated to alternative
mass transit. These impacts will vary depending
infrastructure and amenities.
on how car-dependent a city currently is. City
16
JOURNEYS | November 2014
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
Given the lifespan of road infrastructure,
York’s street layout in Manhattan is designed
forecasting and planning for it will need to
as an efficient grid pattern. City authorities
strike a balance between meeting short /
will need to carefully consider their city
medium term demands and anticipating longer
layouts and plan for potential impacts.
term demand with a predominantly AV fleet.
High density cities with logical perimeters
due to natural constraints or ring road
Urban Sprawl
AVs could induce increased urban sprawl
because people would be more prepared
to travel greater distances with faster, more
efficient and comfortable travel. This would
promote lower density development unless
controlled through planning provisions.
infrastructure could be candidates for early
adoption,
for
example
Singapore,
New
York (Manhattan Island) and inner London.
Figure 3: Senior Minister of State (Finance and
Transport), Mrs Josephine Teo inspecting and
testing an autonomous vehicle at LTA-A*STAR MoU
Signing Ceremony
Road use pricing could be used to help manage
this, by charging through a combination of
location, vehicle occupancy, time of day and
distance travelled. With AVs it will be easier to
price individual journeys compared to cordon
charging systems (like those used in London
and Singapore).
The Challenges
Changing behaviours and culture take time and
there are a number of obstacles to overcome
before AVs can realise their full capability.
Managing this change is critical; planning,
legislation and public perception issues require
careful consideration.
Photos by: Land Transport Authority, Singapore
Planning
The impact of AVs will vary according to a
city’s age, size, morphology and transport
provision. For example, street layouts in
central London have remained relatively
unchanged since Roman times, whilst New
Social Perceptions
People’s acceptance of driverless technology is
likely to be gradual, improving as they become
more comfortable with the experience.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
17
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
A customer satisfaction survey (Ultra Global
Safety
2012) for the driverless Personal Rapid
Many safety questions need consideration
Transport (PRT) system at Heathrow Airport
before full implementation of AVs. There are
indicates high customer satisfaction; users
uncertainties around how AVs would respond
regard the system like a horizontal elevator.
in particular scenarios. For example how will an
Other research (Rodoulis 2011) shows that
AV choose between damaging itself and / or
public acceptability of driverless trains increases
the people in it, or a child in its way? How will
when passengers see the benefits, for example
they anticipate the sometimes unpredictable
where higher train frequency creates more
behaviour of pedestrians or cyclists? An AV will
capacity, less waiting time and better reliability.
have vastly improved reaction times but it may
not have the instinct or experience of humans.
An investigation into psychological factors
Worst case scenarios need to be developed, for
affecting AV technology uptake in the UK
example when AV software or hardware fails,
by Clough (2013), suggests that enjoyment
such as through a cyber-attack.
of driving, lack of trust in AVs and concern
about legality are barriers to adoption. Clough
also found that dangerous drivers are more
willing to adopt the new technology than
safe ones, which would accelerate the safety
benefits. Interestingly, removing full control
from the driver, or automatically intervening
in emergency situations, is perceived as better
than putting the driver in a supervisory role,
expecting them to take over in an emergency.
Individual perceptions of AVs will differ greatly;
those who see driving as an inconvenience
or chore will look forward to the benefit
of technology taking over, while driving
enthusiasts will not want to lose the experience.
18
Legislation and Liability
A major barrier to full AV implementation is
accident liability. With cars driven by humans
there is a high risk of accidents due to human
error. When a driver has little, if any, input,
responsibility for an accident may rest with
the software company or the carmaker. New
methods of risk management will be required
and the insurance industry will need to adapt
to the technology.
The US is an early adopter of legislation for
AVs, prompted by Silicon Valley start-ups
and Google’s fleet of test cars. The National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration has
JOURNEYS | November 2014
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
issued policy guidance around testing and
current urban and transport planning thinking.
includes plans for further safety research.
AVs
Similar policies are being developed in Europe,
transport that we will ever see. Cities need
but not as quickly.
to understand and incorporate AVs into their
represent
the
biggest
change
to
future visions. Inevitably, society will demand
Road to the Future
Despite the significant challenges to be
overcome and managed, AVs have the
potential to radically transform our cities and
the way we move about them. Despite this,
their possible impact is largely ignored in
city infrastructure that enables full use of these
technologies. While the ‘tipping point’ is some
time away, the positive effects on our lives and
cities are rapidly becoming clear. Early adoption
and preparation will bring substantial rewards.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank Paul Buchanan, John Siraut, Simon Babes, William McDougall and
Nicola Sutcliffe for their contribution in preparing this article.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
19
The Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Cities
References
Clough, J. ”Would you trust a driverless vehicle?”
MEng Thesis, Newcastle University, United Kingdom,
2013.
Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways (PATH).
2012. “California Program.”. Presentation by S.
Shladover.
Rodoulis, S. ”Driverless Trains in London: Perceptions
and Reality.”. MSc Thesis, University of Westminster,
United Kingdom, 2011.
Shoup, D. C. 2006. “Cruising for parking.” Transport
Policy 13: 479 – 486. Available at http://shoup.bol.
ucla.edu/Cruising.pdf
Tientrakool P., Ya-Chi Ho and Maxenmchuk N. 2011.
“Vehicular Technology Conference (VTVFall), IEEE.”
”Traffic Jams in London are getting worse.” BBC
News, March 4, 2014. Available at: http://www.
bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-25622364
TomTom.
2014.
“TomTom
European
Traffic
Index.”
Available
at:
http://www.
t o m t o m . c o m / l i b / d o c / p d f / 2 014 - 0 5 -14%2 0
TomTomTrafficIndex2013annualEur-mi.pdf
Ultra Global PRT. 2012. “Heathrow sweeps the
board at British Parking Awards.” Available at:
ht tp: // w w w.ultraglobalpr t.com / wp - content /
uploads/2012/03/BPA-2012-PR.pdf
US Department of Transportation and National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).
2010. “The Economic Impact of Motor Vehicle
Crashes.” Report No. DOT HS 809 446.
World Health Organisation. 2013. “Fact Sheet N°
358.”
World Road Association. 2013. “Road Accident
Investigation Guidelines for Road Engineers.”
Stelios Rodoulis is a Development Transport Planner with a research
interest in the future of transport and the impacts of driverless vehicles.
Stelios works in Jacobs Traffic and Development team in London
providing design advice, writing transport assessments and travel
plans for public and private sector developments of varying land uses.
20
JOURNEYS | November 2014
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance
for Singapore
Bruno VANTU and Dominique HURBIN
Abstract
In the mid-80s, a new transport concept emerged in French cities based on the Light Rail
system. This model has since spread all over the territory with 25 cities now equipped
with modern tramways operating a network of more than 700 km. It has brought about
new practices of travelling resulting in an increase of public transport modal shares and
a re-appropriation of public spaces so that Light Rail Transit (LRT) is now associated with
the image of modernity, aesthetics, social equity and high quality of urban life. The
French LRTs’ success story can be an interesting showcase as it has proved to be a flexible
system and a concept that is widely exportable on all continents.
A Brief Look Backwards in Time
Figure 1: Tramways have disappeared from French
cities St Etienne – 1978
The Saturation of the Car Dependant
Model
After having been one of the most important
urban
means
of
transportation
in
the
beginning of the 20th century, tramways
almost completely disappeared from French
cities with the growing use of private cars and
the development of more reliable buses in the
1930s. Up till the 1970s, priority was given
to the car industry and road infrastructures
Photo by: B.L. COLL-M.L
led to a car-oriented urban development,
in which public spaces were forsaken and
suburbs spread out in a dispersed pattern. As
a consequence, urban France was plagued
with traffic congestion and pollution; causing
longer trips for commuters, decreased quality
of urban life and social exclusion for those
unable to afford a car.
The Emergence of a New Urban Transport
Concept based on LRT System
A renewed focus of urban and transport
planning concepts was required in order to
tackle 2 major issues:
1. The recovery of city centres
2. A response to mobility needs integrating
sustainable development
JOURNEYS | November 2014
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French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
Figure 2: Grenoble and its urban highway – cours Vallier
LRT systems (reserved right-of-way, attractively
designed low-floor vehicles, efficient safety
system, priority at crossings and traffic lights)
the case of Strasbourg presents all the factors
that have fostered the revival of LRT in France:
urban renovation, re-assignment of road space
limiting the area dedicated to private cars and
restoration of public spaces; all encouraged by
a strong political will.
Convinced that their commitment towards
Photo by: Ville de Grenoble
In the 1980s, a few cities (Nantes, Grenoble,
then Strasbourg) succeeded in getting tramways
back. In addition to the main features of modern
urban modernisation could be embodied in
such a transport project, many cities since then
have implemented the “French style LRT”.
Table 1: Main characteristics of French style modern LRT
Characteristics
Technology or concept
Benefits
Accessibility
Low floor tram, a major innovation in
the mid 80’s.
Social equity, attractiveness
City centre connection
Short radius allowed by articulated
trains, limited trains length (40m)
Revitalising city centres commercial areas
compared to suburban commercial centres.
Creates social link between urban areas
Pedestrian friendly.
At grade insertion
Light rail system, with grooved rail
which allows embedded rail in platform
and easy road crossing. Green vegetal
platform has also been developed.
Signalling system and running on sight.
