The Greenwood Encyclopedia of
Global Medieval
Life and Culture
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The Greenwood Encyclopedia of
Global Medieval
Life and Culture
Volume 1
EUROPE AND THE AMERICAS
Joyce E. Salisbury, General Editor
Joyce E. Salisbury, Europe
James L. Fitzsimmons, The Americas
GREENWOOD PRESS
Westport, Connecticut • London
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The Greenwood encyclopedia of global Medieval life and culture / Joyce E. Salisbury,
general editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–313–33801–4 ((set) : alk. paper)—ISBN 978–0–313–33802–1 ((vol. 1) : alk.
paper)—ISBN 978–0–313–33803–8 ((vol. 2) : alk. paper)—ISBN 978–0–313–33804–5
((vol. 3) : alk. paper)
1. Civilization, Medieval. I. Salisbury, Joyce E.
CB351.G743 2009
940.1—dc22
2008036709
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.
Copyright © 2009 by Joyce E. Salisbury
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be
reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008036709
ISBN: 978–0–313–33801–4 (set)
978–0–313–33802–1 (vol. 1)
978–0–313–33803–8 (vol. 2)
978–0–313–33804–5 (vol. 3)
First published in 2009
Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
www.greenwood.com
Printed in the United States of America
The paper used in this book complies with the
Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National
Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984).
10
9
8 7 6 5 4
3
2
1
The publisher has done its best to make sure the instructions and/or recipes in this
book are correct. However, users should apply judgment and experience when preparing recipes, especially parents and teachers working with young people. The publisher
accepts no responsibility for the outcome of any recipe included in this volume.
Contents
Preface for Users of Global Medieval Life and Culture
ix
VOLUME 1
EUROPE by Joyce E. Salisbury
Chronology
Maps
Overview and Topical Essays
1. Historical Overview
2. Religion
3. Economy
4. The Arts
5. Society
6. Science and Technology
7. Global Ties
Short Entries: People, Ideas, Events, and Terms
Primary Documents
Appendix: Dynasties of Medieval Europe
1
3
7
15
15
24
33
42
51
60
69
79
149
177
THE AMERICAS by James L. Fitzsimmons
179
Chronology
Maps
Overview and Topical Essays
1. Historical Overview
2. Religion
3. Economy
4. The Arts
5. Society
6. Science and Technology
7. Global Ties
Short Entries: People, Ideas, Events, and Terms
Primary Documents
Appendix: Mesoamérican Rulers and Historical Periods
181
185
189
189
196
204
213
224
238
251
259
341
355
vi
CONTENTS
VOLUME 2
AFRICA by Victoria B. Tashjian
Chronology
Maps
Overview and Topical Essays
1. Historical Overview
2. Religion
3. Economy
4. The Arts
5. Society
6. Science and Technology
7. Global Ties
Short Entries: People, Ideas, Events, and Terms
Primary Documents
Appendix: Dynasties of Medieval Africa
357
359
363
367
367
377
386
395
405
415
425
435
497
513
NORTH AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST by James E. Lindsay
Chronology
Maps
Overview and Topical Essays
1. Historical Overview
2. Religion
3. Economy
4. The Arts
5. Society
6. Science and Technology
7. Global Ties
Short Entries: People, Ideas, Events, and Terms
Primary Documents
Appendix: Medieval Islamic Caliphs
515
517
519
525
525
533
541
549
556
566
573
581
641
657
VOLUME 3
SOUTH ASIA by Raman N. Seylon, with the assistance of Joyce E. Salisbury
and John A. Wagner
Chronology
Maps
Overview and Topical Essays
1. Historical Overview
2. Religion
3. Economy
4. The Arts
5. Society
6. Science and Technology
7. Global Ties
Short Entries: People, Ideas, Events, and Terms
Primary Documents
Appendix: Dynasties of Medieval India
659
661
665
671
671
688
702
719
736
752
766
775
837
859
vii
CONTENTS
EAST ASIA by William B. Ashbaugh
Chronology
Maps
Overview and Topical Essays
1. Historical Overview
2. Religion
3. Economy
4. The Arts
5. Society
6. Science and Technology
7. Global Ties
Short Entries: People, Ideas, Events, and Terms
Primary Documents
Appendix: Dynasties of Medieval China, Rulers of Medieval Japan,
and Chinese Inventions
861
863
865
871
871
885
895
903
911
918
925
935
1009
OCEANIA by Nancy Sullivan, with the assistance of Robert D. Craig
1025
Chronology
Map
Overview and Topical Essays
1. Historical Overview
2. Religion
3. Economy
4. The Arts
5. Society
6. Science and Technology
7. Global Ties
Short Entries: People, Ideas, Events, and Terms
Primary Documents
Appendix: Major Island Groups of Oceania
1027
1029
1031
1031
1040
1046
1050
1054
1058
1062
1067
1137
1151
Index
About the Editor, Authors, and Contributors
1153
1173
1021
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Preface for Users of Global
Medieval Life and Culture
Two concepts have dominated the twenty-first century: globalization and the
information explosion facilitated by the Internet. When we decided to present a
new history of the medieval world—also called the Middle Ages—we knew
these modern principles could help guide us to new insights into the past. In
these volumes, globalization shapes the content that we have chosen to cover,
and the electronic age has guided our organization. In addition, the features are
carefully considered to make these volumes engaging and pedagogically useful.
