Working Paper
Faculty of International Business and Economics
Poznan University of Economics
WP/04/2015
Swajan Das
Determinants of tertiary level students’ overseas study decision
Poznan, November 24, 2015
Determinants of tertiary level students’ overseas study decision
Swajan Das
Abstract: This paper aimed to identify tertiary level students’ influence factors which determine
their overseas study decision. From the related literatures, this study identified 4 push factors, 14
pushull factors and 16 pull factors. Push factors determine why the students go abroad for higher
education; pull factors determine where those students are likely to go; and pushull factors have
both push and pull impacts. Because of having divergent influence, these factors were
disseminated at six levels under push and pull categories. It is recommended for university
marketers to develop customized marketing strategies when targeting students from Asian
developing countries.
Key words: Higher Education, International Students, Overseas Study Destination, Push
Factors, Pull Factors
JEL: F68, I23, M31
1. Introduction
Higher education (HE) is a costly investment for students and their families and becomes more
costly when universities charge tuition fees. There, taking a decision to study abroad is one of the
most important and costly decisions students and their families ever take [Mazzarol 1998]
because it is a lifelong capital investment for them [Srikatanyoo & Gnoth 2002]. In order to
develop the marketing strategy for attracting international students at campus, thus, the
university marketers need to know the target groups’ influencing factors which determine their
overseas study decisions.

Paper has been accepted for publication by Marian Gorynia. The author wishes to thank Piotr Michon,
Mariusz.Szuster, Katarzyna Mroczek and Marian Gorynia for comments. Swajan Das is a Doctoral Intern at Poznan
University of Economics and Business, Faculty of International Business and Economics, Department of
International Competitiveness; email: [email protected]
1
This paper is mainly based on literature reviews. It aims to identify the influencing
factors which determine the tertiary level students’ overseas study decision. With this objective,
the paper initially describes the rationales of university marketing and later on, articulates the
present study methodology. Afterward, it discusses the factors which influence the students’
study abroad decision with the guideline of push, pushull and pull factors. Push factors determine
why the students consider leaving their home countries for HE; pull factors determine to which
destination those students are likely go; and the factors which have both push and pull influences
on students’ decisions are presented as pushull factors. Finally, the paper segments these
influential factors into two categories – push and pull factors and spreads them over six different
levels – push factors at country and individual level and pull factors at country, city, institutional
and program level. However, the findings of this study are not universal and mostly related with
the students from Asian developing countries.
2. Study Background
Recently, the global service sector has witnessed another significant industry - higher education
[Nadiri 2006]. Presently, it contributes, in some countries, higher amounts of revenue to national
economy than the respective country’s other significant exporting products [Mazzarol 1998;
OECD 2013b]. However, because of its intangible nature, marketing HE to its target groups was
ignored in the early days [Mazzarol 1998]. Later on, HE had been classified as a marketable
service like any other service [Russell 2005; Wang 2007]. It has brought a new dimension to the
higher education sector (HES) globally [Knight 2008].
Nicolescu [2009] gave a rational argument why HES can adopt marketing activities.
According to him, on one hand, HE is still seen as a non-profit sector in most countries and this
is why applying a marketing concept in HES does not function like it does for the business
sector; on the other hand, education is a service and therefore, related service marketing concepts
can apply to HES in spite of having peculiarities. Nadiri [2006] conceded a few specific reasons
why universities need marketing activities. According to him, in order to I) build a good
institutional image II) increase satisfaction level among its stakeholders III) gain the competitive
advantage over competitors and IV) increase market share, universities need to employ
2
marketing activities. He also mentioned that now universities act like any other organization.
They are very much concerned about their service qualities and return on their investments.
Under the governance of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), General Agreements on
Trade of Services (GATS) also classified the HE as a tradable commodity [Brandenburg &
Federkeil 2007]. Reasonably, HE is seen as a private good, not a public responsibility any more.
Therefore, students are the customers of the HE service [Nadiri & Mayboudi 2010], in the core
of academic activities and hence, one of the main sources of income for universities [Agoston &
Dima 2012]. Consequently, in order to maximize the service revenue, adopting marketing
strategies has turned into a predestined activity for the multi-billion dollar HE industry [Heaney
& Heaney 2008].