High potential of intermodality with
walk, bus.
Safe & efficient road sharing with cars
and pedestrians.
Facilitates the integration of safe
cycle lanes.
Opportunity for urban renovation and
embellishment
Comfort
Rail based and guided system
More attractive than buses, image
of modernity
High commercial speed
Platform segregated from cars, absolute
priority at crossings
Attractiveness, increase modal share for
public transport
22
JOURNEYS | November 2014
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
Figure 3: Various platform finishing
Photo by: Egis
Figure 4: Embedded rail & platform structure
Source: Egis
A Better Quality of Life offered by
« The French style LRT »
Promoting New Practices of Travelling
The implementation of a LRT not only improves
the public transport service by introducing
a fast, comfortable and reliable transport
solution (thanks to the segregated right-ofway and priority at crossings), it also promotes
other sustainable alternatives to the exclusive
use of private cars for urban journeys. This
is achieved by the adoption of joint policies
such as:
•
Redesigning the existing public transport
system to feed the LRT and achieve a
more visible, integrated, understandable
structure
JOURNEYS | November 2014
23
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
•
•
Limiting the number of parking spaces in
Furthermore, the LRT is a user-friendly mode
city centres and providing park and ride
which enhances the accessibility to central
facilities at the outskirts of congested
activities and improves conditions for disabled
areas
passengers or travelling with children, prams,
Sharing space with pedestrians and
luggage, etc.
cyclists in car-free zones
•
Integrating bicycle access and parking at
stations or developing pedestrian-friendly
zones.
LRT systems are the missing link between
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) and buses, and
present the advantage of travelling through
pedestrian areas without generating air
pollution and noise.
LRT systems are the missing link
between Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
and buses … which enhances the
accessibility to central activities and
improves conditions for disabled
passengers or travelling with
children, prams, luggage, etc.
Figure 5: Re-assigning road space
Source: Egis
Revitalising Urban Spaces
LRT is also the opportunity to recreate, renovate
Figure 6: Pedestrian-friendly zones enhancing the
commercial attractiveness of the city center
and upgrade public spaces, which is vital to
develop the prosperity of commercial and
cultural activities. The quality of urban space
can be enhanced by the streetscaping decisioncarry out while the LRT is being constructed.
The launch of LRT lines is usually linked to the
development of a car-free zone in city centres
which offers an eco-friendly and comfortable
way of travelling.
24
Photo by: Egis
JOURNEYS | November 2014
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
Despite the inevitable loss of trees, the
Figure 8: Orleans’ catenary-free historical center
systematic restoration of lines planting
and grassed track surfacing contribute to a
greener city.
Figure 7: Lyon’s LRT, a “garden line”
Photo by: Egis
The French style LRT is not only a transport
investment but also integrates major urban
development ambitions, contributing to city
growth and socio-economic dynamism. Urban
regeneration projects and densification around
LRT stations, landscaping along the line
and improvement of transport performance
contribute to making the areas served more
attractive. As an added effect, this leads to real
estate development and the creation of new
housing, offices and commerce along its path.
Figure 9: Montpellier’s LRT is part of a new urban
and commercial development
Photos by: Egis
Some technical innovations, such as the
ground-fed current collection that replaces
Photo by: Egis
the catenary, also benefits the preservation
The LRT as a Jewel for Towns
of the architectural and historical heritage of
Each LRT is unique and has its own design,
city centres. Super-capacitor LRTs are also new
often becoming a symbolic feature of the urban
technologies that can reduce infrastructure
landscape and giving a strong positive image
footprint in the city.
to the city. Many creative design professionals
JOURNEYS | November 2014
25
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
cooperate to deliver a transport object that not
Certain LRT projects are used as a showcase
only responds to functional needs but also
for artistic inventions, with artworks dotting
takes aesthetics into account. Lyon has been
the route or at stations (Angers, Mulhouse
one of the first cities to start to customise
and Tours).
the design of its rolling stock. Some cities
have since then called upon artists and dress
Attractive signage, original street furniture,
designers, as is the case in Montpellier with
quality track surfacing materials, are all
its famous LRT designed by Christian Lacroix.
trademarks of the “French style LRT”. The
signature of the LRT ranges from a design
Each LRT is unique and has its
own design, often becoming a
symbolic feature of the urban
landscape and giving a strong
positive image to the city. Many
creative design professionals
cooperate to deliver a transport
object that not only responds to
functional needs but also takes
aesthetics into account
Figure 10: Montpellier’s LRT designed by Christian
Lacroix
conveying a strong unique identity through
common recognisable features along the
line, to a “chameleon” design which aims to
achieve maximum integration into the local
urban fabric. Some larger stations display an
emblematic structure which helps to create a
symbolic centrality point. Extensive examples
can be found in the excellent encyclopedia
written by François Laisney, “L’atlas du Tramway
dans les villes Françaises”.
The Characteristics of today’s French
Tramway
The Fruits of Success
In the last 30 years, nearly 30 French cities
and agglomerations among the major French
conurbations have integrated a LRT network,
whether as the backbone of their public
transport system or as a complement to
Photo by: Egis
26
“heavier” modes.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
Table 2: Implementation statistics of modern LRT in French agglomerations
City
Saint-Etienne
Population
391 000
Nantes
582 000
Grenoble
398 000
Paris region
11 780 000
Number of
lines
Network
length
(km)
Number
of
stations
Daily
Trips
First
opening
3
11.7
37
53 000
1881*
urban lines: 3
44.3
84
274 000
1985
tram-train: 2
64.0
18
NA
2011
4
35.4
63
210 000
1987
urban lines: 6
74.2
137
725 000
1992
tram-train: 1
7.8
11
35 000
2006
Strasbourg
457 000
6
40.7
72
300 000
1994
Rouen
486 000
2
15.4
31
67 000
1994
Montpellier
406 000
4
56.0
84
282 000
2000
Orleans
274 000
2
29.7
40
70 000
2000
Nancy
265 000
Lyon
1 281 000
Caen
227 000
Bordeaux
708 000
Mulhouse
173 000
Valenciennes
194 000
Clemont-Ferrand
1
11.1
28
50 000
2000
urban lines: 5
61.1
85
260 000
2001
tram-train: 1
22.0
4
5 600
2010
2
15.7
34
39 000
2002
3
43.9
89
282 000
2003
urban lines: 3
19.8
29
60 000
2006
tram-train: 1
22.0
18
NA
2010
2
18.3
47
33 000
2006
287 000
1
14.0
31
57 000
2006
1 038 000
2
11.5
28
53 000
2007
Le Mans
194 000
1
15.4
29
48 000
2007
Nice
530 000
1
9.2
22
90 000
2007
Toulouse
700 000
1
14.3
24
30 000
2010
Reims
219 000
2
11.2
23
45 000
2011
Angers
271 000
1
17.0
20
34 500
2011
Brest
221 000
1
14.3
28
35 000
2012
Marseille
Dijon
251 000
2
20.0
37
72 000
2012
Le Havre
258 000
2
12.5
24
50 000
2012
Tours
295 000
1
14.0
29
45 000
2013
Aubagne
104 000
2
11.0
19
16 000
2014
Besancon
177 000
2
14.5
31
50 000
2014
Avignon
186 000
2
14.4
25
45 000
2016
* St-Etienne’s line T1 is the oldest tramway remaining in France and has been functioning continuously
since its opening. The old rolling stock was replaced in 1991 by modern tramcars.
Source: CERTU, Centre d’Etudes sur les Réseaux, les Transports, l’Urbanisme et les constructions publiques
JOURNEYS | November 2014
27
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
Figure 11: Evolution over 20 years of LRT infrastructure realised in France
500
450
Total length achieved (in km)
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
19
9
0
19
91
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
0
Source: CERTU, Centre d’Etudes sur les Réseaux, les Transports, l’Urbanisme et les constructions publiques
In all those agglomerations, the LRT has made
the journeys made on active, non-polluting
it possible to increase both the proportion
modes (walking or cycling). This benefits the
and the efficiency of public transport, with
overall road network which is thus much less
significant passenger gains immediately after
congested.
the first years of opening.
Between 2000 and 2010 in France
The modal share of urban journeys has
Number of cities with LRT x 2
changed in favour of public transport, reducing
Number of km of LRT X 3
the use of cars in city centres, and increasing
Ridership of LRT x 4
Table 3: Examples of the impact of LRT on the total ridership of the public transport network
City
LRT start of
operation
Ridership
before LRT
Ridership 2012
Increase
Yearly average
progression
(in million trips/year)
Grenoble
1987
35.4
76.9
+ 117%
+3%
Strasbourg
1994
42.4
113.9
+169%
+6%
Montpellier
2000
28.8
67.2
+133%
+7%
Bordeaux
2004
54.7
117.4
+115%
+10%
Source: Egis
28
JOURNEYS | November 2014
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
The LRT has also accelerated the transformation
their smaller size, these agglomerations have
of cities by embellishing public spaces and
a smaller potential for investments. It is thus
enhancing their image and quality of life (less
important to design a transport system that
noise and pollution, more trees and green
meet their mobility needs with the same urban
areas, more pedestrian space and new urban
quality but at optimised costs, which can be
landscapes).
achieved by choosing more compact rolling
stock adapted to their smaller capacity needs.