Global Content
The medieval age was a European concept. From about the fourteenth century, Europeans defined the 1,000 years from the fall of the Roman Empire to
the Renaissance as the “middle,” separating the classical world from the “modern” one. Practically from the time of this designation, scholars have argued
about whether this periodization makes sense, but scholarly arguments have
not substantially changed the designation. Textbooks and curricula have kept
the period as a separate entity, and we study the medieval world that extends
from about 400 to 1400 C.E. with undiminished fascination.
Scholars of medieval Europe have shown that, during this formative period,
many of the ideas and institutions developed that shape our modern world.
The rise of democratic institutions, a prosperous middle class, and a vibrant
Christianity are just a few of the developments that marked medieval Europe.
These are some of the reasons that have kept the field of study vibrant. But
what of the world?
Scholarship has disproved the Eurocentric analysis that defined the period
of the Middle Ages. Exciting innovations took place all over the world during
this pivotal millennium. Religious movements such as the rise of Islam and
the spread of Buddhism irrevocably shaped much of the world, innovations in
transportation allowed people to settle islands throughout the Pacific, and agricultural improvements stimulated empires in South America.
Furthermore, these societies did not develop in isolation. Most people remember Marco Polo’s visit to the China of the Yuan Dynasty, but his voyage
was not an exception. People, goods, and ideas spread all across the Eurasian
land mass and down into Africa. This encyclopedia traces the global connections that fueled the worldwide developments of the Middle Ages.
x
PREFACE
To emphasize the global quality of this reference work, we have organized
the volumes by regions. Volume 1 covers Europe and the Americas. We begin
with Europe because this was the region that first defined the medieval world.
At first glance, linking Europe with the Americas (which were not colonized
until after the Middle Ages) might seem to join the most disparate of regions.
However, we do so to remind us that Vikings crossed the North Atlantic in
the Middle Ages to discover this rich new land, which was already inhabited
by prosperous indigenous peoples. The organization of this first volume demonstrates that Europe never developed in isolation!
Volume 2 considers the Middle East and Africa. These regions saw the growth
of Islam and the vibrant interactions that took place in the diverse continent
of Africa. Volume 3 takes on the enormous task of focusing on South Asia, East
Asia, and Oceania.
This organization forces us to compromise on some content. Because we are
not taking a chronological approach, we must collapse 1,000 years of history in
regions that had many diverse developments. We partially address this issue
in the Historical Overviews at the beginning of each section. These essays will
point readers to the varied historical events of the regions.
However, we gain modern insights through our on Global Ties essays within
each section. These essays offer a great contrast with other medieval works because they show the significance of global connections throughout this millennium. Readers will learn that globalization was not invented in the twenty-first
century. Indeed, the great developments of the past flourished because people
from diverse cultures communicated with each other. Perhaps this was the
greatest contribution of the Middle Ages, and this encyclopedia highlights it.
Organization for the Internet Age
The Internet brings an astonishing amount of information to us with a quick
search. If we Google Marco Polo, castles, or windmills, we are given an immediate array of information more quickly than we could have imagined a mere
decade ago. However, as teachers too readily realize when reading the results
of such searches, this is not enough. The very volume of information sometimes makes it hard to see how these disparate elements of the past fit together
and how they compare with other elements. We have organized this encyclopedia to address these issues.
Each volume contains two or three regions of the world, and each region
includes seven in-depth essays that cover the following topics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Historical Overview
Religion
Economy
The Arts
Society
Science and Technology
Global Ties
These essays provide coherent descriptions of each part of the world. They allow
readers readily to compare developments in different regions, so one can
PREFACE
really understand how the economy in Africa differed from mercantile patterns in China. In-depth essays like this not only provide clear information but
model historical writing. But there is more.
