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Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers
Graduate School
1984
The effect of a 10-week physical fitness program on
self-concept
Cathy A. Prinslow
The University of Montana
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THE EFFECT OF A 10-WEEK PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAM
ON SELF-CONCEPT
BY
CATHY A. PRINSLOW
B.A., Antioch College, 1974
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA
1984
Approved by;
Chairman, Board of^Examini
ners
Dean, Graduate School
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Prinslow, Cathy A., M, S., December, 1984
HPE
The Effect of a 10-week Physical Fitness
Program on Self-Concept (<
Director:
Dr. Kathleen Miller
ABSTRACT
This study was designed to evaluate the effect of an increase in
the level of physical fitness on self-concept.
It was hypothesized
that an increase in the level of physical fitness would result in an
improved self-concept, and a positive correlation between the two
variables would be demonstrated.
An experimental group consisting of nine volunteer subjects from
the university community participated in a 10-week adult aerobic
fitness course.
The control group was composed of seven persons who
showed an interest in the course, but were unable to attend.
Both groups were administered the Tennessee Self Concept Scale
(TSCS), the Astrand Step Test, and the Physical Activity Index
before and after the program.
An ANOVA with repeated measures waS used to determine significant
changes in the Total-P score of the TSCS and used to monitor
significant changes in subscale scores of the TSCS as well.
The
Pearson Product Moment Correlation was utilized to determine
correlation of physical fitness and/or physical activity with
self-concept measures.
The Total-P scores were also analyzed using
a repeated measures design with proportioned cell frequencies.
It was concluded from this study that the program did not
significantly affect level of physical fitness or self-concept
scores.
However, results did demonstrate a positive correlation
between the identity subscale and the Step Test.
In addition, the
control group improved significantly on the moral-ethical-self
subscale, and scored higher initially on the Step Test.
The control
also started at a higher level of activity, but the experimental
group was significantly more active at the end of the program,
demonstrating good experimental control.
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TABLE OP CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
ABSTRACT......................................... Ü
1.
INTRODUCTION....................................... 1
The Problem................................. 4
Hypothesis...................................5
Importance of the Study.................... 5
Definition of Terms.................... ....6
2.
REVIEW OP LITERATURE..............................8
Physical Fitness# Anxiety
and Depression........................... 8
Physical Fitness and Personality
Factors................................. 13
Physical Fitness in the
Corporate World.........................21
Physical Fitness and
Self-Concept............................23
3.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.............................34
Data About Subjects........................34
Instrumentation...............
35
4.
DATA ANALYSIS# RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION....................................41
5.
SUMMARY# CONCLUSIONS# AND
RECOMMENDATIONS.............................. 48
APPENDIXES
A.
INSTRUMENTS....................................... 52
B.
RAW DA TA .......................................... 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................ 60
ill
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Exer cise enthusiasts/
philosophers#
physicians#
and
the military have claimed for cent uries that physical
ac tivity can affect one's state of mind.
Looking back in
time we see that in the fifth century B.C.#
the Greek
a ristocrats went to the gymnasium an hour every day to
train.
They spoke of training the body and of the need for
harmony between mind and body
philosophy#
(48).
According to modern
humans cannot be divided into two separate
parts# mental and physical#
but rather the psychological
and physiological compo nents are integrated into one
complex con figuration
the YMCA and YWCA#
(28).
Today such organi zations as
O utward Bound#
along with counselors#
physical educators and coaches have ma i nt a in e d that a sound
body contri butes to a sound mind.
supports the theory that physical
Current resear ch
fitness is relevant to a
healthier self attitude and sense of well- being
15# 16# 17# 34#
anxiety#
36).
(4# 10# 13#
In this era of increased tension#
depression and mental
illness# a sound approach to
improved mental health is of extreme value.
More and more
people are discovering the joys of running and other forms
of ae ro bic exercise and testimonials regarding the
resultant p s yc hological benefits are readily available.
1
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What happens when a person runs?
Cooper's studies
show that if a runner runs long enough and hard enough,
is ge tting enough exercise
he
to produce certain beneficial
physiological changes which he calls the "training effect"
(11).
These changes posit ively affect the heart,
circulatory system, muscles,
lungs,
percentage of fat and more.
These physiological changes are u n d o u b t e d l y beneficial,
helping the runner to increase his physical fitness;
reduce chronic fatigue,
to
to sleep better; and generally feel
more relaxed and refreshed
(49).
Two testimonials of these benefits are recorded in
Runner's World.
The
first article entitled
"Running;
A
Road to Mental Health," by Andersen examined the effect
running has on four areas of the human psyche:
2) depression,
3) self-esteem,
1) anxiety,
and 4) creati v it y
(2).
Of
particular interest were Ander sen's comments on running and
self-esteem.
He contended that there are two as pects of
gaining self-esteem from running;
experiences one's body.
grows more complex,
narcissistic and how one
He further noted that as the w o rl d
one often feels powerless to control
ma ny of the issues to be faced in life, and this lowers
self-esteem.
of life
In contrast,
(time, place,
contr olling the running aspect
pace of the run, etc.)
is one way to
regain our initiative and sense of power in an otherwise
frustrating environment.
The second aspect deals with the
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growing complexities of the e nvironment and p ar t i c u l a r l y
concerns the te chnological factors and changes that affect
a person.
One *s body is no longer a major instrument used
in dealing wi t h the world:
consequently#
alienated from one's body.
one becomes
In the act of running#
however#
one can exalt again in physical nature and come to know and
appreciate the physical being.
The other article on this topic in ^
testimonial by Schanz
(46).
is a first-hand
Schanz 's own words describe
his experience with running and self-esteem:
As I ran# a new elem ent buoyed me.
It was
ha ppiness unasked for# a s totally spontaneous .... In
my case# if it were not for lithium# I don't know if
any amount of running could have br ought me back to
health.
What I do know is that wh en I tied on my
running shoes# I began to feel better.
And with each
st ep I took# I was farther down the road toward
se lf-esteem (27). pg. 53.
Dr. George Sheehan#
running stated "Running
contemporary philos o ph e r of
is not a mere physical obsession:
it is incorporating all the strengths of body# mind and
spirit together."
(48)
Until recent years#
there has been
a noticeable lack of re search in the specific area of
self-concept and phys ical
fitness.
However#
as already
noted# more and more ar ticles are appearing in p rofessional
journals and household magazines regarding
the
ps ychol ogical values to be de rived from pa rticipation in
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physical activity.
Thus,
there appears to be evidence that
physical fitness positively affects one's sense of
well-being.
In view of this popularly held belief that
physical fitness can increase one's sense of well-being,
the pr esent study was designed to determine whether an
individual's s e lf-concept changes due to an alteration
level of physical fitness.
exists,
in
If a positive co rrelation
this information w ould be extremely valuable to
persons
interested in increasing their level of fitness, to
persons
whose self-concept needs a boost, a n d to
therapists,
teachers,
employers,
counselors,
coaches an d
persons
interested in helping themselves or others atta in
healthy
harmony of body and mind.
While the values of
physical fitness may not be the "cure all" enabling all
persons to live happy,
positive self-help,
he al thy lives,
they can be a
preventive health means that can be
practiced anywhere, at any time,
for little or no cost.
The Prob lem
This investigation attempted to determine a
rel ationship between self-concept and physical
the Te nnessee Self Concept Scale
fitness via
(TSCS) and the Astrand
adaptation of the Ha r v a r d S t ep Test.
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a
Hvpoth e ai s
The null hypothesis was assumed for the purpose of
statistical analysis.
The research hypothesis posited an increase in level
of fitness which would result in an improved self— concept
and that a positive correlation betw een the two variables
would be demonstrated.
Importance of the Study
Self-concept was selected as a measure of well-b e in g
because it has been d e monstrated that an i n d i v i d u a l ’s
self-concept is directly related to personality and mental
health (10).
The TSCS has been used effectively as a
criterion of change as a result of significant experiences.
If an increase in the level of physical
fitness constitutes
a successful growth experience which positi vely influences
self-concept#
conditioning
this information would be a useful physical
tool for normal people as well as in therapy
for depressed persons#
ov e rw ei g ht individuals#
alcoholics
and others with self- co n ce p t problems.
One might also consider the benefits of physical
conditioning as a resource
to maintain the energy and
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6
morale of employees.
Many corporations are offering
recreation and physical activity t i m e , facilities# and
programs on the job for employees and have found that these
activities promote good attendance and improved work
p erformance
(1# 21# 32# 39# 42).