On a social register, it has democratised
the mobility system by reducing the social
The LRT is a progressive mode that can be
disparity between car owners and public
adjusted to urban dynamics and to changes in
transport users; and by linking and opening up
mobility patterns (lengthening of trains / stations,
isolated, disadvantaged neighbourhoods. It
increasing headway, shortening services).
has become a popular mode of transportation
that conveys a positive and cohesive image.
LRTs can also be used as tram-trains and serves
as tramway in the city centre and as light MRT
The LRT has also accelerated
the transformation of cities
by embellishing public spaces
and enhancing their image
and quality of life ... it has
democratised
the
mobility
system by reducing the social
disparity between car owners
and public transport users; and by
linking and opening up isolated,
disadvantaged neighbourhoods.
to quickly reach remote areas. For instance,
the RhoneExpress line in Lyon is a tram-train
linking Lyon’s city centre and airport 22 km
away in less than 30 minutes. It can reach
100 km/h outside the city and integrates the
urban network with running on sight.
Therefore, the modern LRT has a high ability to
adapt to a wide variety of contexts and needs.
Complementing the LRT with a
Metro Network – The Paris Case
A Scalable and Flexible System
The city of Paris is famous for its dense
Nowadays, efforts are made to develop existing
metro system that serves the French capital.
networks in order to increase the connectivity
However, the wider area around the Paris
of the city centres as well as extend the LRT
region represents a population of almost
network to suburban areas.
12 million inhabitants in which the public
transport system is mainly radially oriented.
The French LRT is also getting implemented in
Since the 1970s, the need of connecting
smaller towns that did not have any structuring
suburbs has been increasingly flagrant and
urban transport network. Taking into account
important efforts have been dedicated to
JOURNEYS | November 2014
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French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
implement the regional rapid transit Réseau
city limits, substituting for a saturated bus
Express Régional (RER) system, combining
line, reshaping the peripheral boulevards and
central underground rail sections and pre-
creating a successful complementary network
existing suburban rail lines. The urge to
to the metro.
transversally connect those radial lines has
historically brought face to face two opposite
Metro and LRT are fully complementary and
visions, one favouring speed and mass transit
the recent priority given to the development
capacity (adapted to a MRT system) and the
of an underground orbital rail line rapidly
other favouring density of service and urban
connecting suburban development poles and
enhancement (conveniently brought by LRT).
extension of existing metro lines (the Grand
Paris metro project) does not interfere with the
Modern LRT thus returned to the Paris region
LRT expansion. In 2013, two additional lines
with two suburban lines opening in 1992 and
were launched in the southern and northern
1997, which main objectives were to create
suburbs (6.6 km and 11.2 km respectively),
circular connections inside suburbs, connect
making the current LRT network 83 km long.
commuters to the main Metro & RER radial
Almost 70 km of additional LRT lines are
lines and also give structure to the urban
planned to be delivered within the timeline of
fabric of the areas served. Ten years later, a
the Grand Paris metro network development.
third & fourth line were opened inside Paris’
Table 4: Characteristics of the different Public Transport modes in Paris region
Mode of
transport
Length of routes
(in km)
Number of lines
Production ([train
or bus] *km in
million)
Metro
219
16
48.6
RER
601
5
42.7
Suburban train
884
8
28.7
65
4
4.7
Tramway
Bus inside Paris
Ridership
(trips in million)
1 541
1 189
115
597
64
42.7
335
Bus suburbs
22 717
1 338
542.0
953
Total PT modes
25 083
1 435
709.4
4 133
(Data OMNIL 2012)
Source: SDIF
It is interesting to consider from these figures that the LRT shows a very good ratio of ridership
versus km of infrastructure.
30
JOURNEYS | November 2014
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
Figure 12: Planned development of metro [left] and LRT lines [right, in dark green] as per Paris regional Urban
Mobility Plan
Source: PDUIF 2012
Conclusion: A Model that is being
Exported
The
“French
model”
has
become
Figure 13: Perspective view on Orchard Road,
Artist impression of a LRT
an
international showcase and is already being
exported around the world, as evidenced by
the cities of Casablanca, Porto and Dublin,
among many others. More than a public
transport system, each LRT project is a unique
opportunity to reweave the urban fabric,
Photo by: Egis
make significant improvements in the city’s
quality of life and to link all populations.
Figure 14: Perspective view on South Bridge Road,
Artist impression of a LRT
One could easily imagine such success
transposed to Asia Pacific cities, creating a
new mobility layer between MRT and bus
lines and re-investing city centres with soft
mobility. LRT integration would be a great
opportunity for streetscape renewal, for a
smarter city centre with enhanced urban
Photo by: Egis
living and travelling experience.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Nicolas Bonvalet and Francoise Guillerault for their contributions to this paper.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
31
French LRTs’ Success Story, Relevance for Singapore
References
Groupement des Autorités Organisatrices de
Transport (GART). 2012. ”L’année 2012 des
transports urbains.”
Observatoire de la mobilité en Île-de-France
(OMNIL). 2012. “Characteristics of the different
Public Transport modes in Paris region.”
Kaminagai, Yo. 2014. ”Tramway Une école
Française.” Exhibition by « le lieu du design », Paris,
France.
Plan de déplacements urbains d’Ile-de-France
(PDUIF). 2012. ”Planned development of metro and
LRT lines as per Paris regional Urban Mobility Plan.”
Laisney, François. 2011. ”L’atlas du tramway dans les
villes françaises, Editions Recherches.”
Transport Collectifs Urbains (TCU). 2010. ”Analyse
des évolutions 2000-2009 dans les réseaux de
transports collectifs urbains, CERTU.”
Le renouveau du tramway en France. 2012.
”Ministère de l’écologie, du développement durable
et de l’énergie.”
Bruno Vantu has over 30 years’ experience in infrastructure projects
in Asia, the Middle East, South America and France. More than 15 of
these years are in mass transit related projects where Bruno has been
responsible for the concept and detailed design; through to design
and interface management.
He has held key managerial positions in his 30 years of experience
including director of an Egis Rail subsidiary and before CEO of his
own design engineering company. Bruno is often called upon (as a
technical expert) for lectures at international conferences and training.
He is actually the CEO of Egis Rail Pte Ltd (Singapore).
Dominique Hurbin has 15 years’ experience in transportation
infrastructure. He has been involved in the design of major LRT
networks in France such as Grenoble, Strasbourg, Lyon. He has
a dual education in engineering and MBA and he is now head of
functional studies department at Egis Rail. Egis is a leading company
in transportation infrastructures and has designed & put in operation
more than 1000 km of modern LRT in France & abroad during the
past 30 years.
32
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service
Frequency in Canada
Craig TOWNSEND
Abstract
This paper describes how transit service frequency data can be used together with street
network data in Geographic Information Systems (GIS), in order to analyse variation in
the intensity of transit frequency between places. The method proposed uses a gridded
mesh to standardise units of spatial area to overcome the problem of intensities which
vary based on the size and shape of spatial units. By standardising the size of spatial
units, some detailed accuracy is sacrificed, but the result is quantification that can be
used to compare changes over time, and between parts of cities, or between different
cities. The technique is summarized with analytical results from studies of transit service
in the mid-sized Canadian metropolitan areas of Ottawa and Vancouver.
Introduction
within a half mile (800 metres) walking
Greater availability and quality of data
catchment of those lines, together with the
from public transportation operating and
residential location of population (see Figure
planning agencies, together with advances
1). This type of map, using current data,
in Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
can now be produced in a few hours, using
software,
readily
have
enabled
increasingly
accessible
transportation
network
sophisticated measurement. For the last
and population data. A more recent version,
couple of decades, researchers have used GIS
drawn with GIS software shows “straight-line
software to draw “isochrones” or “buffers”
buffers” in Figure 2.
to measure the catchment areas that are
accessible by different modes of transport.
The straight-line buffer is used to measure
Previously, this work was laborious and slow
a catchment area around these points and
because it was done by hand. For example,
lines, but in places where the surrounding
in the 1920s the planners Bartholomew and
infrastructure network is not highly networked
Associates mapped Vancouver’s streetcar
(e.g. with a grid of small streets), or where
lines and the area (buffer) that was considered
there are barriers in the way, this method may
JOURNEYS | November 2014
33
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
not be accurate. For this reason, others have
the transportation infrastructure configuration.
measured actual travel speed on the existing
While the map of a proposed subway for
network to draw travel time isochrones
Toronto presented travel time isochrones
around stops or stations. An old example of
from one station, other studies such as a
this approach can be found in the 1945 plan
1973 rapid transit study for Ottawa examined
for a subway in Toronto: the travel times by
isochrones from multiple stations, using
walking, subway, bus, and streetcar were
different modes of transportation. Figure 4
calculated from a central station in order to
shows travel time isochrones around proposed
measure the area that would be accessible
rapid transit stations, reachable by a 5 minute
within different time zones (see Figure 3).
walk, a 10 minute walk, or a 5 minute drive.