Concurrently, within the context of economic globalization, maximizing outcomes with
limited resources tendency, adopted by national governments has reformed social institutions
including universities [Ivy 2001; Hemsley-Brown & Goonawardana 2007; Belanger et al. 2002;
Mazzarol et al. 2003]. And seeking out a competitive strategy has prompted modern universities
- not just to serve local or regional communities but an international arena [Pimpa 2003;
Lockwood & Hadd 2007]. As a result, the HES has become more internationalized than before
and is still expanding its outbound activities [Teichler 2004]; and it will remain as one of the
prime concerns for many countries [Altbach & Knight 2007]. Now, universities are competing
with each other to attract international students to their campuses [Hemsley-Brown &
Goonawardana 2007; Migin et al. 2015]. Again in many countries, because of the demographical
changes and their impacts, central governments are changing the respective country’s
immigration policies on a regular basis and backing up the universities’ international student
recruitment campaigns [Becker & Kolster 2012; Łukaszczyk 2013].
Numerous studies claimed that an institution’s historical image and its quality education
are the main strengths to attract foreign students. However, the empirical study of Binsardi &
Ekwulugo [2003] found that British universities are struggling to maintain the growth in
international students’ enrolment compared to their counterparts, for example – United States
(US) and Australia. Although the country has many historical institutions and a renowned
promoting agency like British Council, according to their claim, competitors’ aggressive
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marketing strategies are leaving them behind. Thus, to attract students from both domestic and
international levels, universities can and need to adopt marketing activities. And while
developing the marketing strategy, university managers need to know their target groups’
influencing factors.
3. Study Methodology
Students’ foreign decision making process is highly sophisticated and has three distinctive stages
[Mazzarol & Soutar 2002; Srikatanyoo & Gnoth 2002; Pimpa 2003]. Primarily, students must
decide to study in a foreign country; secondarily, select the host country; and finally, choose an
institution. This process is linked with ‘push-pull’ factors [Mazzarol & Soutar 2002]. Making the
decision to study abroad is the influence of ‘push’ factors; and selecting a country and
considering an institution come under ‘pull’ factors.
In their empirical study of 404 students from Indonesia, 361 students from Taiwan, 689
students from China and 152 students from India, Mazzarol & Soutar [2002] mentioned that the
combination of ‘push and pull’ factors encourages students to study abroad. Push factors operate
within the students’ home countries which influence them to go out of the country, whereas, pull
factors operate in host countries where the students are likely to go for study. Until today, their
findings still influence other researchers, although, the surveys were conducted among
prospective international students almost 20 years ago (between 1996 to 2000). China and India
are the top two international student contributor countries in the world; and Asia alone
contributes 53% of all international students globally [OECD 2013b]. Thus, their study has a
strong grounding but not universal because students from developed countries might have
different preferences and behaviors than in developing countries.
Since Asia contributes over half of the total international students in the global market,
understanding Asian international students’ purchasing behaviors has attained a high priority in
academic literature. Until now, very few studies have been conducted into understanding the
overseas movement behaviors of students from African, European, North American and South
American countries. This paper reviews recently published literatures, mainly after 2000, from
the related field of study. The statistical information is mostly gathered from the UNESCO
4
Institute for Statistics (UIS). The nature of this study, thus, limits the scope and makes the
findings mostly a historical generalization. Moreover, the discussed factors in this paper are
treated from the individual’s perspective.
One crucial aspect, the means of financing overseas studies, is not discussed in this paper
upon the assumption that students who (want to) go abroad for tertiary level education are able to
bear the related expenses. Although understanding the correlation between classes of well-off
family and choices of destination country is important for developing the university marketing
strategy for international students, it requires empirical survey among current international
students in different countries. Furthermore, the government (both home and host country)
scholarships which motivate many students to consider the overseas HE or influence them to
consider the scholarship offering countries only are not discussed in this paper.