In addition#
this
information could be shared in physical education courses#
pointing out the lifetime importance of physical
fitness.
The importance of adequate sleep and nutrition for the
proper development of body and mind is well known.
G e neral
ac knowledgment
is that if either ingredient is lacking#
becomes tired#
irritable#
level.
one
and performs on a submaximal
It may be equally as important to account for and
provide adequate physical activity in order to achieve a
h armonious balance between physiological and psychological
health.
Definition of Terms
S e l f -Conc ept
Self-c o nc e pt is how an individual perceives and
chooses to describe himself and portray a picture of
himself
(10).
Self- co n ce p t can also be defined as a
pers on's total appraisal of his appearance#
origins# abilities and resources#
background and
at titudes and feelings
which culminate as a directing force in b e havior
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(27).
Aero bic Physical Fitness
A erobic physical
take in/
fitness is the ma ximum ability to
transport and use oxygen.
It consists p r i m a r i l y
of a we l l- developed oxygen delivery system;
strong heart
and lungs that e ff i ci e nt l y deliver oxygen to the working
muscles (50).
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Cha pter 2
R EVIEW OF LITERATURE
Research in the area of self-concept and physical
fitness has come into being primarily in the last ten to
fifteen years.
The available literature covers many
aspects including use of fitness programs as therapy an d
for rehabilitation.
There is also some
information
available regarding physic al fitness and its effects on
employees and their work production.
O ther studies have
researched the effect of physical fitness programs on
psycho logical factors and personality and still others have
examined the r elationship between sport and mental health.
All of these studies share similar concerns with the
present study and are intended to help clarify its
intentions/ e xp e ct a ti o ns and results.
Physical FitnesS/
Anxiety and Depress ion
An early study in this area incorporated 101 adult
males in a six-week exercise pr ogram
(34).
The
participants worked out in one of five programs including:
circuit t r a i n i n g / jogging/
bicycle ergometry.
swimming/
treadmill r u n n i n g / or
The researchers were primarily
8
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interested in the r e la t io n sh i p between depression a n d
physical fitness.
The study found that six w ee k s of
e xercise did not produce a significant reduction in
depression for any of the various exerci se groups.
However#
eleven of the 101 subje cts were initially scored
as clinically d ep r essed and these subjects dem onstrated a
significant reduction in depression.
This res earch
appeared to be in agreement w i th the common belief that
physical acti vity is capa ble of improving psychological
states.
Also of interest was the common report by ma ny
subjects that par ticipation in the program resu lted in
their "feeling better."
Ap p ro x im a te l y 85% of the sub jects
were reported to have sp o nt a ne o us l y volunteered to
participate in future similar studies.
The last ten
years have seen increasingly more studies and material
identifying running and exercise as a treatment
and depression.
for anxiety
Orwin successfully treated eight
a goraphobic pa tients utilizing running as a means of
reducing anxi ety
(38),
In this particular treatment#
running was not expected to alter p ersonality
characteristics or improve upon the subjects*
well-being#
sense of
but rather to provoke a state of arousal
similar to the feeling of an x ie t y experie n ce d under certain
circumstances.
In d iscussion of this study#
Muller and
Armstrong suggested that it may be unnecessary to in troduce
relaxation or any other a ntagonistic behavior in the
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10
treatment of fear and a nx i e t y
(35).
Instead#
it may be
su fficient to alter one's interpretation of his autonomic
ar ousal without attempting to control or alter it.
They
suggested that such a r e -interpretation occurs upon the
introduction of jogging in physical and temporal
as sociation with the fear— evoking stimuli.
Running as an adjunct to p s y c h o t he r ap y coupled w i th
hypnosis and T r a n s c en d en t al M ed i ta t i o n
Solomon an d Bumpus
(49).
(TM) w a s studied by
This tr eatment was labeled The
Running Medita tion Response# an d in each of the 50 cases
where this form of treatment was utilized the researchers
reported it proved to be an important factor in the course
of treatment.
The purpose of the study was to demon strate
that both running and T M are methods
altered state of consci ou sn e ss
for activating an
(ASC) and that a co mbination
of techniques would be beneficial as a psychotherapeutic
adjunct.
They further enhanced the effects of running
through the use of hypnosis.
They concluded that The
Ru nning Meditation Response should be se riously considered
as a psychotherapeutic adjunct.
They further agreed wi t h
Muller and Armstrong and Orwin that running can be helpful
in the reduction of anxiety.
They stated:
Running# by giving the patient a feeling of
being in charge over functions such as heart rate#
breath ing and muscles# a u to m a t i c a l l y gives him a sense
of mastery.
Th is is a therapeutic maneuver frequently
employed in be h avior therapy and in the course of
biofe ed b ac k treatment.
pg. 588
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11
Solomon and Bumpus also su ggested that running could
be used in ego e n h a n ce m en t and supportive
w ar m -u p activity prior to group therapy#
therapy.
As a
the study found
that running reduced the d isquietude of psych otic
individuals a nd p r oduced signi ficant feedback.
Running in conjunction wi t h behavioral
therapy in the
treatment of depression was evaluated by Buffone
(6).
Analyses of the five sub jects who completed the entire
twelve-week program re vealed a sign ificant reduction in
depression.
However#
the subjects reported other variables
affect ed the program as well.
Reports also indicated that
the combination treatment resulted in increased
self-confidence#
reduced an xiety and improved body image.
A more specific study of effects of exercise on
depression was underta k en by Brown#
Ramirez and Taub
(5).
The purpose of their investigation was to study the
psychological correlates of exercise in normal and
depressed subjects.
The study was conducted in two phases.
The first phase u ti l iz e d 167 subjects who were high school
and university students.
All but the six control students
participated in one of five exercise classes.
The second
phase involved 561 u n iv e rs i ty students of which 101 were
clinica l ly depressed.
N inety two of the depressed persons
part icipated in the exercise pr ogram and the other nine
were controls.
Four hundred and six normal controls
e xe r cised and 54 normal persons served as no exerci se
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12
controls.
The results of phase one indicated that
depression scores de creased for students participating
wrestling# mixed exercise#
jogging and tennis.
in
There was
no change in depression for students in softball or the no
exercise group.
The results of the second phase found that
jogging three or five times a week for ten weeks was
associ a te d with significant reduct i on in the de pression
scores of both the depressed and normal subjects#
those subjects jogging five days a week having
reduction
in depression scores.
with
the gr e at e st
The subjects who did not
exercise demonstrated unchanged scores.
Discuss ion of this
research pointed out that the apparent anti-depressant
effect of exercise may depend at least to some deg ree upon
intensity# duration and frequency of the physical activity.
The researchers reco mmended that any safe#
effective treatment for depression should
rational and
include a
prescription for vigorous exercise.
Ledwidge#
summed up the rationales for running as
treatment for a nx i et y and dep ression quite well
summations include
(29).
His
the rationale that aerobic exercise as a
means of alleviating anxiety and depre ssion stems from the
fact that en durance training lessens the biological
response to physical stressors; and from viewing stress as
the nonspecific response of the body to any demand.
He
further predicted that aerobic exercise would mo derate that
response.
His ps y chological rationale refers to the
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13
argum en t that the rapeutic benefits of exerci se arise from
the fact that aerobic exercise enhances
the exerciser's
self-esteem and thereby increases self-confidence.
These
theories seem especi a ll y on target when he pointed out that
unfitness
is not the cause of an xiety and d e p r e s s i o n , but
that we can learn how to modera te the intensity and
duration of these states when they occur.
A recent study utilizing a practical ap plication of
the theory that running can affect depression was conducted
by R u e t e r , as reported by Ro th
(44).
Rueter studied 18
undergraduate college students suffering from depression as
a result of being in school and away from home.
The
two
groups of nine subjects each participated in running
therapy and counseling
therapy or in counseling only.
Results of the study showed that the running group
recovered from depression more quickly than the
non-runners.
This literature provides facts,
theories and
information that secure a sound foundation for further use
and study of running as an ef fective
treatment for anxiety
and depression.
Physical Fi tness and Pe r so na l it y Factors
Folkins,
Lynch a n d G a rdner investigated the
p ossibility that
improvement
in physical
fitness would be
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14
a s s o c i a t e d with positive changes in m ea s ur e s of
psychol ogical fitness (13).
They assumed that the concept
of fitness might be ap plied to both physical and
psychol ogical
functioning to refer to a quality of health.