Like other good encyclopedias, we have A–Z entries offering in-depth information on many topics—from the general (food, money, law) to the specific (people, events, and places). All the essays indicate the A–Z entries in
bold, much as an online essay might have hyperlinks to more detailed information, so readers can immediately see what topics offer more in-depth information and how each fits in with the larger narrative. In the same way,
readers who begin with the A–Z entries know that they can see how their
topic fits in a larger picture by consulting the in-depth essays. Finally, this
integration of essays with A–Z entries provides an easy way to do crosscultural comparisons. Readers can compare roles of women in Islam and Asia,
then see how women fit in the larger context of society by consulting the two
larger essays.
This is a reference work that builds on the rapid information accessible online while doing what books do best: offer a thoughtful integration of knowledge. We have enhanced what we hope is a useful organization by adding a
number of special features designed to help the readers learn as much as possible about the medieval millennium.
Features
• Primary Documents. In this information age it is easy to forget that historians
find out about the past primarily by reading the written voices left by the ancients. To keep this recognition of the interpretive nature of the past, we have
included primary documents for all regions of the world. These short works
are designed to engage readers by bringing the past to life, and all have head
notes and cross-references to help readers put the documents in context.
• Chronologies. The chronologies will help readers quickly identify key events in
a particular region during the medieval period.
• Maps. History and geography are inextricably linked, and no more so than in a
global encyclopedia. The maps throughout the text will help readers locate the
medieval world in space as well as time.
• Illustrations. All the illustrations are chosen to be historical evidence not ornamentation. All are drawn from medieval sources to show the Middle Ages as the
people at the time saw themselves. The captions encourage readers to analyze
the content of the images.
• Complete Index. The key to gathering information in the twenty-first century is
the ability to rapidly locate topics of interest. We have recognized this with the
A–Z entries linked to the essays and the extensive cross-referencing. However,
nothing can replace a good index, so we have made sure there is a complete
and cumulative index that links the information among the volumes.
• Bibliographies. Each of the long essays contains a list of recommended readings.
These readings will not only offer more information to those interested in
following up on the topic but also will serve as further information for the
A–Z entries highlighted within the essays. This approach furthers our desire
to integrate the information we are presenting.
• Appendixes. The appendixes provide basic factual information, such as important regional dynasties or time period designations.
xi
xii
PREFACE
The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Global Medieval Life and Culture has been a satisfying project to present. In over 30 years of research and study of the Middle
Ages, we have never lost the thrill of exploring a culture that’s so different
from our own, yet was formative in creating who we have become. Furthermore, we are delighted to present this age in its global context, because then as
now (indeed throughout history) globalization has shaped the growth of culture. In this information age, it is good to remember that we have always lived
linked together on spaceship earth. We all hope readers will share our enthusiasm for this millennium.
EUROPE
Joyce E. Salisbury
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Chronology
476
Overthrow of Romulus Augustus, last Roman emperor in the West; this is the
traditional date for the fall of the western Roman Empire
485–511
Clovis, king of the Franks, converts to Christianity, thereby establishing a longstanding alliance between the Frankish kings and the popes
527–565
Justinian and Theodora rule the Byzantine Empire
711
Muslims conquer most of the Iberian Peninsula
732
Battle of Tours is fought in what is today southwestern France—the Frankish
leader Charles Martel halts the expansion of Islam into western Europe
768–814
Charlemagne, the king of the Franks and (after 800) emperor of the Romans,
politically unites western Europe for the first time since the fall of the western
Roman Empire
c. 790
Viking raiders from Scandinavia begin raids on northern and western Europe
800
Frankish king Charlemagne is crowned emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III
in Rome
c. 830
Vikings found settlements in Kiev, which will later become the state of Russia
843
Treaty of Verdun divides Charlemagne’s kingdom among his grandsons and
roughly establishes the early divisions of Europe into France, Germany, and
Italy
c. 858–867
Cyril and Methodius make missionary journeys northward from Byzantium to
convert the Slavs of eastern Europe; their efforts result in creation of the Cyrillic
alphabet
886
Viking seize control of portions of northern and eastern England, establishing
there the “Danelaw”
988
Kievan Rus, descendents of Vikings, convert to Christianity