Many influential factors have both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ impacts on students’ study abroad
decision. For example, the immigration policy - migration desire after graduation in a developed
country can push many students out of their home countries and pull to a destination which has
such (easy) immigration policy. In this study, thus, the author has proposed a new term, pushull
factor, for categorizing the dual-influence factors separately from the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors.
Figure 1 shows the push, pushull and pull factors which influence the students’ overseas
movement behaviors and table 1 presents their constituent factors in details.
4. Tertiary Level Students’ Influential Factors
4.1 Students’ Home Country Circumstances
A country’s HES often suffer from adverse political and socio-economical circumstances
[Mazzarol & Soutar 2002]. For example, Sri Lanka’s public universities are not able to meet
local demand. In 2012, Sri Lanka’s University Grant Commission (UGC) reported that 79% of
all eligible students did not enter into country’s HE institutions [Liyanage 2013]. Although, the
country has around 30 degree awarding private institutions but the government does not
recognize them as HE institutions [EIU 2013; Liyanage 2013].
5
Push Factors


Home country barriers
Career prospectus
Pushull Factors





Overseas
Study
Decision
Media
Language
Family and friends
Immigration
Labor market
Pull Factors



Country and city
Institution
Study program
Figure 1: Influential factors for students’ overseas study decision
Source: Own work
The scenario is the same in Nepal as in Sri Lanka. The country has no legal framework to
establish private HE institutions [EIU 2013]. In Bangladesh, the government allows and supports
students to perform political activities at public universities [Khaleduzzaman 2014]. It often
creates chaos and universities remain closed for days. As a result, students need a longer time to
finish their education than the usual academic years. The Bangladeshi government also lacks the
human resources required to control private universities and the quality of education still remains
highly questionable [Habibulah et al. 2012]. Furthermore, as a part of meeting the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), primary and secondary education sectors have got higher priorities
than HES to central governments and as well as to external donors in all South Asian countries in
recent years [EIU 2013]. Consequently, HES lapsed to a low priority in the government’s
development agendas.
Not only in South Asia but also in other underdeveloped and developing countries around
the world have similar situations [Naidoo 2007]. Another example is China. As of 2006, 47% of
all Chinese students who were seeking admission at universities either had to discontinue their
higher studies or go abroad because of Chinese universities’ limited capacities [Wang 2007]. In
6
addition to these, the unavailability of desired study programs is also a common phenomenon.
The empirical studies of Mazzarol & Soutar [2002], Maringe & Carter [2007] and Yang [2007]
found a similar influential factor among Chinese, Taiwanese, Indonesian, Indian and African
students. For well-to-do families, thus, sending their children abroad for tertiary level education
becomes the foremost solution. The movement of Canadian students towards US universities is
also influenced by the unavailability of desired programs at home universities [McCarthy et al.
2012].
4.2 Personal Reasons
Tertiary level students’ outbound movements are also influenced by their own preferences and
family, relatives and others’ recommendations. For example, they often have a perception that
foreign education is better than the local ones [Mazzarol & Soutar 2002; Yang 2007; Bodycott
2009]. They think prospective employers would value a foreign degree more than local ones as
the potential employees would have international experiences [Cubillo et al. 2006; Baruch et al.
2007; O’Brien et al. 2007].
The recent revolution of the internet has made the information simplistically attainable
from anywhere in the world. Now, developing countries are about to close the information gap
with developed countries. The availability of information is increasing students’ global
awareness and growing their interests in different cultures [Maringe & Carter 2007]. Western
entertainment media, mainly Hollywood and British movies and television programs, are gaining
global dominance and students are becoming influenced by it. In their studies, Mazzarol &
Soutar [2002] and Rudd et al. [2012] found that students like to go abroad for tertiary education
because they want to experience western cultures. The empirical study of Foster [2014] found
that many Brazilian students choose British universities because of having a chance to explore
the regional and national culture of the United Kingdom (UK). Like Mazzarol & Soutar [2002]
and Rudd et al. [2012], although Yang’s [2007] study was conducted among the Chinese
students, they preferred experiencing foreign lifestyle than gaining only the experience of
western cultures. Thus, it is better to say that international students from developing countries are
influenced by a potential foreign country’s developed culture and life style. Students from
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developed countries, for example – American students, also intend to go abroad for experiencing
other cultures and increasing their global awareness [Stroud 2010].