Measures of physic al fi tness
psychological
fitness
(a 1.75 mile run) and
(Multiple A f f e c t Ad jective Check List
and the Adjective Check List) were given to college
students at the beginning and end of a semester-long
jogging course.
The same measures of psychological
fitness
were also administered to a control group composed of
persons enrolled in archery or golf courses.
The
pre-training scores were significantly different between
experimental and control groups on psychological measures
of anxietyf d e p r e s s i o n , self-confidence/
efficiency and sleep behavior.
adjustment/
work
While those who took the
jogging course were less psych ologically fit at the
pre-training stage/
in a wi t hi n -g r ou p analysis/
the women
in the jogging course ex pe rienced significant improvement
in psychological
fitness.
Post-test scores also indi cated
a significant impro vement on physical
fitness in the
experimental group as shown by heart rate and time taken to
complete the run.
In a d d i t i o n / changes
in psychological
fitness were c o rr e l a t e d with changes in physical fitness.
More specific results showed that the greater the physical
fitness improvement/
the more likely it was that a subject
e vi d enced positive psychological changes.
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15
The Cattell 16 P ersonality Factor Q ue s ti o nn a ir e has
often been empl oyed in similar studies.
Sixty m i d d l e - a g e d
men were admini st e re d this q ue s ti on n ai r e before and a f te r
partici pation in a four-month physical
(22).
fitness program
The subjects were divided into two groups a cc o rding
to their fitness scores, a nd we re
or low-fit.
At the start,
labeled either high-fit
the high-fit group had
significantly higher scores on only two factors:
emotional stability and imagination.
program,
namely,
By the end of the
the low-fit group had increased its score on
emotional stability so ma rkedly that there was no longer a
significant difference between groups.
score on imagination had increased,
lower than the high-fit group.
The low-fit group's
but they were still
In addition,
the low-fit
men experienced large increases in s elf-sufficiency and,
fact, outscored the high-fit group.
in
The researchers
reported that their study had confirmed that physical
activity could change the state of one's mind as well as
body.
The personality of the m iddle-aged male runner was
investigated also by Hartung a n d Farge,
again using the
Cattell 16 Person al i ty Factor Qu e st i on n ai r e
(18).
were male runners of at least 40 years of age,
than 60 w h o were
Subjects
but less
in apparent good health and presently
running at least two miles three days per week.
Most had
been running for more than five years and all had been
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16
running for at least one year.
The subjects'
mileage
ranged from 10 to more than 35 m il e s per week.
A maximal
treadmill test r e vealed the men to be well above the mean
for their age in terms of cardiorespiratory fitness.
The
data indicated that the subjects were cl early more
intelligent than a v e r a g e » had a high soci o-economic status/
were more
imaginative and self-sufficient than a v e r a g e / but
tended to be introverted.
the introversion
The researchers pointed out that
tendency may have been a more important
factor in motivating these men to run or jog rather than
take up a team or dual sport.
They speculated that the
high levels of self-sufficiency and imaginativeness may
have been a result of running rather than a cause since
similar results were found w i t h physical fitness
improvements by Ishmail and Trachtman
(22).
The results of
these two studies seem to indicate that involvement with
physical acti vity is related to imagination and
self-sufficiency.
There were significant results
in these
areas for veteran runners as well as novices in a
four-month fitness program#
indicating that these factors
are more a result of activity rather than a cause of long
distance running.
W hi l e it is not so clear how imagination
may relate to self-concept#
it stands to reason that
persons who are s e lf - sufficient are more
positive self-concept#
likely to have a
thus further justifying the p resent
study.
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17
In a study of physical conditioning and psychological
change data were collected from 16 s t u d e n t s , 19 to 23 years
old w h o had enrolled in a regular physical conditioning
class
(45).
Of the sixteen subjects#
and three were male.
thirteen were female
The students were asked to specify
their current level of physical activity.
A Conceptual
G r i d assessed the subjects'
cognitive structure before the
class.
tests were also employed:
Three physiological
Percentage Body Fat Test:
1.5 Mile Run- Walk Test.
the He a rt R e co v e r y Test:
the
and the
The subjects then pa r ticipated in
a six-week conditioning class devoted primarily to jogging
that met twice a week for one hour each session.
end of the program#
tests.
At the
the subjects were readministered all
Three months after the program#
each subject again
specified the frequency and duration of their present
jogging program and those subjects wh o indicated that they
were still jogging w e re asked to take the 1.5 Mile Run -Walk
Test.
The data indicated that persons who d e monstrated a
change
toward greater physical
positive self-concept#
fitness and a c o nc o m m i tant
tended to continue the exercise
program voluntarily after it had ended.
Direct physical
effects of conditioning did not seem to be dir ectly re lated
to psychological changes.
The study co ncluded
that the
conditioning p r og r am alone does not change a s ub j e c t ' s
cognitive structure but the subje ct's interpretation of the
exer cise prog ram is also required to establish a stable new
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18
pattern.
A comparison of 27 physically active females with 25
physically inactive females determined three significant
differences on the Cattell 16 Personality Factor
Que st ion na ire
less
(4).
The active subjects were more s t a b l e ,
tense and less anxious.
Comparisons of men with women
revealed that the female subjects were slightly younger and
the active mal es were
However,
in better aerobic condition.
the active/in ac tiv e comparisons generally produced
similar results on demographic and physiological variables.
Whereas
there were
few differences on pe rso na lit y measures
between
the groups of women,
the male comparisons of
active/inactive subjects produced ten highly significant
differences.
The three differences
found in the women's
groups were three of the ten found in the men's results.
These studies concluded that there appears to be a
substantial divergence between males and females in the
motivational
factors
that lead to the adoption of an
aerobic program.
Heaps examined the issue of physical determination
versus cognitive mediation of psychological
(19).
He concluded that,
functioning
although there is a definite
psychological benefit following consistent exercise and
physical change,
improvement,
this benefit results not from the physical
but from the emotional or psychological
perception of the physical and personal value of continued
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19
exertion.
Res earch in fitness and persona l it y factors has
emerged in studies aim ed at determining the effects of
exercise on mood.
On e such study looked specifically at
changes in mood before and after a 12.5 mile run.
N owles
and G r ee n be r g tested 18 subj ects using the M oo d Ad j ec t iv e
Check List (MACL) and the State - Tr a it Anxiety Inventory
before and after the run (37).
The most outstanding change
in mo o d was an increase in pleasantness after the run.
Activation increased and relaxation decreased.
depression and a n xi e ty began at low levels;
there was no evidence of these moods.
Sadness,
after the run
Ce rtainly an
activity which induces decreases in both anxiety and
relaxation arouses
interest and poses many questions.
The
investigators suggested that re laxation may increase at
some time after reco very from a run.
Jones also inv estigated mood#
as well as
self-ac tualization and motiva t io n in r e lationship to a
running program
(25).
The 19 subjects who completed an
eight-week running pr o gr a m w er e tested before and after the
prog ram using the Pe r s o n a l i t y O ri e nt a ti o n Inventory
the Motivational A na l y s i s T e st
Mood States (POMS).
(PCI)/
(MAT) and the Profile of
The results ind icated that there was
no sig nificant ov erall effect due to the treatment of
running although there were indications that the women
became m or e inner di rected and had an increased sense of
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20
vigor.
Research has de m on s tr a te d that co gnitive proces s es are
also affec t ed by exercise.
Van der Meer stated that the
mental processes are heightened by strenuous physical
act i vi t y
(51).
One theory she used to link improved
cognitive skills with physical fitness is that exercise may
help tr ansport more blood and oxygen to the brain pr o viding
it with the energy and nutrients it needs to pe rform
cognitive tasks w e l l , pointing out once again the link
between body and mind.
Zentner e stablished that regular moderate running can
precipitate a decrease in t e n s i o n , depression/ a n g e r /
f a t i g u e / co nfusion and an increase in vigor (55).
He also
pointed out that running can manifest characteristics of
extraversion.
While there is increasingly more research supporting
the theories that exercise produces positive changes in
both normal and clinical populations/
the data does not
clarify whether e xe rcise functions in a similar manner in
both populations.
C h od z ko - Za j ko and Ishmail undertook to
determine if the MMPI is a suitable me asure of evaluat ion
of the re latio nships between regular exercise and
perso na l it y changes in normal and clinical populations
(8).
Th eir data sugges ted normal pe r so n al i ty profiles appear to
be related to p ro f il e s of cl i ni c al l y ill patients.
They
i nterpreted their data to be supportive of an essentially
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21
flexible person al i ty
theory.
