Journal of the Nigeria English Studies Association (JNESA) 13:2
THE PREVALENCE OF SLANG USE AMONG THE
STUDENTS OF SBRS/ABU FUNTUA AND ITS EFFECTS
ON THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND
LANGUAGE
Martha Nguemo Terna-Abah,
Department Of English And Literacy Studies,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Abstract
The author of this paper examines the prevalence of slang use
among the students of the school of Basic and Remedial Studies,
Ahmadu Bello University, Funtua and how it affects the teaching of
English as a second language. She begins by looking at the
variability of language as conditioned by certain social factors such
as sex, age, ethnicity, and social status among others aimed at
accommodating speakers’ needs in order to enhance social
interaction. Narrowing it down to slang as an important variety of
the English Language, the author discusses the transformation of
slang from a variety once associated with vagabonds and criminals
to a variety now widely used by students, particularly those of
SBRS/ABU, Funtua as an alternate vocabulary encoding their
communal values. She further discusses the effects of this
prevalence on the teaching of standard British English as a medium
of formal communication in SBRS/ABU, Funtua.
Key words: slang, students of SBRS/ABU Funtua, Teaching ESL
Introduction
Language, as an important instrument of communication, is
remarkably varied. According to Francis (1983:15), “no language spoken by
more than a very small number of people is homogeneous”. Every language
has considerable internal variations and speakers make constant use of the
many different possibilities offered to them. People constantly exploit the
nuances of the language they speak for a wide variety of purposes.
Varieties that speakers use, according to Wardhaugh (1986:10), reflect
such matters as their regional, social or ethnic origin and possibly even their
sex (or gender) and their particular ways of speaking. Choices of words and
even rules for conversing are in fact highly determined by certain social
requirements.
Similarly, Ursel and Prideaux (1989:1) see social context, age of
participants, degree of formality, relative intimacy of the participants’
subject matter being discussed, relative differences in perceived power and
authority of participants and a host of other factors as expectedly
contributing to variations in language use. However, whatever the factors
are that motivate variations in language, the aim is to accommodate all the
needs and situation that speakers find for it in order to enhance social
interaction.
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A variety of language according to Ferguson (1971:30) is anybody
of human speech pattern which is sufficiently homogeneous to be
analysed by available techniques of synchronic description and
which has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their
arrangements or processes with broad enough semantic scope to
function in all normal contexts of communication.
According to Jowitt (1991:37), a variety of a language can be thought
of as
one of many general and complete language systems each used
by a substantial number of people and each possessing
characteristics that distinguish it from
other systems without
requiring it to be classified as a different language.
These views are the sense in which for instance Nigerian English,
British English, American English and, importantly, English slang,
which is the focus of this paper, are referred to as varieties of the
English Language.
English slang as an important variety of the English language
originally designated “the speech of people involved in the criminal
underworld,
hooligans,
bandits,
criminals
etc.”
(en
wikipedia.oprg/wiki/slang28k). It has, however, become the speech of many
who use it as an alternate vocabulary encoding their communal values.
Slang is now associated with the armed forces – the Army, Navy and Air
force (Partridge 1948), the entertainment world in television programmes
(Grimm, 2003:8), music (Short, 1997), politics (Boylan, 2005:302), carnival
works, gambling and in the speech of prisoners, students and so on (Eble,
1992).
The use of slang among students of higher learning across the globe
has become a common phenomenon. According to Eble (1988:1-2), “the
creative use of language by college students to grumble to each other about
their lot in life and about those in authority over them must date back in
Western Europe to the earliest days of the universities”. In the United States
of America for example, the reconstruction of college slang during the
nineteeth century relied heavily on three sources: B.H. Hall’s College Words
and Customs 1856, Lyman Bagg’s Four Years at Yale 1871 and the novel
Student Life at Harvard 1876. These three sources reveal that slang
vocabularies were concerned with campus landmarks, rivalry among the
classes, making fashionable appearances, eating, socializing and studying as
little as possible (Eble, op cit). These studies also give the impetus for latter
studies on college slang.
Public interest in college slang during the latter part of the nineteenth
century is shown by the many short and often anecdotal articles on the topic
published in newspapers and magazines. These include the works Babbitt
(1900), Dundes and Schonhorn (1963), Underwood (1975), slang items from
Stanford University published in 1927 and 1931, and Eble (1979), (1980),
(1983), (1986), (1988), (1989), (1990), (1991), (1992), (1993), whose works
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dwell on slang used by students of the University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill.
The use of slang among students is not restricted to the United States
of America and other parts of the developed world alone. In Nigeria also,
there is hardly any institution of higher learning where slang is not used by
students especially at informal contexts. This is evident from the web site
http: www.ngex.com/entertainment/on campus/campus slang which is
exclusively for Nigerian campus slang where students from different
Nigerian universities send in slang in slang vocabularies and their meanings
as used in such campuses.