Baruch et al. [2007], Hazen & Alberts [2006], Mazzarol & Soutar [2002] and Yang’s
[2007] study found that students’ migration desire after graduation often influence them to go
abroad. Additionally, students usually get a chance to work in many developed countries while
studying. It also motivates many students to go abroad for studying. Furthermore, parents,
friends and relatives’ encouragements and recommendations also influence students to go abroad
[Mazzarol & Soutar 2002]. For Chinese students, these influential groups play an important role
for taking decision to study abroad (for details, also read section number 4.6).
4.3 Country Image
Mazzarol & Soutar [2002] highly emphasized on media influence which creates awareness about
a country among students. According to them, film industry, media and news agencies, for
example, have been working as a mediator for US and, thus, creating a positive country image
and attracting international students at its universities. Srikatanyoo & Gnoth [2002] claimed that
an institution’s country image works as the main influential factor in the process of students’
destination choice. According to them, a positive (negative) country image creates a positive
(negative) belief towards an institution and its programs among the students. They also claimed
that country image and institutional image are interlinked. Like the country, a successful brand
can change its country image through aggressive marketing activities. However, the quality of an
institution’s particular program may vary from year to year, class to class, student to student,
lecturer to lecturer and so on, but the country image, as per their claim, can substitute while
evaluating a program of an unknown institution.
Now, international students are more pragmatic than before. Sometimes they even
compromise with different risk factors, for example – racism, discrimination, vulnerable
institutional power et cetera which effect a country’s international image, while considering a
country, a city or an institution, although these factors got into prime considerations in Singh et
al. [2014], Mazzarol & Soutar [2002], Cubillo et al. [2006], Yang [2007] and Maringe& Carter’s
[2007] studies. For example, when comparing the country image of Poland and Czech Republic
8
with Ukraine, both the European Union (EU) member states possess better image than Ukraine.
Yet Ukraine managed to attract almost 10 and 16 times more students from India (Ukraine 2,516,
Poland 252 and Czech 155) and 8 and 23 times more students from China (Ukraine 4,341,
Poland 549 and Czech 188) in 2012 than Poland and Czech Republic respectively [UIS 2015].
But the scenario was different in 2013. Ukraine experienced a significant drop in Chinese
students’ enrolment (3,180) but a positive growth in Indian students’ enrolment (2627) [UIS
2015].
The recent development in information and communication technology makes students
able to verify any information through different sources. Thus, the principal countries, namely –
US, UK, Australia and Canada, are losing their dominance to other emerging countries like
France, Germany or Japan and sometimes, surprisingly, to countries like Ukraine and Bulgaria.
For example, US hosted 23% of all international students in 2000 but it dropped to 17% in 2011
[OECD 2013b].
In addition to Srikatanyoo & Gnoth’s [2002] claim of country image, Cubillo et al.
[2006] claimed that students’ purchase intentions are also influenced by city image [Rudd et al.
2012]. They argued that the city is the environment where the service would be produced and
consumed. The physical environment in a city holds the facilities that are required while
studying. However, sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish factors at city level from country
level, especially, when the country is small. Thus, the same factor can equally apply to both city
and country level.
4.4 Immigration Policy
A country’s immigration policy plays an important role in attracting international students. In
their empirical study on Chinese students’ decision making process for UK business schools,
Rudd et al. [2012] found that getting the UK visa is much easier for Chinese students in
comparison with other countries. This factor motivates them to consider British universities at
first place. Another study by Chen [2007] found that many students from East-Asian countries,
especially Chinese students, chose Canada over US because obtaining Canadian visa was easier
for them than US visa. Because of having minimum visa requirements and simple visa
9
application procedure, recently, South Korea is also becoming a popular study destination among
Asian students too [Jon et al. 2014].