They suggested further
res earch that can d ir ectly compare relevant biochemical/
physiological and p s ychological differences in resp onse
between clinical an d normal po pu lations who are receiving
similar exer cise treatment.
Physical Fitness in the Corporate World
Dr. Jerome Z u c k e r m a n / President of the Cardio— Pitness
Center in N e w Yo r k ' s R o ck e fe ll e r Ce nter believes there is a
definite r el a ti o ns h ip between physical
pr oductivity (21).
fitness and employee
To d a t e / there is little empirical
evidence that there is a positive relationship between
fitness and employee productivity# but increased
productivity seems to be a logical by -product of physical
fitness and psychological well-being.
Zuck erman contended
that employees become more productive as their fitness
level increases and that fit employees are also more alert
in the afternoon.
Xerox is an example of a company that ma intains it has
experienced a marked increase in p r o d u ct i vi t y among
employees who p a r t i c i pa t ed in their "bus-fit" programs
(21),
Improv ed employee morale# r e duced a bsenteeism and
increased p r od u ct i vi t y are among the many benefits a
company may receive from supporting a bu s-fit program.
T om S a t t l e r / w ho runs a calist he n ic s program for
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22
Gould,
I n c . , outside of Chicago,
ma intained that exercise
adds ce rtain intangible dividends,
like the camaraderie
that grows in a class like his, a bo lstered abil ity to make
friends and an increased ease at doing intellectual tasks
(39).
Van der M e e r 's theory would support this
(51).
S ta n da r d Oil has incorporated a fitness program for
their em ployees for the past several years and accountant
W il l ia m Hendry c on t en d ed that participation in this pr ogram
gave him a better outlook on life and he probably feels
healthier and is happier for it (39).
The K i mb e rl y -C l ar k Corporation in Neenah, Wisconsin
has invested over two mi ll ion dollars
facility and p ro g ra m for employees
into their fitness
(32).
The Health
Manage m en t Program is aimed at changing people's habits
that are detrimental
well-being.
to their mental health or physical
The pr og ram offers a complete health
ex amination and an exercise prescription.
Another W i s c o n s i n agency with a fitness facility is
the Sentry Insurance Comp any at Stevens Point
have a co mprehensive
(32).
They
facility and health edu cation program
su pervised by two p h ys i ci a ns and support personnel.
J er o me C h r i s t i n a , d ir e ct o r of the fitness program at
N or t he r n Natural G a s Company has discovered that employees
pa rticipating
in their fitness pr ogram lose sign ificantly
fewer days to illness than their employees not in the
pr og ram
(32).
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23
R an n ey c on d u c t e d a 1981 study of 30 to 65 year old
Caucasion males who held full-time ma nagerial type jobs
(42),
Her study r ev e al e d that level of fitness acts in a
main effect c a pacity on anxiety#
blood pressure
exhaustion# and d ia s to l ic
in a multi-v ar i at e context.
A recent Purdue U ni v er si t y study showed that peo ple
w ho exerci se regularly m ay be better decision makers (1).
The study found that pe rsons involved in a regular fitness
program made 60% fewer errors in forming strateg ies to
arrive at complex decisions.
The ex ercisers also r e ported
an improved self- image and increased motivation.
Investigator Sa lvendy noted:
A p e rson's m ax i mu m decision-making potential is
determ i ne d by heredity# not fitness.
Environmental
factors can help individuals achieve this potential#
and physical fitness appears to be one such
e nv ironmental factor.
pg. 3
Phys ical Fi tness and Self-Concept
Rehabilitation
One of the ear lier studies to point out that physical
development c ou l d posit i ve l y affect se lf-concept and could
be used as a rehabilitive
(24).
tool# was undertaken in 1968
The researchers studied the changes in s e lf -concepts
during a physical develop m en t program for 74 children w it h
emotional disturbances#
retardation.
brain damage an d mental
T h r e e me a su r es of self-concept were
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24
a dm i ni s te r ed bef ore and after a six-week physical
d e v e l o pm e nt clinic and a c omparison of these scores
indicated the following significant changes:
a.)
an
increase in w i l l i n g n e s s to be w it h larger groups of
children/
b.}
clinician#
father.
an increase in willing n es s to be near the
and c . )
an increase
in desire to be near the
A simple interpretation of these results r ev ealed
the children w e r e more aware of their actual size
(height)
after the clinic indicating a more realistic aw areness of
their physical re l at i on s hi p with their environment.
The
increase in wi l li n gn e ss to be with larger groups of
childr en is an obvious improvement for children who have
emotional and de velopmental problems.
The authors str essed
that the newly formed r el ationships and se lf-confidence
gained in the clinic most likely permitted the children to
see themselves in more interpersonal relationships.
increase in desire
The
to be near the father was important#
especially since 63 of the subjects were male.
The parents
also reported signif ic a nt developmental changes at home.
C o l l i n g wo o d co nducted two related studies of the
effects of physical
training on se lf-concept for
rehabilitative purposes.
He and W i l l e t t conducted one of the first studies to
attempt a direct v alidation of the effectiveness of
physical training having a facilit ative impact on other
dimensions of an individ u al 's life#
such as body a tt itude
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25
and self -concept
(10).
The subjects were five ov erweight
boys ages 1 3 — 16 who p a r t i c i pa t ed in a three— week physical
training program.
The program included one hour a day in a
gymnasium c onsisting of jogging activit i es and cali sthenic
exercises#
and one hour each day in a pool doing bobbing
and floating e xe r c i s e s along with sprints and endu rance
work.
The program totalled 30 hours of partici pation over
the three— week period.
Physical fitness tests rev ealed
that the subjec ts d e m o n s tr a te d a significant weight
decrease#
a n o n s i g ni f ic a nt waist decrease#
a significant
decrease in resting pulse rate# a nd a nonsignificant
increase in lung capacity and significant increases of
performance on the Kraus Weber series.
Ratings on the Body
Attitude Scale de m on s tr a te d a significant increase on the
Evaluative and Po tency dimensions.
Subjects*
ratings on
the Index of Adjust me n t and Values showed a sig nificant
increase on the S el f Concept dimension#
significant
increase on the Self Ac ceptance dimension and a
nonsignificant increase on the Ideal Self Dimension.
The
authors believed the pr o gr a m provided a fairly concrete
grow th and success experi ence which gave the subjects
positi ve feedback of themselves#
self-attitudes.
In turn#
the use of physical
thus affecting their
the data offer implications for
training within the therapeutic process
for many clients.
C o l l i n g wo o d co n du c t e d a similar study with 50 young
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26
male r e h a bi l it a ti o n c li e nt s
(9).
T w en t y- f iv e of the
clients c o nstituted a control group and other twenty-five
partici p at e d in a four week physical
traini ng program.
results d e m o n s t ra t ed a si gnificant weig ht decrease»
The
a
significant decrease in resting pulse rate and significant
increases of p er f or m an c e on the Kr a u s Weber series.
Subjects*
rating on the Index of Adjustment and Values
showed a significant improvement on the se lf-concept scale
and the s e lf - ac c ep t an c e scale.
These data support the
contention that a healthy atti tude and self-concept can
prog ress through physical activ i ty and development.
A nother t herapeutic use for physical fitness
investigated the ef fe ct of jogging on physical fitness and
self-concept in ho s pitalized al coholics
(15).
The program
consisted of ten male alcoho l ic s who jogged one mile a day
for twenty days and ten others who served as controls.
results showed that physical
to "average"
controls.
The
fitness improved from "poor"
in the joggers and did not change in the
Se l f - c o n c e p t as me asured by the Gough Adject ive
Check List and J o u r a r d S e lf - C a t h e x i s S ca l e improved in the
joggers » but not in the controls.
also reduced in the joggers.
alcoholics'
Sleep disturb ances were
The conclusion was that
health can improve signifi cantly in twenty days
of training and that self- co n ce p t improves with an increase
in physical fitness.
appe ar to have a place
Physical
fitness training would
in a lc o ho l is m treatment programs.
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27
The p h i l o s o p h y of sound body#
i mplications for rehabilitation#
sound mind offers many
a nd these studies lend
further empirical sup port for this theory and for the
potential of physi ca l a ct i v i t y as a therapeutic modality
wit h disturbed children#
alcoholics#
overweight teenagers
and y oung male r e h a b i li t at i on clients.
Perceived Physical Fitness
A ft e r C o l l i n g w o o d documen t ed that an increase in
physical p e r f o r ma n ce was r el ated to an increase in
self-attitude and s e If-acceptance#
L eo n ar d s o n designed an
interesting study to de t ermine whether p e rc eived physical
fitness was related to self-concept scores of high school
and college students
(30).