1016
Canute, king of Norway, Denmark, and England, converts to Christianity
1054
Schism (split) in the Christian Church establishes the Roman Catholic Church
in the West and the Greek Orthodox Church in the East
1066
William, duke of Normandy, conquers England, thereby establishing a French/
Norman dynasty in England; this is the last time England is conquered by
foreign invaders
1071
Byzantine emperor calls for help from the rulers of western Europe following
the disastrous defeat of a Byzantine army by the Turks at Manzikert
4
EUROPE
1081–1115
Reign of Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus
1095
Pope Urban II calls First Crusade to recover Jerusalem from the Turks
1099
Crusaders capture Jerusalem and establish the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem
1145–1149
Second Crusade, led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, is unsuccessful, leading eventually to the fall of Jerusalem
1171
Muslim ruler Saladin conquers Egypt, thus threatening the Latin Kingdom of
Jerusalem and leading to calls in Europe for a new Crusade
1187
Saladin defeats the Franks at the Battle of Hattin and reconquers Jerusalem for
Islam
1189–1192
Third Crusade, know as the Kings’ Crusade because it was led by Richard I of
England and Philip II of France, tries unsuccessfully to wrest Jerusalem from
Saladin
1204
City of Constantinople is sacked by Crusaders
1215
King John is forced by his barons to sign Magna Carta, the document that establishes that kings of England are not above the law
1237–1241
Mongols conquer Russia
1254–1324
Venetian traders Marco Polo and his family visit the Mongol court in China to
trade
1261
Constantinople is retaken from Crusaders by Byzantines
1304–1374
Life of Petrarch, the first great thinker of the Italian Renaissance
1337–1453
Hundred Years’’ War is fought between France and England; the intermittent
warfare draws in other European states and helps to bring about the eventual
end of the medieval feudal order
1348–1350
Outbreak of the bubonic plague, known as the Black Death, claims one-third to
one-half of the population of Europe
1360
Treaty of Bretigny temporarily halts the Hundred Years’ War by granting Edward III the French province of Gascony in full sovereignty in return for his
renunciation of the French Crown
1367
Plague erupts again in Europe though is less violent than outbreak of 1348–1350
1369
Hundred Years’ War resumes with the French regaining most of the territory
lost earlier in the war by 1380
1389–1415 Although no formal peace is made, a series of truces temporarily ends the Hundred Years’ War
1399
Henry IV overthrows his cousin Richard II as king of England
1415
Henry V of England revives the Hundred Years’ War by invading France and
winning a major victory at the Battle of Agincourt
1417
Council of Constance ends a papal schism that had existed since 1378 and had
seen as many as three popes in existence at one time; the papacy now moves
back to Rome
1420
Treaty of Troyes technically ends the war between France and England by recognizing Henry V as heir to Charles VI of France; because Charles’s son, the
future Charles VII, continues to press his claim to the French throne, the war
CHRONOLOGY
5
continues; Henry V seals the treaty by marrying Catherine of Valois, daughter
of Charles VI
1422
Death of Henry V passes the throne of England and France on to his infant son,
Henry VI
1429
Emergence of Joan of Arc, a 19-year-old girl who rallies the French forces to
break the English siege of Orleans and thus make possible the coronation of
Charles VII as king of France, achievements that turn the tide of the Hundred
Years’ War and lead to an eventual French victory
1430
Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians and sold to the English
1431
Joan of Arc is burned to death by the English in Rouen, France, for witchcraft
and heresy; Charles VII of France makes no attempt to free her
1453
Ottoman conquest of Constantinople ends the Byzantine Empire and making
possible future Muslim penetration into southeastern Europe; like his French
grandfather Charles VI, Henry VI of England suffers periods of insanity
1455
Wars of the Roses, a dispute over the Crown between two branches of the
English royal family, begins with the Battle of St. Albans
1461
Edward IV of York supplants Henry VI of Lancaster on the English throne
1470–1471
Henry VI is restored to the English throne
1470
Ferdinand of Aragon and his wife Isabella of Castile become joint rulers of
Spain
1471
Edward IV resumes the English throne; Henry VI is murdered in the Tower of
London
1483
Richard III deposes his nephew Edward V and assumes the English throne;
Edward and his younger brother are presumed murdered by their uncle
1485
Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, defeats and kills Richard III at the Battle of
Bosworth Field; Richmond becomes Henry VII, first king of the House of
Tudor
1492
Ferdinand and Isabella conquer Granada, the last Muslim kingdom in Spain;
Christopher Columbus sets sail from Spain; Ferdinand and Isabella expel the
Jews from Spain
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Europe and the Mediterranean, c. 1200
7
The Crusades, 1096–1204 (borders shown c. 1200)
8
The Crusades, 1218–1270 (borders shown c. 1200)
9
Vikings in the North, A.D. 985–c. 1020
10
Spread of the Bubonic Plague, 1346–53
11