Another important factor is working facilities during the study period. Studying in a
foreign country is more expensive for students from under-developed or developing countries in
comparison with their home countries. Thus, students often want to work while studying
[Mazzarol & Soutar 2002; OECD 2013b; He & Banham 2011]. Additionally, students’ future
migration tendency after graduation is also a prime factor [OECD 2013b; Mazzarol & Soutar
2002; Bodycott 2009; Rudd et al. 2012; Yang 2007; Rudd et al. 2012; Hazen & Alberts 2006;
Alberts & Hazen 2005; He & Banham 2011]. They prefer to settle down in developed countries
after completing their studies rather than returning to their home countries. Thus, having a better
immigration policy can attract more international students to a country. In response to these
factors, countries like UK issues (limited hours) work permit on student visa, Norway and
Finland amended their naturalization laws for international students recently and Canada offers
permanent residence for international (doctorate) students after graduation [OECD 2013b].
4.5 Geographical Proximity and Historical Linkage1
Different studies found that a country’s geographical proximity influence students’ decision
making process [Mazzarol & Soutar 2002; Bodycott 2009; Singh et al. 2014; Mpinganjira 2011;
Jon et al. 2014]. It is because of the countries’ cultural closeness, minimum travelling distance
and/or almost similar climates and environments. For example, in 2012, Japan hosted more
Chinese students (96,592 students) than Australia (87,497) and UK (76,913) [UIS 2015]. Korea
also hosted a significant number of Chinese students (43,698) – much higher than France
(26,479) and Canada (26,238) [UIS 2015]. Bulgaria’s attractiveness among Turkish students is
also an example of such influence (5,015 out of 51,487 outbound Turkish students) [UIS 2015].
The scenario is also similar for students from developed countries. For example, in 2012, the US
hosted 57% of all Canadian outbound students in 2012 [UIS 2015].
In addition to that, a country’s historical (mainly political and economical) linkage with a
students’ home country influences students’ decision [OECD 2013a; Baruch et al. 2007]. Many
1
The actual statistics are much higher than the presented ones under this section because UNESCO Institute for
Statistics (UIS) does not include students whose study period is less than an academic year.
10
under-developed or developing countries still bear the legacy of foreign supremacy. Thus,
students’ preceding generations become the influential groups (for detail, also read 4.6). For
example, Russia is still an attractive study destination among the outgoing students from many
post Soviet countries (Kazakhstan – 69%, Kyrgyzstan – 47%, Uzbekistan – 41%, Ukraine - 25%
and Turkmenistan – 25% of all out going students in 2012) [UIS 2015]. The popularity of British
universities among South Asian students also come from their long colonial history (Pakistan –
23%, Bangladesh – 17%, India – 16% of all outgoing students in 2012), so does the American
and French popularity among the Vietnamese students (28% and 10% of all outgoing students in
2012 respectively) [UIS 2015].
4.6 Parental Influence and Others’ Recommendations
Students may choose a particular study program at an institution in a city or country but parents
are the ones who bear the costs. Thus, their influence is also an influential factor [Maringe &
Carter 2007]. Mazzarol & Soutar [2002] found that many students wanted to study in US but
their parents let them consider Australia only. Parents are always concerned about children’s
safety and their prosperous future [Mazzarol & Soutar 2002]. Bodycott [2009] found that
Chinese parents even want to participate in educational fairs and talk with university
representatives personally for securing their children’s future. The parents are also influenced by
their past experiences that might have gathered through studying or visiting in a country or by
simply hearing stories from their parents (for detail, also read section number 4.5). These
experiences presumably make the parents to think that a particular destination will be suitable for
their children’s future education.
Recommendations from relatives, friends or social links also influence the students’
decision making process [Mazzarol & Soutar 2002; Maringe & Carter 2007; Yang 2007;
Bodycott 2009; Rudd et al. 2012; Pimpa 2001; O’Brien et al. 2007]. Sometimes, it is the only
influential factor to choose a particular host country. Bodycott [2009] found that for both
students and parents, friends and relatives’ recommendations along with educational fairs are
most influential factors in order to decide on a foreign study destination (for detail, also read
section number 4.8). Rudd et al. [2012] found that half of his interviewees considered friends’
recommendation while making their decision, whereas, only one third of the respondents
11
mentioned their family’s help while deciding on a foreign study destination. Nyaupane et al.