The students of the School of Basic and Remedial Studies, Ahmadu
Bello University who are drawn predominantly from different parts of the
nineteen northern states of Nigeria also greatly employ the use of slang in
their interaction with one another. The pervasiveness of slang among this
target group just like any other institution of higher learning is something
that cannot be ignored. This pervasiveness however, has its attending
consequences on the teaching of English as a second language among this
group of students. This paper therefore, sets out to unravel the reasons
behind the prevalence of slang and how it affects the teaching of English
language in SBRS/ABU, Funtua.
What Is Slang?
In the early days of slang, when it was mainly associated with
vagabonds, hooligans and criminals, many scholars and the general public
alike viewed it with negative attitudes. These attitudes of course shaped the
definitions of slang then. This can be seen in the definition of slang by Green
and Kittredge (1902) cited in Partridge (1950: 1)
as a peculiar kind of vagabond language always hanging on the
outskirt of legitimate speech but continually straying or forcing its
way into the most respected company.
Looking at what slang is today however, one would discover that, it
transcends this definition as it is now used by people from all walks of life
and, most especially, students of higher learning. Although slang is still
informal, it cannot be viewed as illegitimate as it is now more accepted by
the public than it was during its early days as depicted in the definition
above.
Other scholars like McKnight (1923) have condemned slang as an
accepted correct social grammar, believing that it undermines the standard
language and reflects poorly upon its users. In his words, slang is a
language of highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard
educated speech and consisting either of new words or of current words
employed in some special sense.
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Although slang is still used informally and, based on this, can be seen as
below the level of standard educated speech, as put forward by McKnight
(1923), for its users, however, slang fulfils the communication needs just as
educated speech would. This view is corroborated by Eble (1996:3) who
defines slang as
an ever changing and fashionable set of vocabulary of sociability
used to establish or reinforce identity cohesiveness within a group
with a trend or fashion in a society at large.
The view above is shared by Ellis (2006:8) who believes that slang
is a variety of language used in certain contexts by means of which
people express their sense of belonging to a particular group within
the community which is not specific to any geographic location.
Slang is also a form of communicating the necessary feeling and ideas of its
users through the choice of words that fit their situations better than words
considered to be in the norm. This view is succinctly put by Baker (1983)
who states that the term slang describes
a characteristic of speech (or writing) where a speaker feels free to
express themselves informally and often outside the confines of
correct social grammar or social niceties. These expressions are
usually cheeky, personal and amusing.
According to Wikipedia (2007), slang is the
use of highly informal words and expressions that are not
considered standard in the speakers’ dialect or language. It is very
often colloquial: the language or dialect to be specific to a
particularly.
In the same vein, Myers (2004: 1) opines that slang is considered to be:
a colloquial language which has highly variable, transitory and
informal vocabulary and is characteristic of any definite
social
group or circle of friends.
For practical lexicographers according to Asher and Simpson (1994:
3964), “slang is a place, a way station and a proving ground for cheeky new
words and phrases.” Viewed at the level of usage, Asher and Simpson define
slang as “vocabulary in limbo … it is applicant language that is awaiting
acceptance or rejection by standard usage or endlessly awaiting neither- and
perhaps, quiet withdrawal”.
In my own view, however, slang is a variety of language that has
survived a lot of negativity and fought its way to attain its present status as
a language of identity, unity, liberation and a strong enhancer of social
interaction among those who use it.
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Motivations for Slang Use among Students of SBRS/ABU Funtua
Investigations into the motivations for slang use by scholars such as
Kutner and Brogan (1974), Flexner (1975), De klerk (1990, 1992), Grossman
and Tucker (1997), Bailey (1985), Cheshire (2003) and Newman (1997)
reveal that gender, age and scholastic environment are motivators of slang
use among most especially students. These studies, which are
sociolinguistic-based, reveal that there is a greater use of slang among
males than females and that the youths are more motivated to use slang
than children and the elderly. In addition, the studies show that youths who
attended schools of lower educational standards were more likely to use
slang than their other counterparts.
Based on the finding from a study I conducted in 2006 involving two
hundred and fifty students of SBRS/ABU, Funtua on the sociolinguistic
motivations for their use of slang, the following variables were found to be
motivations for their use of slang:
Gender. One among the sociolinguistic variables assessed in the study was
gender. From the responses obtained, it was not only confirmed that there
are special slang vocabulary items for both males and females but that male
students speak more slang than their female counterparts evident by 55.2%
and 64.2% of the responses obtained respectively.