These measurements took into consideration
Figure 1: Electric street railway line catchments in Vancouver, 1928
PRESENT CAR LINES
AREA SERVED & POPULATION
LEGEND
UNSERVED AREAS
NOTE One Quarter Mile Walking
Distance to Car Line taken
as Basis of Service
STREET CAR LINES
BUS LINES
EACH DOT REPRESENTS
50 PERSONS
Source: Bartholomew and Associates, 1928
34
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
Figure 2: Bus and rail rapid transit catchments in Vancouver, 2009
Accessibility From Stops
Bus (400m)
B Line (600m)
SkyTrainRail(600m)
Source: Fisher et al., 2009
Figure 3: Isochrones of areas accessible by proposed subway in Toronto, 1945
- LEGEND -
0-5
5-10
MINUTE TIME ZONE
“
“
“
10-15
“
“
“
15-20
“
“
“
20-25
“
“
“
25-30
“
“
“
30-35
“
“
“
35-40
“
“
“
40-45
“
“
“
THE ABOVE REPRESENT THE TIMES REQUIRED TO TRAVEL IN
RUSH HOURS FROM QUEEN & STREES TO VARIOUS SECTIONS
OF THE CITY BY SUBWAY, STREET CAR & BUS.
WALKING TIME TO NEAREST SUBWAY STATION, CAR OR BUS
STOP IS INCLUDED.
Source: Toronto Transit Commission, 1945
JOURNEYS | November 2014
35
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
Figure 4: Walking and driving catchments around proposed rapid transit stations, 1973
Source: Ottawa-Carleton, 1973
These
by
using straight line buffers which can be less
transportation infrastructure planners working
complicated, in comparison to using network
for government agencies seeking to increase
buffers (e.g. Guerra et al 2012; Gutiërrez and
mobility and accessibility through transit. More
García-Palomares 2008). Based on these more
recently, academic researchers have begun
accurate catchment areas and the availability
using GIS software to analyse problems of a
of more data on the built environment and
more theoretical (and often critical) nature.
residential populations located within those
Many researchers have sought to distinguish
areas, some planners and researchers have
more accurate measures of catchment areas
built mathematical models referred to as
and to test the differences found between
“direct ridership models” to estimate transit
36
techniques
were
developed
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
ridership at the station level. These models
different studies in different years couldn’t
provide more accurate ridership forecasts, or
be compared. In order to accurately compare
to more precisely specify the personal and
areas, similarly sized spatial units would have
built environment characteristics that influence
been required. Without them, study results
transit
researchers
suffer from the modifiable areal unit problem
have begun to look into whether publicly-
through which variation in the shape and size
provided transit is being used equitably to
of spatial units produce different results.
ridership.
Also,
some
help people with less income in industrial and
post-industrial societies with large, and often
As a method of analysis was developed to study
growing, income inequalities.
Vancouver’s transit service changes over time,
the potential to apply the method in another
… mathematical models referred
to as “direct ridership models” …
provide more accurate ridership
forecasts, or to more precisely
specify the personal and built
environment characteristics that
influence transit ridership.
Canadian context arose in Ottawa. After many
years of running one of the world’s most
successful Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, the
City of Ottawa embarked on the conversion
of one BRT line to Light Rail Transit (LRT). The
main rationale was that the downtown, where
many BRT lines converged, was bus-saturated
at many times of day. The question of how
The initial motivation for this study was
spatially intensive bus services had become,
to know more about how transit service
just before conversion to LRT began seemed
levels, particularly scheduled departures, had
to be another opportunity. The measurement
changed in Vancouver, Canada’s third most
of the spatial distribution of transit frequency
populace metropolitan area. Since the 1980s,
could be used to establish what that level was
a coordinated effort was made to make the
for the purposes of planning rapid transit in
built form and transport of Vancouver more
other cities.
transit-oriented. During that period, non-rapid
bus services were augmented by rail rapid
A review of the literature and planning studies
transit, commuter rail, and semi-rapid buses.
revealed that some researchers have begun
attaching transit frequencies to the catchment
Different techniques, such as those employed
areas in order to provide a continuous and
in the aforementioned 1928 and 2009 studies,
more representative measure of transit service
had been applied to assess transit coverage
(e.g. Bertolaccini and Lownes 2013). However,
in the past. However, the frequency of transit
the use of different sizes of catchment areas
service, a key dimension, was missing. In
means that it’s difficult to compare intensities
addition, the use of different techniques to
between places within the metropolitan area,
measure service areas meant that results from
or changes over time. In order to overcome
JOURNEYS | November 2014
37
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
the modifiable area unit problem (variable
(GTFS), the time categories still vary between
spatial units change the level of concentration
jurisdictions. An accurate comparison requires
or density), a relatively fine grid of cells was
accurate data for similar time periods.
used. In the sections that follow, the method
of analysis is described, followed by a brief
A 2011 digital map was created by drawing
summary of results.
the route lines in the program ArcView using
... attaching transit frequencies
to the catchment areas …
provide a continuous and more
representative
measure
of
transit service. However, the use
of different sizes of catchment
areas means that it’s difficult
to compare intensities between
places … or changes over time.
a commercially-produced street map and bus
route maps downloaded in PDF format from
Vancouver’s regional transport authority and
a municipally-owned and operated system
operating routes serving one suburb. While it
would have been possible to obtain the 2011
location of bus stops, the location of bus stops
in previous years would have been unknown,
so the bus routes were drawn as lines. Also,
most local bus services stop frequently enough
that virtually all of the line will be within a
Method
walking catchment. Because the locations of
While Vancouver’s bus stops, rail and ferry
ferry terminals and railway stations were fixed
stations, route and timetable information are
and easily identified, these were drawn as
all now available in electronic format, past
points. The digital files in ArcView were then
routes and schedules existed only on paper
modified to create a set of lines representing
timetables or the scheduling sheets and
the 1981 bus routes, which were taken from
documents of transit operators. Fortunately,
the paper timetables from that year. Often bus
Vancouver’s public bus operator archived old
routes followed different routes at different
schedules and provided full sets of all bus
times of the day, so in numerous cases multiple
timetables from the census years 1981, 1991,
lines were created to represent each different
and 2001. The timetable for the most recent
section. Frequency data was taken from the
study year, 2011, was obtained by downloading
timetables and entered into a spreadsheet
PDF timetables from the operator’s website.
program using the same time of day categories
The number of services on each route was
in all years. The frequency data was attached
recorded by four weekday time periods (6:00-
to the line segments.
9:00, 9:00-15:00, 15:00-18:00, 18:00-24:00),
one period on Saturday (6:00-24:00) and one
In the Ottawa case, we were only concerned
period on Sunday (8:00-24:00). While many
with the year in which we collected the data, so
transit operators now upload their timetable
the process was easier. We simply downloaded
data in the Google Transit Specification Feed
timetables available online from the two major
38
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
operators of transit in the metropolitan area.
were later excluded from the analysis on the
While relatively uncomplicated (particularly
basis that the numbers would be insignificant
because there are only two transit operators
to the overall results.
serving the region), the assembly of data
required a large amount of time to create
Once the transit lines and stops had been
points (representing BRT and LRT stops) and
digitised, buffers were drawn around the
lines (representing regular bus routes). The
points and lines with the goal of representing
number of route permutations turned out to
the catchment area which could be accessed by
be much higher than anticipated at the outset
foot. Based on a process of trial and error in order
of the study. Many buses begin on regular
to achieve a reasonably accurate representation
routes with frequent stops and then transfer
of areas served by rapid transit in Vancouver,
to the Transitway bus-only lane, and then
buffers of 300 metres were used for bus lines,
return to regular routes. Approximately 500
500 metres for semi rapid bus stops, and 700
one-way bus segments (representing different
metres for rail rapid transit stations and ferry
route configurations) were identified and
terminals. In the Ottawa study we created a
drawn based on the online versions of the two
700 metres straight line buffer around each of
operators’ timetables published in 2012. These
the points representing 47 Transitway stations
were drawn using the programs Google Maps
and existing LRT stations, and a 300 metres
and ArcGIS version 10.1. Bus routes which
straight line buffer was created around each
followed freeways or Transitway sections
of the lines representing non-Transitway buses.
with limited or no stops were removed and
The latter buffer covered both regular buses
assigned to the single points representing the
and Transitway buses using non-Transitway
Transitway stations. The logic behind removing
roads. These buffers were slightly smaller than
these segments of fast, non-stopping bus
the typical 800 metres for rapid transit station
route segments is that all of the positive and
and 400 metres for a bus line because in the
many of the negative impacts on surrounding
following step a grid was placed over top and
area are associated with stopping and starting.
the values from the buffer touching the grid
While there were still buses passing through
cells were summed up in the grid cells. This
these areas, because some of the negative
created a further increase to the spatial area
(and positive) effects associated with those
in places.
buses are associated with the actual stopping
of the vehicles, and along faster sections
The last step was to create a shapefile overlay
they would have been passing very quickly
grid of 400 metres by 400 metres rectilinear
often through open land without surrounding
polygons using the Fishnet-Grid tool in ArcGIS.
buildings, they were removed. In addition, bus
This overlay was favored over raster information
lines with less than 5 services on any one day
due to the difficulty of associating the buffer
JOURNEYS | November 2014
39
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
data with the raster and limitations in ArcGIS’s
of transit service. However, there were some
Polygon to Raster tool, which is only capable
areas that experienced declines, in some cases
of associating each raster pixel with one
in areas adjacent to rapid transit routes where
dominant polygon feature. Due to the layering
bus services were likely consolidated. The
of polygons in the final buffer shapefile, the
highest growth in transit service frequency
raster would have been inaccurate as only one
was concentrated in the corridors served
of many layered polygons would be selected.
by rail rapid transit, and by semi-rapid buses
All of the data existing in layered polygons was
using regular city streets but with limited
summarized into each grid square that they
stops, high capacities, and rear-door boarding.
intersected. Finally, some cleanup was required
One particularly interesting finding was that
to remove values which “jumped” bodies of
locations that experienced high gains in
water. The average number of services per
transit service frequency were those served
hour based on all weekly service hours was
by the rapid or semi-rapid transit. However,
calculated and the then mapped, together
there were designated ‘regional centers’ that
with the location of 13 planned LRT stations.
did not experience large gains if they did not
have the rapid or semi-rapid transit, and there
When cells came in contact with a buffer
were places that were not identified in land
representing catchment area, the value of
use plans as important centres which actually
transit service from that buffer was added to
experienced major gains. It suggests that
the cell. As a result, there are some places
places that there has been some disconnection
where the corner of a grid cell would just touch
between the location of places identified as
a buffer and the value would be assigned
metropolitan sub-centres for concentrated
meaning that the value from a bus line could
development and the location of new transit
have extended for over 700 metres in some
infrastructure.
places, although in other places the influence
would not have extended beyond 300 metres
in the case of bus lines.