[2011] also found that students’ close friends who live in foreign countries have the highest
influence on them than other factors to choose an overseas study destination. Students like to go
to the same foreign destination where their friends live because their presences attach the
students psychologically with those destinations.
4.7 Importance of Language
Globally, it is seen that international students primarily tend to choose an English speaking
country or at least where the medium of instruction is in English [Yang 2007; Bodycott 2009;
OECD 2013b]. Because of the media influences, for most students, English is an easier language
to learn than others. Again, some students choose to study abroad because of having a chance to
improve their English language proficiency [Eder et al. 2010; Foster 2014]. This is why,
Australia, Canada, UK and US together hosted 41% of all international students in 2011 [OECD
2013a; OECD 2013b]. As a result, now, universities from non-English speaking countries are
offering study programs in English too.
4.8 Institutional Image
An institution’s image plays an important role to attract students from other countries [Mazzarol
& Soutar 2002; Cubillo et al. 2006; Yang 2007; Maringe & Carter 2007; Bodycott 2009; Rudd et
al. 2012; Migin et al. 2015; Chen 2007; Foster 2014; Lee 2014; O’Brien et al. 2007; Mpinganjira
2011]. Students always count on an institution’s national and international reputation and quality
of its programs. High profile teaching staffs increase an institution’s reputation and reflect the
quality of education. Recently, national and world rankings of universities are also influencing
students’ decision. They also count on the number of programs offered by a university in
English, their directions of specialization and offered courses for each specialization. Since
students perceive that a foreign degree would have a positive impact on their future career, they
carefully consider a program’s suitability to their domestic labor market. Recognizing students’
home country qualifications is an influential factor too. Additionally, an institution’s easy
admission procedures have positive impacts on students. International cooperation or partnership
with students’ known institutions increases a university’s awareness. Thus, for many universities,
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one of the objectives of creating partnership with foreign institutions is becoming business
driven [Ayoubi & Al-Habaibeh 2006]. Beside these, other conveniences like scholarship offers,
modern library facilities, onsite accommodation possibilities, technological facilities and
availability of information about the university on the internet are also associated with an
institution’s image.
However, it is an argumentative issue because as per Srikatanyoo & Gnoth’s [2002]
claim, a country’s image can compensate an unknown institution’s image and its education
quality (for detail, also read section number 4.3). Eder et al. [2010] also found their respondents
to value more the reputation of a host country than an institution. Moreover, Bodycott’s (2009)
empirical study on mainland Chinese students and their parents found that educational
exhibitions/fairs influence them highly while taking the decision on a foreign study destination.
For both students and parents, these fairs are the primary source of information about an
institution. Parents also personally attend various seminars and interact with institutions’
representatives for sourcing information. These have a direct influence on both parents and
students to decide on a foreign study destination. Thus, an institutional image may not always be
necessary to attract foreign students if an institution can directly interact with prospective
students and their parents [Maringe & Carter 2007]. Universities also pull students through
marketing various activities [Chen 2007]. Sometimes, alumni also bring students to an institution
through word-of-mouth promotion [Mazzarol & Soutar 2002; O’Brien et al. 2007].
Apart from these, the country image or the institutional image always may not be the
influential factors for many students from developing countries. For example, the before
mentioned example of Ukrainian HE’s popularity (under section number 4.3) among the Chinese
and Indian students over the Polish and Czech HEs proves that although both the nations have
better country image by being EU member states and by having some of the oldest universities in
Europe within each country.