A measure of perceived physical
fitness was o b tained from each g ro u p by means of a
self-rating scale.
Perce iv e d physical fitness and
self -concept scores were significantly correlated for both
groups
(college and high school).
These res ults may
indicate that p er c e i v e d physical fitness and actual
physical p erformance are related.
pointed out#
Or# as Leonardson
they may suggest stability and validity of a
self-report measure of physical health.
Leonar d so n and G a r g i u l o examined perceived fitness#
actual physical
fitness and se lf -concept
(31).
Data were
collected from fifteen st udents who w er e tested before and
after a ten week training session.
Although a significant
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28
d if f e re n ce in s el f -c o nc e pt was not observed,
physical
and perceived
fitness did not increase significantly,
physical performance did increase significantly.
per c ei v ed physical
actual
Also
fitness and s e lf-concept were
significantly c o r r e l a t e d on both pre and post- tests
indicating
that p e r c e i ve d physical
fitness may well be an
important aspect of self-concept.
Competitive Sports
Rep o r t s coming from the w o r l d of sports have shown
definite differences be tw een persona l it i es of at hletes and
nonathletes.
A t hl e te s have tended to have more leadership
qualities, more sense of personal worth,
and intellectual ef f ic i en c y
self-confidence
(22).
One study in dicated that the world of sport is
basically viewed by the general population as a beneficial
institution
control
(50).
This survey summarized that the social
functions for society and the cathartic functions
for the individuals a ppear to be the un derlying themes in
attit ud e s e x pr e s s e d toward the consequences of sport.
a conventional perspective,
From
the study concluded that sports
are generally seen as producing socially desirable results
such as social order,
restraint,
discipline and relaxation;
all of which can c ontribute to psychol ogical well-being.
dist ribution of re s po n se s
to 15 items focusing on various
consequences of involvement in sport showed that the
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A
29
s ub jects p o ll e d were b a s i c a l l y very po sitive in their
pe r c ep t i o n of the value of sport for both society and the
individual.
In fact,
75% of the 510 men and women surveyed
a ff i rm e d that sports are part of being a well-rounded
person.
In addition,
those q ue s ti o n e d saw sports as
p ar ticularly v a lu a b l e as away of relaxing,
a way to have a
good time with friends, and as a way to get away from
press ur e s and tensions.
Fitness P r ograms an d S el f -C on c ep t
A unique co mparative a na lysis of physical fitness,
self-concept,
and st udent teaching performance,
found no
apparent c o rrelation between the measure of physical
fitness and s e lf - co n ce p ts
for the subjects under study wit h
the exception of the one fitness variable of grip strength,
which corre lated s i g n i f i c a n t l y with both physical self and
the se lf-concept scores for the male g roup only (3).
comparing the mean scores of all the variables,
In
very little
d ifference was found b e tw e en the male and female groups
with the ex c ep t io n of the a b ov e - m e n t i o n e d correlation.
The
subjec ts in this study included 23 m a l e s and 54 females
enrolled as physi c al e du c at i on majors at the U ni v er s it y of
S outh Florida.
S e l f - c o n c e p t was assessed w i th the
T ennessee Self Co n ce p t Scale an d physical
fitness as
a ss essed with a test ba ttery consist i ng of:
bicycle ergometer test,
1) the A s t r a n d
2) a grip strength test, using hand
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30
dynamometer#
3) a t ru n k-hip flexion text# 4) a one-minute
sit-up test#
5) a pu l l- u p test for males# an d 6) a
flexed-arm hang for the female subjects.
Student teaching
performance was evalu at e d by supervising teachers at the
end of their third q u a r t e r pr actice teaching experience
utilizing the C l a s s r o o m O b s e r v a t i o n Record for rating
teaching behavior.
performance#
In terms of pre dicting student teaching
the s el f - c o n c e p t m e asures were considered the
best predictors#
wi t h the physical fitness variables adding
only slightly to the total predict i ve value.
A study of the effect of g r o u p counseling and physical
fitness progra ms on s e l f - e st e em was undertaken by Neal
(36).
The subjects who p a r t ic i pa t ed in this study were
ninth grade boys d ivided into four groups:
cardiovascular fitness group#
1) the
2) the counseling group# 3)
the cardiovascular fitness and counseling group# and 4) the
control group.
The pr ogram lasted ten weeks#
and the
subjects were given the C o o p e r s m i t h S el f -E s te e m Inventory
to determine self-esteem#
and the Cooper Twelve Minute Run-
Walk Test to d et e r m i n e cardio v as c ul a r fitness before and
after the program.
The results indicated that an
integrated program of c o un s el i ng and physical education was
the most effective p ro gram in improving cardiovas cular
fitness.
The data also d e m o n s tr a te d that there were no
ch anges in se lf-esteem as a result of the program.
Research si milar to the pr esent study was conducted by
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31
Hafoerlack (16).
He a d m i n i s t e r e d the TSCS to 286 sel ected
male an d female high school students before and after a
six—w e e k jogging program.
The students were selected for
their low self-c on c ep t and were di vided into a pp r oximately
three equal groups,
three programs:
e ac h of w h ic h was assigned to one of
1) jogging w i t h motivational
and positive reinforcement,
2)
techniques
jogging and 3) a control
group which c o ns i st e d of p ar t ic i pa t io n in regular physical
e du c ation programs.
He found that all three groups
improved signif ic a nt l y in total s elf-concept during the
six-week period,
motivational
but that the first group (jogging wi t h
te chniques and positive reinforcement)
had the
greates t mean improvement.
W escott under took to determine
the effect of elective
physical education classes at Southe as t er n Oklahom a State
Un iversity on the self- co n ce p t
(52).
Three hundred and
twelve students e n rolled in fifteen differ ent courses were
the experimental g r o u p and thirty one students enrolled in
three science courses we re the control group.
Each student
was given the T S C S d uring
the first week of school and the
last week of the course.
Using the _t-test, there was no
significant change w i t h i n the self-concept of the control
group.
On the posttest,
the experimental group was
significantly improved on the subscales Family Self and
Identity.
Within the total e x perimental group,
significant
improvement was made on T o t a l - P scores and selected
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32
subscales.
T he TSCS w as also used by R a in e y to research the
effe ct of aerobic running on self-es t ee m
(41).
Subjects
p a r t i c ip a te d in one of three categories:
non-running
c o n t r o l , running a l o n e , and running with a counselor.
They
ran three times a we ek for ten weeks one half hour per
session.
T wenty su b je c ts co m pl e te d pre- and posttesting on
TSCS and the twelve mi n ut e run.
T o t a l — P scores and
subscales r e mained un c ha n g e d for all groups.
McRory ut ilized the T S CS on ce again to determine the
effects of an ex e rcise pr ogram on self concept with 24 male
Commis s io n ed Peace O f f i c e r s
somewhat inconclusive.
(33).
The results were
A s ignificant decrease in Family
Self was found among the exercise par ticipants and they
also displayed a d e crease in distri b ut i on scores.
There
were no significant changes in the non-p articipant group.
Summary
Most of the r e se a r c h literature indicated that
physical fitness can a ffect depression#
p ersonality factors and self-concept.
led to implementations of physical
rehabilitation#
anxiety#
This knowledge has
fitness programs in
therapy# a n d in the corporate world.
Studies con sistently s howed that subjects reported "feeling
better" wh en involved in physical activity;
and that
competitive sports are also p er c eived as having a positive
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33
effect on p e r s o n a l i t y and self-concept.
The research still
leav es many qu e st i o n s unansw er e d and craves more empirical
evidence in su b st a nt i at i ng the results and theories.
present study str ives to contri b ut e to the field.
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The
Ch apter 3
RESE ARCH METHO DO L OG Y
The study p r op o s e d to asse ss the relationship between
self -concept and phy sical fitness.
phys ical
Se lf-concept and
fitness were m e as u r e d before and after a ten-week
fitness program.
Changes in s e lf-concept were measured by
the T S CS a n d levels of physical
fitness were measured by
the As trand A daptation of the Harvard Step Test.
Data About Subjects
The subjects p ar ticipating in the study were
volunteers from the U n i v e r s i t y of Montana population who
responded to an a d v e r t i se m en t for a noon-hour adult fitness
course offered by the D e p a r t m e n t of H e al t h and Physical
Education.
T wenty nine individuals resp onded and completed
testing by the second class meeting and the program was
begun on the third session.