Results
The results of the study on Vancouver
revealed that over a 30 year period of transit
infrastructure expansion, most of the area had
experienced growth in terms of the frequency
40
The
highest
growth
in
transit service frequency was
concentrated in the corridors
served by rail rapid transit,
and by semi-rapid buses using
regular city streets but with
limited stops, high capacities,
and rear-door boarding.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
Figure 5: Cumulative transit service changes in Vancouver, 1981-2011
The results of the Ottawa study showed that
outside of the downtown core the LRT route
in 2012, the year before conversion of a BRT
corresponded with one Transitway corridor,
line to LRT began, transit service was highly
another which could also be a potential LRT
concentrated in a small area, including the
corridor was also clearly visible.
downtown core. The values of the intensity of
transit service were extracted from the GIS and
The analysis was carried out for both all hours
displayed in Table 1. The value of the highest
and only peak travel hours, and maps and data
service category was 257 or more services per
were produced. The same general pattern
hour (greater than four vehicle passages per
holds for both maps, although as expected
minute). The results of the quantification are
the area covered by the highest level of transit
consistent with the rationale for converting
vehicle passages is higher when only peak
BRT to LRT infrastructure in Ottawa. While
hours are considered. The results by category
are presented in Table 1, for all service hours.
Table 1: Service frequency by area units, all hours
The numbers reveal that the area covered by a
Services Per Hour
Area
Share of Total
value that could be considered bus-saturated
>0-32
3,160 km2
87.3%
is quite small, amounting to only 1.4%, and
33-64
185 km2
5.1%
65-128
138 km2
3.8%
most of this is located in Ottawa’s downtown,
129-256
86 km2
2.4%
although a small cluster of high intensity cells
257 or more
52 km
1.4%
appears around two Transitway stations to the
All
3,621 km2
100.0%
southeast of downtown Ottawa.
2
JOURNEYS | November 2014
41
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
Figure 6: Transit service frequency in Ottawa, 2012
Conclusion
proved incompatible across administrative
This brief summary of the results of two studies
jurisdictions. This type of research is likely to
demonstrates the potential for the measurement
become easier as all transit supply information
of transit frequency across metropolitan areas.
will exist in digital format. But by stepping
Transport planning practitioners rarely carry out
back and looking across regions, or over time,
this kind of small scale or historical research
spatial patterns in one type of transport activity
and these projects provided some evidence
(the frequency of transit vehicle departures)
why. Large amounts of time were used for the
become apparent to the eye, and provide data
digitisation of routes that were not digitised
that can be used to answer many questions.
before, or which were digitised in ways which
Acknowledgement
Some of this research was funded by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC)
institutional grant to Concordia University. Numerous Concordia University students assisted with the
data collection and entry. Special thanks go to Juan Buzzetti, Tristan Cherry, Jeff Hignett, and Giannina
Niezen-Coello for their work in the digitization of bus routes. Most of the GIS analysis on Vancouver
was carried out by Donny Seto, and most of the GIS analysis on Ottawa was carried out by Ian Cantello.
Thanks also to Ian Fisher at TransLink and Ian Graham at BC Rapid Transit Co. Ltd. for providing guidance
on counting the frequencies of SkyTrain departures.
42
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Spatial Measurement of Transit Service Frequency in Canada
References
Bartholomew and Associates. 1928. A Plan for the
City of Vancouver British Columbia. Vancouver:
Town Planning Commission.
Bertolaccini, K. and Lownes, N.E. 2013. Effects of
Scale and Boundary Selection in Assessing Equity of
Transit Supply Distribution, Transportation Research
Record: Journal of the Transportation Research
Board, 2350: pp. 58–64.
Fisher, Ian, Scherr, Wolgang, and Lew, Kean. 2009.
Planning of Vancouver’s Transit Network with an
Operations-Based Model. Presentation at 2009 ITE
Quad Conference, Vancouver, 1 May.
Gutierrez, J. and Garcia-Palomares, J. C. 2008.
Distance-measure impacts on the calculation of
transport services areas using GIS. Environment and
Planning B: Planning and Design, 35: 480-503.
Ottawa-Carleton. 1973. Rapid Transit: A Preliminary
Report. Report No. 3: Transportation Study.
Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton.
Toronto Transit Commission. 1945. Rapid Transit for
Toronto. Toronto, Canada: Toronto Transportation
Commission.
Guerra, E., Cervero, R. and Tischler, D. 2012. HalfMile Circle: Does It Best Represent Transit Station
Catchments? Transportation Research Record:
Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2276:
101-109.
Craig Townsend is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Geography, Planning and Environment at Concordia University in
Montreal, Canada. His research interests include the spatial intensity
of public transit service, the user costs of private operation of mass
rapid transit systems in Bangkok, post-rail rapid transit restructuring of
Vancouver, variation in high speed transport provision and population
densities between North America’s metropolitan areas, and the history
of bus rapid transit policy.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
43
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an
Urban Network
Mahmoud MESBAH and Neema NASSIR
Abstract
Encouraging active and sustainable modes of transport has been an important goal for all
transport authorities in developed countries. In many cities, cycling as an active transport
mode is only directly investigated within the limited scope of separate road development
projects. Efficient moves towards urban transport networks that favour sustainable
modes can only be possible by accurate, realistic, and robust evaluation techniques to
measure existing facilities, and to assess future network development scenarios. As a
result, there is a need for tools and techniques to generate a comprehensive network
perspective with regards to cycling facilities. This paper aims to introduce a method
to evaluate bike accessibility between given origins and destinations. Considering an
urban trip all the way from an origin (O) to a destination (D), the proposed evaluation
method is capable of incorporating the key concerns of cyclists by applying route choice
coefficients of a cycling trip into a path generation process. Moreover, the proposed
method takes into account multiple route options available to ride between an origindestination (OD) pair. The method is applied to the network of Brisbane, Australia. The
network includes all levels of road hierarchy suitable for bikes (arterials, collectors, and
access roads) and covers the effect of available bike facilities on road (bike paths, bike
lanes, wide curb side lanes, and general traffic lanes). Indicative results are provided on
bike accessibility to the Central Business District (CBD) from the suburbs.
Introduction
opens a network perspective in locating bike
Transport authorities around the globe have
facilities, it does not provide network-wide
defined goals to increase the share of active
measures to evaluate the combined effects of
transport modes such as walking and cycling.
bike facilities. Thus, the effectiveness of bike
The goal in South East Queensland (SEQ)
facility development cannot be accurately
which includes the Brisbane metropolitan
measured. In this paper, an accessibility
area, the Gold Coast, and the Sunshine
measure is developed and tested to evaluate the
Coast is to double the share of active modes
network suitability for cycling. Furthermore, this
by 2031 (Department of Transport and Main
measure can be utilised to assess the possible
Roads 2010). Although the SEQ Principle Cycle
future scenarios of network development.
network plan (Queensland Transport 2007)
44
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
Accessibility measures are widely explored in
adopted in this research that was calibrated
the literature. Khan et al. (2014) studied the
for the cyclists in San Francisco, USA. There
effect of built environment on bike and walk
are caveats regarding the transferability of
modes which showed that street structure and
model parameters from one city to another,
accessibility are the most important variables
however, in the absence of a route choice
influencing travel mode choice behaviour.
model specifically calibrated for the Brisbane
McNeil (2011) proposed a method to measure
network and its cyclists, assuming a universally
‘bikeability’ in a 20-minute neighbourhood
average behaviour for cyclists around the world
and identified the more ‘bikeable’ suburbs.
would not be unreasonable. A future direction
of further research to fill this gap could be a
The accessibility measure developed and tested
cycling route choice estimation task conducted
in this paper benefits from two features that
for Brisbane cyclists.
help portray a more realistic and accurate
network evaluation. The traditional network
accessibility measures assess the network
connectivity
based
on
a
shortest
path
calculation between an OD pair. The two
features that are proposed to improve the
accessibility measurement in this paper are
the incorporation of 1) cycling route choice
Incorporating
route
choice
preferences would improve
the accuracy of assessment by
including the important route
attributes that cyclists would
consider when making their
choices where to bike.
preferences in the path generation, and 2)
multiple routing options available to the cyclist.