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Table 1: Influential factors for students’ overseas study decision in details
Influential Factors
Constituent Influential
Factors
Home country
barriers
Political and
economical conditions
Country’s adverse political and economical conditions push students to go abroad
for their higher education
Entry barriers at home
universities
High entry barriers at local institutions push students out of their home countries
for tertiary level education
Unavailability of
desired program
Unavailability of desired study program(s) at local universities push students out
of their home countries
Career prospectus
Future career prospects
Students perceive that international qualification is better than local education and
will bring them a prosperous career in future
Media
International awareness
Media increase the students’ global awareness which motivates them to go abroad
for higher studies
Developed culture
Media create the global awareness of a country’s culture and lifestyle. Many
students go abroad for studying because they want to experience the respective
country’s rich culture. Similarly, a country’s rich culture attracts foreign students
International
recognition
Reputation of a country’s higher education influences the students’ decisions
while considering the respective country as their foreign study destination. Media
enable them to check a country’s academic reputation though different sources
Academic reputation
A particular institution’s academic reputation spreads through the media and
increases its attractiveness among foreign students
Foreign language skill
Many students like to develop their foreign language skill, mainly English, by
studying in the respective teaching and instruction medium in a foreign country
English language
Presence of English language in a country makes the destination attractive to
foreign students
English programs
An institution’s wide range of programs offered in English makes the institution
attractive to foreign students
Language
Description
14
Table 1 continues
Family and Friends
Immigration Policy
Labor Market
Country and City
Family and friends’
recommendation
Family and friends influence tertiary level students to go abroad and to choose a
particular study destination
Presence of relatives
and friends
Presence of relatives or friends in a foreign country makes the destination known
to students and consider it while deciding on a foreign study destination
Migration desire
Many students (want to) go abroad for higher studies because they want to settle
down in the respective country after graduation
Migration possibility
Having migration possibility in a country after graduation makes the destination
attractive to foreign students
Immigration process
Foreign students are influenced by a country’s immigration process. Easy
immigration process makes a country popular among foreign students
Working Desire
Many students (want to) go abroad for higher studies because they want to work
and earn money while studying
Working possibility
Possibility of working while studying in a city or country make the destination
attractive to foreign students
Living cost
Having low living cost in a city or country makes the destination attractive to
foreign students
Safety and security
High safety and security like low or no racism and discrimination increase an
overseas destination’s attractiveness to foreign students
Educational atmosphere
International atmosphere and educational environments can bring foreign students
in a city
Geographical proximity
Short distance to a country or city from the students’ home countries makes the
overseas destination popular among them
Historical relation
A country’s historical relation with the students’ home countries can attract
students to its institutions
15
Table 1 continues
Institution
High profile teaching
staff
High profile teaching staffs ensure the quality of education of an institution. It
increases the attractiveness of the respective institution to foreign students
Ranking position
An institution’s academic ranking at national and international levels attract
foreign students at its campus
Scholarship offer
Offering scholarship to foreign students increase an institution’s recognition
International partnership Partnership and cooperation with foreign universities increase an institution’s
recognition to the foreign students
Study Program
Alumni influence
Alumni can bring international students through recommendation
Facilities
An institution’s modern library, onsite accommodation and technological facilities
increase the institution’s attractiveness and bring foreign students to its campus
Marketing activities
Participating in educational fairs abroad and other overseas marketing activities
create and increase an institution’s association with its potential target groups
Job market suitability
Job market suitability in students’ home countries increases the demand of a
particular program of an overseas institution
Tuition fees
Low tuition fee increases a program’s attractiveness to the foreign students
Specialization and
courses
Wide range of specialization and courses increase a programs’ attractiveness to the
foreign students
Admission process
Simple admission procedure and acknowledging foreign qualifications increase a
program’s attractiveness to foreign students
Source: Own work
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4.9 Study Costs
Most studies found that tuition fees and other costs like living expenses and travel costs are
among the most important influential pull factors for students while deciding on a foreign
destination [Mazzarol & Soutar 2002; Binsardi & Ekwulugo 2003; Yang 2007; Maringe &
Carter 2007; Bodycott 2009; Rudd et al. 2012; OECD 2013b; Migin et al. 2015; Naidoo 2007;
Foster 2014; Singh et al. 2014; O’Brien et al. 2007; Mpinganjira 2011; Jon et al. 2014]. In most
countries, international students pay higher tuition fees than local students [OECD 2013b]. Most
universities (both public and private) see international students as their additional source of
revenue and so, keep increasing tuition fees each year. Thus, students always look for a country
where tuition fees and other expenses are low or have no tuition fees at all. The Before
mentioned attractiveness of Ukrainian universities can be the example again. The recent Swedish
example comes into the forefront also. Because of imposing tuition fees for foreign students in
2011, Sweden experienced almost 60% decline in student enrolment from countries outside the
European Economic Area (EEA) and Switzerland [OECD 2013b]. Binsardi & Ekwulugo [2003]
also found that British universities are struggling to attract foreign students compared to their
past because of the country’ high tuitions fees. They pointed out that low tuition fees can restrain
this fall. However, in spite of having high tuition fees and other costs in UK, US or Australia,
these countries are still attractive among students because of having many financial supports and
scholarship opportunities and also working possibilities during the study period [OECD 2013b].