This group was comprised of
eighteen w om e n and eleven men.
class session,
By the fourth or fifth
thirteen persons dropped the course because
of time conflicts but agreed to return for posttesting at
the completion of the pr o g r a m and thus became the control
group.
The remaining si xteen persons comprised the
experimental group an d c o nt i n u e d to participate in the
program.
Five me m b e r s of the ex p erimental group left the
34
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35
pr o g r a m for various reasons^
a n d two who completed the
pr og ram w e re not available for posttesting.
drop-outs#
one left due to illness#
Of the five
one to injury#
two
w i t h d r e w from the university after an imposed lay-off from
classes due to volcanic ash fallout from Mount St. Helens#
and the other subject offered no explanation.
This left
nine subjects w h o co mpleted the prog ram and the pre and
posttesting.
Of the thirteen control subjects# only seven
consented to return fot posttesting.
nature of the time conflicts#
However#
due to the
dr o p- o ut s and withdrawals#
the nine e x perimental subjects were all women# and the
control group included five men and two women.
Originally#
for the purposes of statistical measurement and comparison
with an ANOVA#
two e x perimental subjects were randomly
selected and their data dropped from the analyses in order
to provide two groups of equal sample size.
date#
At a later
this data was reinst a te d for further testing with a
repeated measures design wi th propor t io n ed cell
frequencies.
I nstrumentation
The volunteer su bjects each signed an Informed Consent
Form (Appendix A)#
c o m p l e t e d the TSCS and Astrand St e p Test
and filled out a Ph ysical A ct i v i t y Index
(PAI)
A).
all subjects
At the end of the ten—w e e k program#
(Appendix
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36
(control and experimental)
took all tests again and
co mpleted another PAI.
The T e n n e s s e e Self C on c ep t Scale
The TS C S is a pool of 100 self descriptive items which
the sub jects rate according
applied to themselves.
to their degrees of truth as
The test measures the overall
level
of self-e s te e m in such a way that persons with high scores
tend to like themselves,
worth,
have co nfidence
feel they are persons of value and
in themselves and act accordingly.
Pers ons with low scores are doubtful about their own worth,
see themselves as undesirable,
depressed,
often
feel anxious,
and unha ppy and have little faith or confidence
in themselves
(12).
In terms of age and sex with regard to the TSCS,
the
manual states that the evidence so far suggests that there
is no need to establish separate norms by age,
other variables
(12).
sex,
race or
Wylie concluded that there is no
clear evidence of any a ss o ci a ti o n between chronological age
(6-50) years and scores on this scale
she find adequate evidence
(54).
Neither does
for concluding remarks regarding
a relationship between sex and the TSCS scores.
Fitts reported in his manual of a study that sought to
evaluate the effects of a tranquilizing drug on
self-concept (12).
The study showed sy mptomatic and
behavioral improvements,
but no s i gn f if i ca n t change in
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37
self-concept.
He c o nc luded that one cannot generalize much
from su ch limited findings#
but the implication is that
one's self-co n ce p t is so basic that
it does not readily
change even though one begins to feel and act differently.
He goes on to say#
evidence
however#
that there is considerable
that pe o pl e 's concepts of self do change as a
result of signi ficant experiences.
Some light was shed on
this area in a study that e s ta b li s he d that an inverse
relationship existed between
the amo unt of change in a
st udent's life and his se lf - co n ce p t
(23).
This
relati onship indicated that high change was related to
lower s e lf-concept and low change was related to higher
self-concept.
But no significant relationship was found
between the amount of change in a student's life and the
total variab il i ty of one area of self perception to
another.
Robinson and S h a v e r
found that the T SC S is an
instrument capable of providing a thorough clinical profile
of a person's se l f - c o n c e p t
(43).
They felt that the use of
several subscores s ho u ld be encour ag e d to give a full
picture of the s el f -c o nc e pt and that Fitts'
own material on
the scale in the form of a m o no graph series was useful.
Conversely#
in an empirical analyses of the TSCS#
Pound#
et
al. concluded that as much in fo rmation about s e lf-concept
can be obtaine d from the T o t a l — P score as can be extracted
from the combined s u b s c a l e s
(40).
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38
The A st r a n d A d a p t a t i o n of the H arvard Step Test
This test enta ils steppi ng on and off a bench
(13
inches high for w om e n and 15 and 3/4 inches high for men)
to the beat of a metronome set at 90 beats a minute.
five minutes,
After
the s u b j e c t ’s pulse is taken and fitness
scores are c om p ut e d wi t h a formula using the s u b j e c t ’s
post-exercise pulse rate,
sex,
body w eight and age.
As trand Step Test pre dicts physical
max imum oxygen uptake,
transport,
The
fitness in the form of
or the ab il ity to take in,
and use oxygen.
The most acc urate measure of
maxi mum O 2 uptake is taken during a treadmill stress test.
However,
this method is ex tremely time consuming and the
step test is more
the treadmill test
time effic i en t and correlates well with
(47).
As trand found that this test is an indication of VOg
uptake which c o rr e la t es very well to the more accurate
treadmill test,
but that there is a tendency to
underestimate at low values and to overestimate at high
values (23),
A bias toward underes t im a ti n g the true VOg
maximum uptake is g reater in the very unfit individual.
The Physical A c t i v i t y Index
The PAI rates the s u b j e c t ’s level of physical activity
based on three factors:
of activity.
intensity,
duration,
and frequency
A s core for ea ch factor is assessed and the
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39
three figures are mu l ti p li e d to reveal an actual ac t iv i ty
level score.
Fitness Pr o gr a m
The fitness p r ogram was a physical education course
designed to focus pr i marily on ae ro bic conditioning
(walking,
jogging and r u n n i n g ) .
consisted of stretching,
Each workout session
c a listhenic warm-ups,
a ru n —walk
program tailored to each subject's level of fitness, and a
cooling down period at the end of the class.
The sub jects
exercised w i t h a group leader for one hour a day on Monday,
Wednesday,
and Friday for ten weeks,
increasing their
running times and dista nces regularly.
In addition, each
participant kept a log of all other extracurricular
activities.
course,
Since
the program was offered as a university
two class sessions were set aside to discuss
implications of training,
such as training zone heart
rates, body fat a n d weight training.
Workouts were held in the U ni ve r s i t y Field House on
cold or rainy days, where subjects ran a n d/or walked laps
or ran stairs.
On nice days,
the group went outside and
w orked out on the fitness trail adja cent to the Field House
and ran laps and w o r k e d at some of the fitness stations.
Some days the group was divided and people who were capable
of running longer di s ta n ce s ran a 2 and 1/2 mile course
with one group leader and the others did a shorter and more
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40
varied w o r k o u t with a no t h e r leader.
subjects*
Three examples of
progres s io n of distance a nd workouts are listed
below;
Lo w- fit subject - could run one indoor lap at first
(1/10*^*^ mile).
An e a rl y w orkout included running
one lap, w al k i n g one lap, a nd running another half
lap and wa l ki n g for a cool down.
program,
By the end of the
this su bj ect could run 1/2 mile, walk 1/4
mile to recover and run a nother 1/2 mile.
M edium- f it subject - could only run 1/2 mile at the
be ginning of the program.
cluded running 1/2 mile,
running 1/2 mile more.
A beginning workout in­
walking until recovered,
and
By the end of the program,
this subject could run 2 and 1/2 miles continuously.
High-f it subject — could run from one to three
miles at the beginning of the program.
This subject
always tried to run three miles in class, co nstantly
working on time.
By the end of the program,
running 65 to 110 minutes nonstop.
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she was
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS/
The TSCS scores/
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
the As t r a n d Step Te s t s c o r e s / and the
PAI scores were pe r ti n en t data in this study.
was pr imarily
The study
inter e st e d in d ifferences between pretest and
posttest scores.
The r esearcher hypothesized that subjects
in the e x pe r im e nt a l g r o u p would demon strate an increase in
their levels of se l f-concept and fitness and that there
would be a si gn ificant positive correlation between these
variables.
An ANOVA wi t h repeated measures determined the
significance of the several measures.
as ce rtained if s ignificant
This analysis method
improvement occurred in the
Total-P score on the TS C S from pretest to posttest in the
control or experim e nt a l group.
The analysis also
determi ned if an y of the T SC S subscales improved
significantly w i th i n the two groups.
Too/
the ANOVA
asc ertained s i g n i f i c a n t changes in the Astrand Step Test
scores or PAI scores.