Considering the availability of multiple routes in
estimating the network accessibility could also
preferences
make measurements more realistic. A network
would improve the accuracy of assessment
that offers multiple (competitive) route options
by including the important route attributes
between an OD pair is intuitively more beneficial
that cyclists would consider when making
to people with diverse sets of preferences,
their choices where to bike. These attributes
and more resilient against possible incidents,
include the type of road facility (bike path, bike
and therefore considered more reliable and
lane, wide curb-side lane, and general lanes),
accessible from the users’ point of view. As a
roadway slopes, and the number of sharp
result, an accessibility measure that captures
turns on the route, in addition to distance that
the diversity among options is preferred.
is the only measure in the traditional models.
However, generating a diverse set of paths is
For this purpose, a route choice model is
not a trivial task, especially in the presence of
Incorporating
route
choice
JOURNEYS | November 2014
45
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
al. (2014) reported a counter-intuitive decline
Accessibility Measurement based
on a Route Choice Model
in the estimated accessibility (calculated based
The accessibility measure developed and tested
on multiple routes) of cycling network, when a
in this paper is defined based on the route choice
significant facility improvement happens in the
logit probabilities. This route choice accessibility
network. This phenomenon is called ‘Valencia
formulation has the advantage of calculating
Paradox’, and is related to the fact that path
the accessibilities from the cumulative utilities
search algorithms are likely to yield to the same
of the route options that exist in the choice
path over and over, when the network has a
environment. In a multinomial logit (MNL)
significantly utile segment (or corridor). In that
model the estimated probability of an option i
case, after a successful corridor improvement
to be chosen is proportional to eVi, where Vi is
scenario, the measured accessibility for certain
the systematic utility of option i. These utilities
OD’s in the network, because the path search
can capture cyclist preferences with regards
algorithm may fail to capture the diversity in
to the attributes of road facilities (rise, facility
the presence of dominant paths. Nassir et
type, number of sharp turns, etc.) that connect
al. (2014) proposed a penalty-based path
the OD pair along each of the existing path
generation algorithm that solves this issue.
options (for more information about MNL and
Their algorithm is used in this paper.
route choice modelling, please refer to Ben-
a dominant segment in the network. Nassir et
Akiva & Lerman (1985) and Ramming (2001)).
A network that offers multiple
(competitive)
route
options
between an OD pair is intuitively
more beneficial to people with
diverse sets of preferences, and
more resilient against possible
incidents, and therefore considered
more reliable and accessible from
the users’ point of view.
Equation (1) presents the cycling utility function
that was estimated for the San Francisco city
(Hood, Sall and Charlton 2011). The utility
attributes and the coefficients values are
presented in Table 1.
Equation 1:
Vi= β0X0,i + β1X1,i +β2X2,i + β3X3,i +βrX r,i +
βwXw,i + βtXt,i
Table 1: Utility function coefficient values
Coefficient
Variable
β0 =-1
X0= Distance (km) on links with no bike facility (mixed traffic lanes)
β1=-0.57
X1= Distance (km) on links with a wide curb side lane
β2=-0.49
X2= Distance (km) on links with an on-road bike lane
β3=-0.92
X3= Distance (km) on links with an off-road bike path
βr=-0.059
Xr= Rise (m) on each link, non-negative
βw=-4.02
Xw= Distance (km) on wrong way links
βT= -0.11
XT= Number of Turns
46
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
The accessibility between an OD pair Ao,d is
be an off-road bike path, an on-road separated
estimated using the route choice logsums
bike lane, a wide curb side lane marked for a
(which is the denominator of the logit
shared use of bikes and general traffic, and
probability expression) as follows.
finally a general mixed traffic lane with no
provision for bikes. Change in elevation (grade)
Equation 2:
is the other important attribute included.
∑ eV
Ao,d = log
i
Analysis of Results
i∈Cn
Three accessibility measures are calculated for
where Cn is the choice set generated for the given
OD pair.
the cycling trips from all zones in the Brisbane
area to the Central Business District (CBD).
Case Study Analysis
These measures are calculated based on:
Brisbane Network
1. Single shortest distance path (SD1) where
The proposed method is applied to the network
of Brisbane, Australia. Brisbane has a population
of 2 million in an area of approximately 6,000
km2. The analysed network has about 45
thousand nodes, 120 thousand links and 1290
traffic analysis zones. The network is a very
Cn=1 and only X0 is included in the Vi
function.
2. Single maximum utility path (MU1) where
Cn=1 and all Xi are included in the Vi
function.
high resolution transport network that includes
3. Five largest utility paths (MU5) where Cn=5
all types of roads from motorways and arterials
and all Xi are included in the Vi function.
to collector and local access roads. Bike
facility type and road grade are two important
attributes that were specifically added for
cyclist route choice considerations. A link can
The
Queensland
Government
targets
Queensland government is to enhance the
to double the share of active transport
attractiveness and safety of walking and
modes from 10% to 20% by 2031. As
cycling, especially by developing a network
it is stated in the Integrated Regional
of interconnected bikeways and bike lanes
Transport Plan for South East Queensland,
that are segregated from heavy traffic.
the most important priority for the
JOURNEYS | November 2014
47
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
Figure 1 shows a colour-coded map of cycling
To measure the quality of the cycling facilities to
accessibilities to the CBD from all Brisbane
CBD, the differences between SD1 (a distance-
zones, measured with SD1 formulation.
based measure) and MU1 (an accessibility
Accessibilities in this map are normalised in a
measure capable of incorporating the cyclist
0-100 scale, 0 for lowest and 100 for highest
route choice utilities into the calculation)
accessibility in the network. SD1 is calculated
is demonstrated in Figure 2. In Figure 2,
based on only travel distance on the network,
the visualised measure is the normalised
and as a result, a gradual degradation in the
accessibility based on MU1 (in a 0 to 100
accessibility can be observed as the origin zone
scale) minus the normalised accessibility based
gets farther away from the CBD. However
on SD1. Therefore, positive differences mean
this measure, by definition, is not capable of
higher MU1 accessibility when compared with
capturing the quality of cycling paths and the
the sole distance measure. This demonstration
actual features of the bike facilities that the
could be used as a measure that isolates the
cyclists may consider and experience while
effect of path quality (e.g. facility type, slope,
riding to the CBD.
etc.) in improving the accessibility to CBD.
Figure 1: SD1 accessibilities to the CBD
Legend
SD1_Index
-80.49 - -82.15
-27.82 - -37.50
-82.16 - -83.67
-37.51 - -54.04
-83.68 - -85.31
-54.05 - -60.54
-85.32 - -87.02
-60.55 - -65.47
-87.03 - -88.63
-65.48 - -68.95
-88.64 - -90.12
-68.96 - -71.92
-90.13 - -91.69
-71.93 - -74.43
-91.70 - -93.76
-74.44 - -76.65
-93.77 - -96.31
-76.66 - -78.67
-96.32 - -100.00
-78.68 - -80.48
48
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
As it can be observed in Figure 2a, there are
value represents availability of more route
certain suburbs in the southwest, southeast
options. As it can be observed, the differences
and northeast parts of the network (light
between
green colour) that are estimated to be more
applied to Brisbane network for cycling to CBD
accessible when using MU1 compared to
are relatively small (ranging between -1.41 and
SD1. This reflects the additional parameters
1.20). However, meaningful interpretations
considered in MU1. The most important
can be made from these small differences.
parameter of which is the exclusive bike
As it can be observed from the calculated
facilities (Figure 2b) that makes high quality
measures, the three areas identified in Figure
connections between these suburbs and the
2b by an oval, despite having higher quality
CBD. In addition, there are suburbs in the
facilities as demonstrated in Figure 2a, have
western regions of the network (red colour)
a relatively low diversity of options for cycling
that are estimated to be less accessible when
to the CBD. This could relate to the lack of
computed by MU1 compared to SD1. This can
acceptable alternatives that generate diversity
relate to the mountainous area located in the
among options. On the other hand, suburbs
western part that has lots of hilly roads that are
in south, east and north of Brisbane (identified
not desirable for the cyclists.
by a green colour in Figure 3) do not have high
the
two
accessibility
measures
quality bike pathways to the CBD but can offer
Figure 3 highlights the differences between
multiple path options and favour more diverse
the calculated accessibilities of MU1 and
preferences. Furthermore, the green areas
MU5 methods. The visualised measure is the
with higher levels of choice diversity (Figure
normalised accessibility based on MU5 (in a 0
3) expand with an increase in the distance to
to 100 scale) minus the normalised accessibility
the CBD. This can be explained by an increase
based on MU1. The difference portrayed in
in the size of outer suburbs and availability of
this figure relates to the availability of multiple
more parallel corridors.