5. Conclusion
Students from different countries have different needs and preferences. Thus, the influential
factors, for example, for Indian students are distinct from Chinese or Korean students. Individual
preferences also differ from student to student. And country or city image have different
meanings to different students. Moreover, high quality education can make an institution
attractive but other factors may influence the destination negatively. A country with lower tuition
fees and other costs can make the destination more attractive than others. However, strong labor
market can compensate for high costs within a country. Additionally, future migration
possibilities can influence the students’ decision despite having high costs in a country. A
country’s historical linkage can make a country popular among students from its former
17
associated countries too. English is the predominant instructive language for tertiary education;
therefore, it benefits the English speaking countries in attracting international students.
From the related literatures, this study has identified 4 push factors, 14 pushull factors
and 16 pull factors which are presented in table 1. Push factors determine why the students go
abroad for higher education; pull factors determine where those students are likely to go; and
pushull factors have both push and pull impacts. All of these influential factors have divergent
influences on students’ foreign study decision at different levels. Thus, they can be segmented
into two categories and then disseminated at six levels, for example – push factors at a) country
and b) individual level and pull factors at a) country b) city c) institution and d) program level.
Figure 2 presents the list of the categorized and disseminated influential factors. However, these
factors or the levels are not presented in any particular order.
Overseas
Study
Decision
Country Level
Adverse conditions
Entry barriers
Program lacking
Country Level
Recognition
English Language
Cost of living
Immigration
Working possibility
Migration
Culture
Safety and security
Family and friends
Proximity
Historical relation
Pull Factors
Push Factors
Individual Level
Awareness
Family and friends
Career prospects
Migration desire
Working desire
Cultural experience
Language skill
Institution Level
Reputation
Teaching staff
English program
Ranking position
Scholarship offer
Foreign partnership
Alumni
Modern library
Accommodation
Technological facility
Marketing activity
City Level
Atmosphere
Living Cost
Working possibility
Safety and security
Family and friends
Figure 2: Determinants of students’ overseas study decision
Source: Own work
18
Program Level
Suitability
Tuition fees
Specialization
Courses
Admission
Foreign degree
At present, almost 4.5 million students enroll in tertiary level education outside their home
country [OECD 2013b]. This figure is expected to double by 2020. However, the global market
has become highly competitive despite having a short history. Now, the students are better
informed than ever and information is getting cross-checked through different media. Thus, to
prove itself the most attractive one, a university marketer needs to develop customized marketing
strategies by understanding different target groups’ influential factors differently because the
same influencing factors are not applicable for all students. Again, one factor can be linked with
other factors and influence the students at different levels. It is also recommended to consider
previous country studies while developing the university marketing strategies.
Due to the absence of sufficient research works on students from Africa, Europe, North
and South America, the identified influencing factors are not universal and mostly applicable for
students from Asian developing countries only. In order to increase this study’ credential for
students from developing countries, it is recommended to conduct studies on African and South
American international students and incorporate the relevant findings; and for making this study
more universal, additionally, it is also recommended to incorporate the findings from studies on
tertiary level students’ overseas movement behavior from developed countries.
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