The A NO V A al so determined
significance in the mean differ e nc e between the
experimental and control groups.
All of the Total-P scores
were analyzed at a later date using a repeated measures
design with proport i on a l cell frequencies.
The AN O VA and
Pearson Product Moment C o r r e l a t i o n involved 22 variables:
41
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42
p re t e s t and p o s t t e s t scores for the Total-P scores on the
TSCS/
three row a nd five column subscale scores on the
TSCS/
the A s t r a n d S t e p T e st s c o r e s / an d the PAI scores.
The
.05 level of s ig n i f i c a n c e was employed in all analyses.
T h e r e was no significant improvement in the Total-P
score on the TS C S with the A NO V A or repeated measures
design;
however/
moral-ethical
self subscale improved
s ig n ificantly from pr e te st to pos ttest
po sttest X = 74; p = .01).
within the control g r o u p
p = .02).
{pretest JC = 71;
It also improved significantly
(pretest X = 68;
(See F i gu r e 1.)
posttest/ K = 73;
Th i s signi ficant improvement on
the moral- e th i ca l self subscale with in the control group
was u nexpected and unexplainable.
One could speculate that
because control g r o u p s ub jects were initially interested in
the course but could not attend/
perhaps they felt virtuous
when re turning for the p osttesting and thus helping out in
some way.
N o significant change
was demonstrated;
in the Astrand St ep Test scores
h o w e v e r / the ANOVA revealed that the
control group scored s i gn i fi c an t ly higher on the Step Test
than the ex pe rimental gr o u p
X = 49; p = .01).
(e x p e r i m e n t a l / X = 36; c o n t r o l /
T he hig her pretest Step Test scores of
the control g r o u p r ev e al e d that less— fit individuals chose
to participate in the program.
The PAI s cores d e m o n s t r a t e d goo d experimental control
with sig nificant d i f f e r e n c e s from pretests to posttests
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43
w i t h the p o st t es t s si g ni f ic a nt l y higher (pretests# X = 34;
posttests#
hoped for.
X = 50; p = ,03).
This was the kind of result
A s i g n i fi c an t interaction between the
e xp erimental and control g roups was found
(see Figure 2).
The control g r o u p star ted at a higher level of activity
= 47)#
(X
but went down slightly over the duration of the
p rogram
(X = 45)•
lower level
The ex pe rimental group started at a
(X = 22)#
but it was s i gn ificantly more active
by the end of the program
a ct i v it y level
(X = 55#
p = .02).
Physical
improved most si gnificantly for the
experimental group.
The control group was at a higher
level of a c t iv i ty at the beginning of the program#
but it
was s ig n ificantly lower than the experimental group by the
end of ten weeks.
This indicated that the program had a
definite effect on activi t y level.
The Pe ar son Pr o du c t Mom ent Corre lation produced 15
sig nificant c or r e l a t i o n s among the 22 variables.
Three of
these cor relations were d i rectly related to the hypothesis
that there wo u ld be a s ignificant positive correlation
be tween s elf-concept and physical
fitness.
While the
To tal-P self-c on c ep t scores and the As t ra n d St ep Test
scores were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y correlated#
the identity
subscale and the A s t r a n d S t e p T es t scores were
significantly c o r r e l a t e d
Also#
(r = .471 on pretest scores).
the St e p T e s t scores and p h y s i c a l — self subscale we re
positively co r re l a t e d for p re t e s t s
(r = .717) and posttests
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44
Figure 1
M o r a l - Et h ic a l Subscale
75—
(74.7)
Experim ental
(75.2)
7 4— —
7 3 ——
(73.4)
72 —
71 —
Control
70—
69— —
68
—
—
(68.3)
Post
Pre
S um m ar y Table
Sum of
S quares
Sum of
A
J
AJ
Error I
Error II
120.143
57.1429
36.5714
6 59 . 71 4
60.2857
120.143
57.429
36.5714
54.9762
5.02381
TOTAL
933.857
A:
J:
AJ;
E xp e ri m e n t a l / C o n t r o l
Pre/Post
Inte raction
F-ratio
1
1
1
12
12
2.185
11.374
7.280
27
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0.16
0.01
0.02
45
Figure 2
Physical A c ti v it y Index
55—
(54.9)
Experimental
50— —
45 —
(44.6)
40— —
Control
35——
30—
25 —
(21.9)
20 —
Pre
Post
S um m ar y Table
A
J
AJ
Error I
Error II
TOTAL
Sum of
Squares
Sum of
S quares
378.893
1650.89
2170.89
4223.57
3406.71
378.893
1650 .89
217 8.89
351.964
283.893
1Ï839.0
Ê1
1
1
1
F-ratio
1.077
5.815
7.675
12
12
27
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0.32
0,03
0.02
46
(r =® .512).
subjects'
increase
T he s e r es u lt s indicated an improvement in
identity an d p e r c e pt i on of physical -self with an
in level of fitness.
Pour s i gnificant negative correlations of posttest PAI
scores w i t h p o s t t e s t TS CS scores were computed:
P AI/Total-P
(r = -.517)/
PA I / i d e n t i f y subscale (r = -.499)/
PAI/per s on a 1- s el f su b scale
subscale (r = -.643).
(r = -.625)/ and PAI/social-self
These correlations were unexpected
and can pr o bably be a t t r i b u t e d to one experimental
subject's severe drop in self-concept scores across all
subscales.
Study Delim i ta t io n s
Two aspects of this study seriously confounded the
statistical results.
T hi s required cautious and
conservative interpretations.
1.
The s u bj e c t s were volunteers.
three problems:
group/
This presented
(1) an a l l — female experimental
(2) an uneven control group of five males
and two females/
and
(3) no opportunity to pair
expe rimental a nd control subjects for variables
such as s e x / a c t i v i t y l e v e l / a g e / weight/
2.
etc.
The ten—w e e k fitness program w a s severely
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47
i n t e r r up t ed for four c o n s e c ut i ve wor k-outs during
the sev enth we ek due to the erupti on of Mount St.
Hel ens and r es u ltant vo lcanic ash fallout.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARYf
CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECO MMENDATIONS
T h i s ten-week ae r o b i c con ditioning program did not
signi fi c an t ly af f ec t s el f-concept or levels of physical
fitness.
The study did,
however,
find positive
correlations b et ween level of fitness and two self-concept
factors on the T S CS subscales:
identity and physical-self.
The study was ef f ec t iv e in increasing the act ivity level of
the p ar t ic i pa n ts
in the experim ental g roup who seemed to be
positively a ff e c t e d by the program.
T he r e was no change in total self-concept as a result
of the physical
fitness prog ram and there was no direct
correlation between se lf-concept and level of fitness.
This supported data reported by Leonardson and Garguilo
(31), Rainey
(41), J o n e s
(25), and Saipe
(45).
Neal also
reported no change in self-e s te e m due to a physical fitness
program
(36).
P e r h a p s further study is required as per
Saipe*s sugge stion that cognitive structure is changed by
subject in t er pretation of a pr ogram as much as or more than
the conditi oning factor.
and Taub
(5),
Also as noted by Brown,
Ramirez
freque n cy and du ration of fitness programs
play a significant role in af f ecting personality changes in
persons involved in fitness p r o g r a m s .
Perhaps this program
was geared at a f re q ue n cy and duration incapable off
43
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49
pr o v i d i n g a s ig n if i ca n t g ro w th experience.
The po s itive c o r r el a ti o n of the identity subscale with
S te p T e s t scores s u pp o r t e d W e s c o t t ’s (52) research which
also found increases in identity scores with participation
in a fitness program.
The subjects'
increases in
p hy s ic a l- s el f scores with an increase in level of fitness
sup p orted Heaps
(19)# w h o beli eved benefits arise from
emotional p e rc e pt i on of the physical and personal value of
co ntinued exertion.
N o ex p la n at i on as to w h y mo re men dropped out of the
experimental group than women can be asce rtained at this
time.
T hi s may be r e lated to B olton and Renfrew's
conclusion that there is a substantial divergence between
motivational factors for men and women in the adoption of
an aerobic c on d it i on i ng program
(4).
In keeping w i t h the reports of other studies and
testimonies#
su b jects in this study said they felt better.
One subject repor t ed that the workout left her feeling high
all day and that the p r o g r a m improved her self-confidence.
Another female subj ect felt better and reported waking
earlier and e nj o y in g
One participant#
greatest increase
it.
the most physic ally fit#
had the
in physical a ct i v i t y level# yet her
self-co ncept score fell drastically.
contradictory to the literature#
While this was
the subject later revealed
that her family wa s not doing we l l
financially and that
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50
r un n in g kept her from plunging
to even lower emotional
depths.