route options for trips to the CBD. A larger
JOURNEYS | November 2014
49
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
Figure 2a): Differences between SD1 and MU1 accessibilities to the CBD
Legend
D_SD1_MU1
N
-1.49 - -1.00
-27.82 - -20.00
-0.99 - -0.50
-19.99 - -10.00
-0.49 - -0.20
-9.99 - -7.00
-0.19 - -0.00
-6.99 - -6.00
-0.01 - -0.20
-5.99 - -5.00
-0.21 - -0.50
-4.99 - -4.00
-0.51 - -1.00
-3.99 - -3.00
-1.01 - -2.00
-2.99 - -2.50
-2.01 - -4.00
-2.49 - -2.00
-4.01 - -7.00
W
E
S
-1.99 - -1.50
Figure 2b): Map of cycling facilities in the Brisbane area
N
W
E
S
50
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
Figure 3: Differences between MU1 and MU5 accessibilities to the CBD
Legend
D_MU1_MU5
-0.26 - -0.19
-1.42 - -1.11
-0.18 - -0.11
-1.10 - -0.96
-0.10 - -0.03
-0.95 - -0.85
-0.02 - -0.06
-0.84 - -0.75
-0.07 - -0.15
-0.74 - -0.67
-0.16 - -0.26
-0.66 - -0.59
-0.27 - -0.40
-0.58 - -0.51
-0.41 - -0.61
-0.50 - -0.43
-0.62 - -0.86
-0.42 - -0.36
-0.87 - -1.20
-0.35 - -0.27
Conclusion
Although active transport modes are important
in achieving a sustainable urban system, limited
attention has been paid to the integration
of their design in the overall development of
a road network. Bike facilities are typically
designed as an add-on to a road project or are
analysed individually in small scale projects. It
is emphasised that a network level analysis is
essential to understand the interactions of bike
Bike facilities are typically designed
as an add-on to a road project or
are analysed individually in small
scale projects. It is emphasised
that a network level analysis
is essential to understand the
interactions of bike facilities and
their influence on the collective
behaviour of cyclists.
facilities and their influence on the collective
behaviour of cyclists.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
51
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
An accessibility measure for cycling is adopted
In brief, the proposed method provides more
which includes two key features: 1) considers
insight on the network properties of different
a range of parameters in the route choice
areas. The accessibility measure with route
behaviour of cyclists and 2) considers multiple
choice parameters (MU1) identifies the quality
routes available from an origin to a destination.
of connection links between an OD pair while
The route choice parameters include distance,
accessibility using multiple routes (MU5)
bike facility (bike path, bike lane, wide curb
reflects the capability of the network in satisfying
side lane, and no facility), road grade, and
the variability of the cyclists with diverse tastes
the number of turns. A choice set generation
and preferences. The multiple path accessibility
algorithm is used to generate multiple routes.
also captures the resilience of the network to
interruptions such as construction or incidents.
The Brisbane case study results indicate that
As a result, from a planning perspective and
an accessibility measure based on route
for the purpose of encouraging active modes
choice parameters of cyclists can reflect a
such as cycling, accessibility model MU5
representative picture of accessibility from
could be used in evaluating the networks or
a network perspective. Also, consideration
assessing improvement scenarios, since it has
of multiple routes available to a destination
the capability to capture the users’ preferences
can identify areas with variety of choices for
and its diversities.
cycling that could favour diverse preferences.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Mark Hickman and Mehdi Bagherian for their ideas and contributions to this
research, and Marc Miska for providing parts of the data. This research was partially supported by the
Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads under the ASTRA agreement with University of
Queensland and DECRA from the Australian Research Council.
52
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Evaluation of Bike Accessibility in an Urban Network
References
Ben-Akiva, Moshe E., and Lerman, Steven R. 1985.
“Discrete Choice Analysis: Theory and Application
to Travel Demand.” The MIT Press.
Department of Transport and Main Roads (DTMR).
2010. “Connecting Seq 2031, an Integrated
Regional Transport Plan for South East Queensland.”
Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Department of
Transport and Main Roads.
Hood, Jeffrey., Sall, Elizabeth and Charlton, Billy.
2011. “A GPS-Based Bicycle Route Choice Model
for San Francisco, California.” Transportation
Letters: The International Journal of Transportation
Research 3, no. 1: 63-75.
Khan, M., Kockelman, K.M and Xiong, X. 2014.
“Models for Anticipating Non-Motorized Travel
Choices, and the Role of the Built Environment.”
Transport Policy 35: 117-26.
McNeil, N. 2011. “Bikeability and the 20-Min
Neighborhood: How Infrastructure and Destinations
Influence Bicycle Accessibility.” Transportation
Research Record: 53-63.
Nassir, Neema, Ziebarth, Jennifer., Sall, Elizabeth and
Zorn, Lisa. 2014. “Choice Set Generation Algorithm
Suitable for Measuring Route Choice Accessibility.”
(Paper presented at the Transportation Research
Board, Compendium of Papers, Washington D.C.).
Queensland Transport. 2007. “South East
Queensland Principal Cycle Network Plan.” edited
by Queensland Transport. Brisbane: Queensland
Government.
Ramming, Michael Scott. 2001. “Network
Knowledge and Route Choice.” Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
Mahmoud Mesbah is a Lecturer with School of Civil Engineering,
The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia since 2011. His
research interests are data collection using Smartphones, transport
network analysis, public transport systems, optimization algorithms,
transport system evaluation, and transport planning.
Neema Nassir is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the Centre for
Transport Strategy at School of Civil Engineering at the University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. His current research mainly focuses on
modelling the travel behaviour and utility-based accessibility measures
for public transit passengers and the cyclists in large-scale multimodal
networks. He develops and applies advanced network modelling
algorithms and statistical methods for a better understanding of
passenger behaviour in transport networks.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
53
Reference
Passenger Transport Mode Shares
in World Cities
The “Passenger Transport Mode Shares in
World Cities” reported in November 2011 (LTA
Academy, 2011) have been widely referenced
by transport professionals worldwide. An
update is presented here for the cities listed in
Table 1. There are changes in the geographical
coverage of some cities due to the availability
of data.
Passenger transport mode share refers to the
percentage of passenger journeys or trips by
Table 1: List of selected cities
Asia
Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Beijing,
Delhi, Guangzhou, Hong Kong,
Mumbai, Osaka, Seoul, Shanghai,
Singapore, Taipei, Tokyo
Australia
Sydney
the main mode of transport and is typically
reported through travel surveys. Travel surveys
Europe
are often conducted and hence the mode
share is reported by local governments. The
definition, classification, data collection and
computation methods may not be consistent
cross different cities. In addition, the mode
share is affected by household incomes, land
use patterns, and many other economic and
social factors. Hence, the figures shall not be
compared directly and should be analysed
together with the historical, social and
economic situation of the city.
54
Barcelona, Berlin, London, Madrid,
Paris, Prague, Stockholm, Vienna
North America
Chicago, New York City, Toronto
South America
Bogota, San Paulo
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Reference
AHMEDABAD
Figure 1: Mode share in Ahmedabad (2007)
Population: 6.1 million
Area: 466 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 30% of
all journeys.
Walk
& Cycle
32%
Private
Transport
38%
Public
Transport
30%
Data Sources:
Census India 2011 (Final report in 2012)
Indian Cities Transport Indicators
BANGALORE1
Figure 2: Mode share in Bangalore (2010/11)
Population: 8.6 million
Area: 1,831 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 34% of
all journeys.
Data Sources:
Bangalore Mobility Indicators (2010 – 2011) Study
– Draft Final Report
BARCELONA
Private
Transport
31%
Walk
32%
Cycle
3%
ParaTransit
7%
Public
Transport
27%
Figure 3: Mode share in Barcelona (2012)
Population: 1.6 million
Area: 102 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 35% of
all journeys.
Private
Transport
21%
Walk
& Cycle
44%
Data Sources:
Population and Household Statistics, Department of
Statistics, Barcelona
Mobility Survey Weekdays, Department of Statistics,
Barcelona
Public
Transport
35%
v
JOURNEYS | November 2014
55
Reference
BEIJING2
Figure 4: Mode share in Beijing (2012)
Population: 12.3 million
Area: 1,368 km2
Others
3%
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
44% of all journeys.
Cycle
14%
Data Sources:
Beijing Yearbook 2013
Beijing Transport Report 2013 (in Chinese only.
2013 年北京交通发展年报)
BERLIN
Private
Transport
33%
Taxi
6%
Bus
27%
Rail
17%
Figure 5: Mode share in Berlin (2013)
Population: 3.5 million
Area: 892 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 26% of
all journeys.
Cycle
13%
Data Sources:
Berlin Statistics Time Series
Berlin Mobility in the City 2013
BOGOTA
Public
Transport
26%
Figure 6: Mode share in Bogota (2008)
Population: 7.4 million
Area: 1,587 km2
Others
5%
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
53% of all journeys.
Walk
12%
Taxi
3%
Data Sources:
National Administrative Department of Statistics DANE
Demand for transportation in Bogota 2010 (in Spanish,
Cámara de Comercio de Bogotá Observatorio
de Movilidad)
56
Private
Transport
32%
Walk
29%
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Cycle
2%
Public
Transport
53%
Private
Transport
25%
Reference
CHICAGO
Figure 7: Mode share in Chicago (2008)
Population: 2.7 million
Area: 590km2
Others
1%
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
16% of all journeys.
Walk
19%
Cycle
1%
Bus
11%
Private
Transport
63%
Rail
5%
Data Sources:
US Census
Chicago Regional Household Travel Inventory:
Mode Choice and Trip Purpose for the 2008 and
1990 Surveys
DELHI
Taxi
1%
Figure 8: Mode share in Delhi (2008)
Population: 16.3 million
Area: 1,114 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
31% of all journeys.
Walk
35%
ParaTransit
5%
Cycle
6%
Data Sources:
Statistical Abstract of Delhi, 2012
RITES Transport Demand Forecast Study for Dept.
of Transport, GNCTD, 2010
GUANGZHOU3
Private
Transport
23%
Bus
27%
Rail
4%
Figure 9: Mode share in Guangzhou (2011)
Population: 11.2 million
Area: 3,842 km2
Mode share of motorised journeys
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes only motorised
modes for all purposes. Mass public transport
constitutes 49% of motorised journeys.