Social Background. It was also discovered from the findings that the
students’ social background motivated them to use slang. The responses
obtained showed that 78.4% of the students were motivated by their social
backgrounds to use slang. Certain social variables such as social class,
(social class here was used to mean the students’ family status, income,
access to basic amenities and position in the society) places of residence,
access to television and radio and possession of mobile phones were all
assessed. Responses obtained showed that students from the middle class,
who resided in the urban areas, who were exposed to the television and
radio and possessed mobile phones, were all motivated by these variables to
use slang.
Age. Age was equally found to be a motivation among these students 97.2%
of them agreed that youths particularly those between the ages of twenty
and twenty-five in SBRS/ABU, Funtua were more motivated to use slang
than those below and above this range.
Context. It was also discovered in the study that context was a strong
motivation for the use of slang among the students of SBRS/ABU, Funtua.
85.6% of the students said they are more motivated to use slang at informal
contexts especially when with friends and fellow students than when with
their parents and teachers. It was also realized that the students speak
slang more at school than when they are at home.
The Media, Internet and Mobile Phones. These variables were also found
to motivate the students to use slang. Their exposure to the television, radio,
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internet, and use of mobile phones influenced them to use slang testifiable
by 85.2% of the responses obtained.
The Influence of Popular Culture. In our highly technological world where
people are brought closer and closer together by the omnipresent media and
owing to the pervasive and interconnected nature of popular culture with its
encroachment into every realm of collective experience, popular culture has
greatly contributed to the prevalence of slang among students of higher
learning in Nigeria and particularly those of SBRS/ABU, Funtua who have
access to all the sources of popular culture namely films, internet,
television, radio, music, fashion, magazines among others.
According to Jonathan and Fred (2007), the media, through which
popular culture is transmitted, has been one of the greatest influences of
slang over the last twenty years. According to them, vocabulary once used
by prisoners, gang members and pimps has penetrated the mainstream
market through mediums such as MTV and this is not just affecting
students who listen to gangster rap and hip – hop whether it is Justin
Timberlake, Eminem, Ludacris, the Black Eyed Peas, Snoop Dogg among
others, popular artists of all colour are influencing all of our students with
new terms every day.
In the same vein, Mackwell (2005:2, 3) believes that most of the
neologisms or slang used by students today often emerge from popular
culture via media, especially the television and film. If the primary source of
popular culture is the mass media, film, television, radio, video games,
books and the internet, as Delaney (2007) states, then most of our students
who have access to all these sources are cut up in the web of consuming
these popular culture products, slang inclusive, which is gradually
becoming the norm among them.
The African-American Vernacular (aave) as a Motivator of Slang Use
The African–American vernacular (AAVE) also known as Black English
or Ebonics has also influenced youth slang. This dialect associated with
black culture loosely conceived as hip–hop culture and passed on through
the media has become dominant in the United States of America and beyond
especially among the students of SBRS/ABU, Funtua. Today’s youths have
to look to black culture for their inspiration. According to Dalzell (2005) and
Eble (1992), youth slang has borrowed continually and generously from the
slang of the black urban experience.
The Prevalence of Slang and the Teaching of English as a Second
Language
In Nigeria, English language particularly the standard British English
has continued to enjoy maximum attention as the medium of formal
communication especially as a language of instruction. Parents and
proprietors of schools have often accepted the use of English Language as a
mark of prestige. Admission into tertiary institutions these days require
candidates to pass English language at credit level in SSCE/NECO. In fact,
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the importance of English to the life of an average Nigerian cannot be
overemphasised. In the words of Bamgboose (1971:36)
“… of all the heritage left behind in Nigeria by colonial
administration, probably none is more important than the English
language.
Despite the importance of the English language, its teaching in Nigeria has
continued to witness a lot of problems here and there with a dwindling
performance by students.
In 1988, Ubahakwe with a catalogue of references spanning about
twenty one years stated that
although the importance of English in the Nigerian education
process has remained unchallenged, there is no question in recent
years about the failure of English language.
Mohammed (1995: 133) also pointed out that
Surprisingly and quite disappointingly however students
proficiency in English as measured by WAEC examinations seems
to be declining rapidly particularly since the failure
rate in the
last five years has been in the region of 70 – 75% annually which is
very disturbing and unacceptable.
So many reasons have been cited by scholars to account for this
decline such as inadequate research, a lack of effective central
administration, hopelessly inadequate teaching materials (Nwaegbe, 1981:
82) educational setting, the educational system, teachers status and
motivation, the examination pattern, the learning environment, teacher
preparation, language philosophy (Ubahakwe 1988 ), lack of adequate
support programmes in English such as support for teacher-improvement
programme for teachers of English (Akere 1995), several inadequacies in the
curriculums itself some of which are arbitrary ordering of items (Mohammed
1995), teachers’ low level of competence in language skills especially
reading, unduly large classrooms, too many periods per week, lack of
incentive and learners unserious attitude (Ayodele 1988 :19).