A no t he r subject,
one of two low-fit individuals at the
be ginning of the program,
lowest scores on the TSCS.
registe r ed one of the three
By the end of the program,
her
fitness level had improved two complete levels and her
self -concept improved 47 points.
She said she felt better,
the p r o g r a m was so mething to look forward to and it gave
her more energy.
The college students she worked with
offered sp ontaneous comments on the positi ve changes in her
behavior and personality.
Altho ug h the data did not demonstrate a direct
positive effect of a physical
self-concept,
fitness program on
they did d emonstrate a positive correlation
between level of fitness and perceptions of identity and
physical-self, a n d a pp e ar s to have positively affected the
quality of some subjects*
lives.
The data might have
reached or approa ch e d sig nificance with a larger sample
size and a continuous,
u n in t e r r u p t e d program.
A similar study c o u l d be co nducted employing a larger
sample with equal n u mbers of males and females in both
control and experi me n ta l gr o up s with an effort made to pair
subjects for age to ob t ai n more suitable data.
It might
also prove beneficial to inc orporate more than one level of
fitness p r ogram to test for ef f ec ts of frequency,
and intensity of tra ining as well.
duration
Implementing more than
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51
one test for fitness and me a suring self-concept would lend
g re a te r v a li d it y as well.
Polkins and Sime found these
k inds of studies often have pr oblems with internal validity
and s ug g es t that once a group of m ot i vated subjects has
been identified#
imperative
(14).
a ra n do m as si g nm e nt procedure is
They#
too#
suggest variations in duration
and in tensity of exe rcise programs and suggest that
d oc u me n ta t io n of c a r d i ov a sc u la r functioning is one approach
to g reater st a nd a r d i z a t i o n of exercising effects.
The e x p e r i me n te r also found that students in a women's
weight training class e v id enced signifi cantly higher
T o t a l — P scores on the T SC S
than did women
(<^.05) after a ten-week course
in the ae r obic course.
This suggests
another relatively u n ex p l o r e d area of fitness and
self-concept.
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APPE NDIX A
Ins truments
52
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53
Univer s it y of Montana
Missoula/ Montana 59812
M arch 26/ 1980
A 10 week p rogram comparing f i t n e s s / depression and
self-concept.
You will be enga ged in an exercise program three days
a we ek for one hour per day lasting ten weeks.
Exercising
will consist of running/ w eight training/ games/ and other
a ct i vi t ie s concen t ra t in g on aerobic fitness at the
sub-maximal level.
C e r t a i n tests of physical condition
will be ad m i n i s t e r e d before and after the 10 week exercise
program.
Blood pressure/ resting heart rate/ body fat,
weight and an e s t i m a t i o n of the body's ability to use
oxygen (step t e s t ) / will be among the tests administered.
Also/ before and after the ex ercise program/ two depression
scales (Zung and Beck) a nd one self-concept scale
(Tennessee) will be administered.
The changes in all these
m e a s u r em e nt s wil l be co r re la t ed after the program to see if
any r e l a t i o n s h i p exists.
The only d i s c o m f o r t s that are anti cipated are the same
as those a s s o c i a t e d with any fitness or exercise program.
You will be a l l o w e d to advance at your own rate and are
able to
wi t hd r aw from the pr ogram at any time without any
fear of
adverse reactions or from the program staff.
A gain in ae r o b i c fitness and strength may be expected
if you work at and p a r t i ci p at e in the program.
These gains
have been a s s o c i a t e d with a lower risk of coronary heart
disease/ lowering of b lood pressure/ lowering of body fat/
gain in aerobic e n d u r a n c e / an improved self concept and a
lowering of total anxiety.
While associated/ these
relationships are not pr o ve n to be cause and effect.
If
further e xp l a n a t i o n of the program is wanted/
please
feel free to ask the instructor at any time. If you
have any probl e ms in types of exerci ses selected/ suitable
alternatives will be added/ for example/ the substitution
of bicycling for running.
All information given in the
program will be kept confid e nt i al and if you desire/ you
may have the in f or m at i on destroyed at the completion of the
program.
Thank you for your voluntary participation in
this program.
Pr o gr a m Coordinators
Craig Montagne
Cathy Pr i nslow
To m Cotner
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54
I have read a n d u nd e rs t oo d the above and agree to
p a r t i c i p a t e in this program.
S i g n a t ur e
Date
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55
Phys ical A c ti v it y Index
Na me
Date
Circ le your score for each category
Score
2
1
S u st ained heavy breathing and perspiration
Intermittent heavy breating and perspira­
tion - as in tennis.
M o d e r a t e l y heavy - as in recreational
sports and cycling.
M od e ra t e - as in volleyball# softball.
Light - as in fishing# walking.
Dura tion
4
3
2
1
O v e r 30 minutes
20 to 30 minutes
10 to 20 mi nu tes
U nder 10 minutes
Frequency
5
4
3
2
1
Daily or almost daily
3 to 5 times a wee k
1 to 2 times a week
Few times a month
L es s than once a month
Int ensity
5
4
Activity
3
Score = Inten si t y x Dur ation x Frequency
Sc ore =
Adapted from Sharkey#
X
x______________
1977
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56
ADULT FITNESS - ACTIVITY LOG
Type of
Date Exercise
NAME
(1)
(2)
Type of
Duration Intensity Date Exercise
(1)
(2)
Duration Intensity
(1) Duration - When figuring the time spent engaging in an activity,
don't include the tine vÈien you are doing nothing or just standing
around.
(2) Intensity - 5 — Sustained heavy breathing and perspiraticn - fast
ruining.
4
3
2
1
Intermittant heavy breathing and perspiration
tainis, raquet sports.
Moderately heavy - cycling, soccer.
Moderate - volleyball, softball.
L i ^ t - fishing, walking.
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APPENDIX B
Raw Data
57
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58
RAW DATA #1:
Experimental Group
-TSCS Score sSubject #
P
1
2
3
A
B
C
D
E
Step Test
PAI
01
323
116
104
103
76
64
65
54
64
39
6
351
122
115
114
73
65
75
68
70
40
48
post
359
130
108
121
60
75
75
77
72
39
45
pre
361
130
117
114
62
77
70
76
76
35
45
post
340
124
111
105
68
83
56
71
62
43
20
pre
294
112
84
98
67
79
44
52
52
46
100
326
125
94
107
53
72
61
73
67
-22
32
pre
373
139
113
121
68
77
68
80
80
29
40
post
370
136
114
120
74
74
70
77
75
42
8
376
144
114
118
73
76
76
78
73
42
32
post
359
125
118
116
53
85
67
85
69
-22
12
pre
358
123
117
118
57
82
63
86
70
33
60
post
330
125
93
112
63
70
68
65
64
36
30
pre
331
117
105
109
64
71
66
63
67
36
60
post
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
X
Key:
pre
post
pre
304
pre
332
post
344
pre
360
post
339
22
22
pre
348
37
55
post
P = Total Positive Score
1, 2, and 3 = Row Scores (Identity, self-acœptanœ and behavior)
A, B, C, D, E = Cjolutm Scores (Physical, moral-ethical, personal,
family and social)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
59
RAW DATA #2 :
Subject #
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
X
Key:
Control Group
P
1
2
3
A
B
C
D
E
Step Test
PAI
355
134
95
126
73
71
67
75
69
49
64
pre
370
132
113
125
74
78
66
78
74
55
60
post
367
122
123
122
72
71
69
82
73
44
48
pre
370
135
115
120
74
79
70
73
74
39
8
352
135
101
116
75
68
69
73
67
61
48
pre
356
132
104
120
69
71
70
73
73
55
36
post
338
130
101
107
62
69
64
71
72
49
48
pre
363
133
114
116
69
74
73
71
76
53
60
post
325
122
98
105
57
69
62
72
65
42
48
pre
339
131
104
104
62
68
66
77
66
44
64
post
385
134
120
131
76
70
84
76
79
50
40
pre
379
131
123
125
75
76
75
77
76
59
60
post
333
122
99
112
62
60
71
69
71
42
32
pre
118
102
107
107
58
68
66
64
71
40
24
post
351
48
47
pre
327
49
45
post
post
P = Total Positive Score
1, 2, and 3 = Row Scores (Identity, self-acceptance and behavior)
A, B, C, D, E = Column Scores (Physical, moral-ethical, personal,
family and social)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
60
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