Taxi
11%
Private
Transport
40%
Bus
34%
Data Sources:
Guangzhou Yearbook 2013
Guangzhou Urban Transport Report 2011 (in Chinese
only. 2011 广州市城市交通运行报告)
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Rail
15%
57
Reference
HONG KONG
Figure 10: Mode share in Hong Kong (2011)
Population: 7.2 million
Area: 1,104 km2
Taxi
6%
Mode share of motorised journeys
Based on the number of boardings. It includes
motorised trips only. Mass public transport
constitutes 81% of boardings.
Others
1%
Rail
30%
Bus/Tram
51%
Data Sources:
Hong Kong Statistics, Census and Statistics Department
Travel Characteristics Survey 2011, Transport Department,
Hong Kong, 2014
LONDON
Private
Transport
12%
Figure 11: Mode share in London (2011/12)
Population: 8.4 million
Area: 1,595 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 27% of
all journeys.
Walk
32%
Taxi
1%
Cycle
3%
Bus/Tram
15%
Data Sources:
Land Area and Population Density, GLA
London Travel Demand Survey (LTDS) 2013, Transport
for London
MADRID
Private
Transport
38%
Rail
12%
Figure 12: Mode share in Madrid (2011)
Population: 3.3 million
Area: 604 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 39% of
all journeys.
Data Sources:
Informe del Estado de la Movilidad de la Ciudad de
Madrid 2011
58
Private
Transport
26%
Walk &
Cycle
30%
Taxi
1%
Others
4%
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Bus
18%
Rail
21%
Reference
MUMBAI
Figure 13: Mode share in Mumbai (2007)
Population: 12.7 million
Area: 603 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 52% of
all journeys.
Private
Transport
15%
Walk
& Cycle
33%
Public
Transport
52%
Data Sources:
Census India 2011
Indian Cities Transport Indicators
NEW YORK
Figure 14: Mode share in New York (2009)
Population: 8.4 million
Area: 784 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 33% of
all journeys.
Walk
39%
Others
Bus
6%
11%
Data Sources:
Population and Land Area, Department of City Planning,
New York
New York State 2009 NHTS Comparison Report
OSAKA
Private
Tranport
33%
Rail
12%
Figure 15: Mode share in Osaka (2012)
Population: 2.7 million
Area: 223 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 38% of
all journeys.
Private
Transport
15%
Walk
24%
Cycle
24%
Bus
2%
Rail
36%
Data Sources:
Osaka 5th Travel Survey Report 2012 (in Japanese, 平成
22年第５回近畿圏パーソントリップ調査集計結果から)
JOURNEYS | November 2014
59
Reference
PARIS (Main City)
Figure 16: Mode share in Paris (2008)
Population: 2.3million
Area: 105 km2
Mode share in main city
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 34% of
all journeys.
Private
Transport
16%
Walk
47%
Cycle
3%
Data Sources:
INSEE, Population
Travel survey report (in French, La mobilité des Français,
panorama issu de l’enquête nationale transports et
déplacements 2008)
PRAGUE
Public
Transport
34%
Figure 17: Mode share in Prague (2013)
Population: 1.2 million
Area: 496 km2
Walk
23%
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 43% of
all journeys.
Cycle
1%
Public
Transport
43%
Data Sources:
Prague Transportation Yearbook 2013, Prague
SAN PAULO
Private
Transport
33%
Figure 18: Mode share in San Paulo (2012)
Population: 20.0 million
Area: 7,944 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 37% of
all journeys.
Data Sources:
San Paulo Household Mobility Survey 2012 Main
Result (in Portuguese, PESQUISA DE MOBILIDADE DA
REGIÃO METROPOLITANA DE SÃO PAULO, PRINCIPAIS
RESULTADOS PESQUISA DOMICILIAR, DEZEMBRO
DE 2013)
60
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Private
Transport
31%
Walk
31%
Cycle
1%
Public
Transport
37%
Reference
SEOUL
Figure 19: Mode share in Seoul (2013)
Population: 10.4 million
Area: 605 km2
Mode share of motorised journeys
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
65% of all journeys.
Taxi
7%
Others
4%
Private
Transport
23%
Bus
27%
Rail
38%
Data Sources:
Seoul statistics - Population Trend
Seoul Statistics 2013
SHANGHAI4
Figure 20: Mode share in Shanghai (2009)
Population: 16.4 million
Area: 2,141 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
33% of all journeys.
Walk
27%
Cycle
10%
Data Sources:
Shanghai Yearbook 2011
Shanghai Construction and Transport Commission 2009
(data provided directly)
SINGAPORE
Private
Transport
20%
E-bike
10%
Public
Transport
33%
Figure 21: Mode share in Singapore (2012)
Population: 5.5 million
Area: 718 km2
Mode share of motorised journeys
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
50% of motorised journeys.
Taxi
7%
Private
Transport
43%
Bus
29%
Data Sources:
Population & Land Area, Department of Statistics,
Singapore
Household Interview Travel Survey 2012
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Rail
21%
61
Reference
STOCKHOLM (Metropolitan)
Figure 22: Mode share in Stockholm (2011)
Population: 2.2 million
Area: 6,526 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 25% of
all journeys.
Private
Transport
44%
Public
Transport
25%
Data Sources:
Facts about SL and the metropolitan area in 2012
SYDNEY
Cycle
4%
Walk
27%
Figure 23: Mode share in Sydney (2011/12)
Population: 4.8 million
Area: 12,368 km2
Walk
18%
Mode share
Based on the number of unlinked trips, except
for trips by walking only. It includes all modes
for all purposes. Public transport constitutes
12% of all trips.
Others
4%
Bus
6%
Rail
6%
Private
Transport
68%
Data Sources:
Australian Bureau of Statistics
2011/2012 Household Travel Survey - Key Indicators
for Sydney
TAIPEI
Figure 24: Mode share in Taipei (2013)
Population: 2.7 million
Area: 272 km2
Others
1%
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
all purposes. Mass public transport constitutes
35% of all journeys.
Data Sources:
Taipei Yearbook 2013
Travel Survey 2013 ( in Chinese, 102年民眾日常使用運具
狀況調查)
62
Walk
15%
Cycle
5%
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Private
Transport
43%
Taxi
2%
Bus
19%
Rail
16%
Reference
TOKYO (23-Ward)
Figure 25: Mode share in Tokyo (2008)
Population: 9.1 million
Area: 623 km2
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 51% of
all journeys.
Private
Transport
12%
Cycle
14%
Walk
23%
Bus
3%
Rail
48%
Data Sources:
Tokyo Statistics Population Estimates
Tokyo Metropolitan Travel Survey 2008 (第５回東京都市圏
パーソントリップ調査（交通実態調査）, 平成 20 年,
in Japanese)
TORONTO
Figure 26: Mode share in Toronto (2011)
Population: 2.6 million
Area: 634 km2
Others
1%
Mode share
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for all
purposes. Public transport constitutes 26% of
all journeys.
Walk &
Cycle
8%
Rail
24%
GO
Train
2%
Private
Transport
65%
Data Sources:
2011 Transportation Tomorrow Survey
VIENNA
Figure 27: Mode share in Vienna (2013)
Population: 1.8 million
Area: 415 km2
Cycle
6%
Mode share of motorised journeys
Based on the number of journeys by main
mode of transport. It includes all modes for
Walk
27%
Private
Transport
28%
all purposes. Public transport constitutes
39% of all journeys.
Data Sources:
Vienna Wiener Linien Facts and Figures 2013
JOURNEYS | November 2014
Public
Transport
39%
63
Reference
Notes
1. Population and area of Bangalore includes 11
zones, covering Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara
Palike (BBMP) and Bangalore International
Airport Area Planning Authority (BIAAPA).
2. Population and land area of Beijing include
main districts only.
64
3. Population and land area of Guangzhou
include 10 urban districts only.
4. Population and land area of Shanghai include
main districts only: huangpu, xuhui, changning,
jingan, putuo, zhabeing, hongkou, yangpu,
minghang, pudong.
JOURNEYS | November 2014
L T A A C A D E MY
SINGAPORE
Learning - Reasearch - Knowledge
To explore, inquire and share
The LTA Academy was launched in September 2006 by the Singapore Land Transport
Authority. The Academy aims to be a global knowledge hub in urban transport. It serves as
a one-stop focal point for government officials and professionals around the world to tap on
Singapore’s knowhow and exchange international best practices in urban transport management
and development.
Being the capability building arm of LTA, the Academy comprises three key Divisions: Learning and
Programmes, Research and Publications and Knowledge Management. It also manages LTA’s
resource and education centres: the LTA Library and the Land Transport Gallery. The Academy strives
to explore ideas, inquire know-how and share insights.
JOURNEYS is a biannual publication of the Academy. It provides a platform for the Academy to
showcase and share urban transport trends, policies, technologies and challenges in different cities. It is
also one of the key resources to complement and enhance the learning experience of participants at the
Academy’s programmes.
L T A A C A D E MY
SINGAPORE
LTA Academy
Land Transport Authority
1 Hampshire Road
Singapore 219428
http://www.lta.gov.sg/ltaacademy