The factors highlighted above some of the which are still common till
date cannot be the only reasons for the decline in students’ performance in
English language in our globalised world where the teacher and books are
no longer the sole sources of information and knowledge with the advent of
the internet, mobile phones and other mass media where students have
unlimited access to different kinds of products, they are misled into
believing that consuming these popular culture products enhances prestige
and gives them a powerful identity hence their use of slang which has
become an identifying feature among them. This however has a lot of
implications for the teaching and learning of English language.
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The English language teacher in any higher institution today and
particularly SBRS/ABU, Funtua faces an uphill task in order to scale
several hurdles caused by our highly technological world. The use of slang
by the students of SBRS/ABU, Funtua seems to be taking over the Standard
English. Slang words and expressions filter into students’ write-ups thereby
hampering meaning, hence, effective communication especially when such
slang items are the same with those of the Standard English but of different
meanings depending on whether they are used as slang or otherwise. These
include slang items like dry (uninteresting), blast (defecate) crash (steep)
bitch (female) shot gun (unexpected test) pepper (money) killer (glutton), joint
(cigarette containing marijuana) tapping (okay) flash (lies) and many more.
Some of these slang items are borrowed from indigenous language. Example
include “gboga” (Yoruba), ‘mekwe’ (Igbo) “shaa” (Yoruba) ‘ganja’ (Hausa),
“tiawn” (Edo) “gbedu” (Yoruba) “koko” (Hausa) “kpai” (Yoruba), “kak” (igbo),
“soji” (Yoruba), “chaik” (Igbo) “frikpo” (Idoma) “shari” (Yoruba), “bobo” (Igbo)
and a host of many others whose meaning are not always readily available
or defined, leaving the teacher confused when such items are encountered
while marking student scripts.
Similarly, because of the prevalence of slang, some students now find
it difficult to draw a line between formal and informal use of language. A
good number of the students of SBRS/ABU Funtua use slang at both formal
and informal contexts; slang expressions like “how far?, “chillout”, “fuck
up”, “guy”, “shit”, “bone” are not uncommon in both written and spoken
English in formal contexts.
Our students nowadays spend time acquiring the latest slang items
instead of improving upon their use of standard British English which is the
only yard stick for measuring their competence in the language. Unlike
those days when students strived to attain a degree of mastery in the
language, students see slang as providing a form of status and an easy way
out for them where slang items are readily used to replace words which are
unknown instead of consulting their dictionaries. It is unfortunate to see
that these bad students ridicule other fellow students’ effort attaining a
certain mastery of the Standard English while they envy and copy those who
are proficient in the use of slang.
The above scenario shows the declining interest of our students to perfect
their use of English rather prefer to identify with that which is now popularthe use of slang-which has consequences for effective communication.
Recommendations
If the standard British English must be salvaged then extra efforts
have to be put in by not only the English language teachers but also other
stakeholders through
i. Ensuring that students are frequently assessed especially in essay writing
and other forms of writing where non- standard usages by students are
underlined and notes made by the teacher concerned on the script. Marked
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script should unfailingly be returned to students so that they learn from
their mistakes.
ii. Over populated classrooms should be decongested to enable one- on – one
interaction with students where the use of slang can easily be identified and
discouraged instantly by the teacher letting the students know that such
usages do not only affect their performances but their mastery of the
language.
iii. Students’ unserious attitude towards especially attaining proficiency in
the use of Standard English must seriously discourage through orientation
programmes and other fora. This is because of the centrality of English to
their passing of other subjects which cannot be realized through the use of
slang and other informal usages.
iv. Teachers who are guilty of using slang either in the classroom or in their
informal interactions with students must desist from doing so because of
the impact this has on their students who see them as role models.
v. Students should be constantly educated on when to use formal and
informal language slang inclusive so that they do not cross boundaries
which must be respected if they (students) want to attain proficiency in the
use of standard English which is the recognized formal variety- the yardstick
for measuring their level of competence.
Conclusion
This paper has demonstrated that, slang which was once considered a
debased language for vagabonds and criminals has now become a variety
used by students especially those of SBRS/ABU, Funtua as a means of
enforcing a certain form of intimacy and identify. The prevalence of slang
among this group is motivated by variables such as gender, age, media
popular culture, internet, social background context and mobile phones.
This prevalence however has a lot of implications on the teaching and
learning of English language where students find it increasingly difficult to a
draw a line between the use of slang and the standard British English
thereby affecting their performance and mastery of the standard British
English which is the only acceptable standard in the Nigerian education
system.
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