Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
Younger Dryas cirque glaciers in western Spitsbergen: smaller than
during the Little Ice Age
JAN MANGERUD AND JON Y. LANDVIK
BOREAS
Mangerud, J. & Landvik, J. Y. 2007 (July): Younger Dryas cirque glaciers in western Spitsbergen: smaller than
during the Little Ice Age. Boreas, Vol. 36, pp. 278 285. Oslo. ISSN 0300-9483.
The outermost moraines in front of the Scottbreen glacier in Spitsbergen date from c. AD 1900. These moraines
rest on top of a marine shoreline radiocarbon-dated to about 11 200 14C yr BP and demonstrate that the AD-1900
moraines show the maximum glacier extent since late Allerød time. This means that Scottbreen was smaller during
the Younger Dryas than at AD 1900, in contrast with glaciers on mainland western Europe, which were all much
larger during the Younger Dryas. The explanation is probably starvation of precipitation on western Spitsbergen
during the Younger Dryas. In contrast, ice sheets and glaciers in Spitsbergen reacted more or less in concert with
glaciers in western Europe, during the global Last Glacial Maximum and the Little Ice Age.
Jan Mangerud (e-mail: [email protected]), Department of Earth Science and Bjerknes Centre for Climate
Research, University of Bergen, Allégt. 41, NO-5007 Bergen, Norway; Jon Y. Landvik (e-mail: jon.landvik@
umb.no), Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 5003,
NO-1432 Ås, Norway; received 11th August 2006, accepted 31st October 2006.
The Younger Dryas (YD) in western Europe, i.e.
downwind of the North Atlantic, is characterized by
extensive glacier growth, and all glaciers were much
larger during the YD than at any time during the
Holocene (Gray & Coxon 1991; Andersen et al. 1995;
Kerschner et al. 2000; Geirsdottir 2004; Denton et al.
2005). On the other hand, further north along the same
seaboard the opposite situation has been reported,
i.e. that glaciers on western Spitsbergen were smaller
during the YD than during the Little Ice Age
(LIA) (Salvigsen 1979; Mangerud & Svendsen 1990;
Svendsen & Mangerud 1992). However, this has been
documented at only a few sites.
During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the
Barents ( Svalbard) Ice Sheet reached the shelf edge
west of our study site (Fig. 1) (Landvik et al. 1998). The
ice margin retreat started about 15 000 14C yr BP and
the study area became ice-free at about 12 000 14C yr
BP (Landvik et al. 1992; Mangerud et al. 1992). The
deglaciation dates of 12 830 and 12 570 14C yr BP
(T-6000 and Ua-280), performed on sediment-feeding
molluscs collected close to Scottbreen, are now considered to be too old (Mangerud et al. 2006).
In this paper we present radiocarbon dates demonstrating that Scottbreen, a cirque glacier on the
west coast of Spitsbergen in the Svalbard archipelago
(Figs 1, 2), was smaller during the YD than during its
LIA maximum extent at c. AD 1900.
Study area and observations
Svalbard is located at 77 808N. The archipelago is
therefore characterized by an arctic climate, and about
60% of the land area is covered by glaciers (Fig. 1)
(Hagen et al. 1993). However, because of advection of
warm Atlantic water and southwesterly winds, the
climate, in particular the winter climate, is exceptionally warm compared with other areas at this latitude.
At Isfjord Radio, located on the coast 55 km north of
Scottbreen (Fig. 1), the mean annual temperature
(1961 1990) is /5.18C (Førland et al. 1997). The
means for the coldest and warmest months are
/12.48C and /4.88C, respectively. At Sveagruva,
situated some 70 km inland, the corresponding temperatures are /7.18C, /17.08C and /5.88C, respectively. Annual precipitation is 480 mm at Isfjord and
260 mm at Sveagruva (Førland et al. 1997).
Scottbreen (‘breen’/glacier) (77833?N, 14822?E) is a
4.4-km long cirque glacier stretching from 700 to 90 m
a.s.l. (Hagen et al. 1993). It is located close to the open
ocean on the west coast of Spitsbergen (Figs 1, 2). The
regional equilibrium line altitude (ELA) for glaciers
along this coast is /400 m a.s.l. (Hagen et al. 2003a, b)
and the present Scottbreen ELA is estimated to be
450500 m a.s.l. (J. O. Hagen, pers. comm. 2006). In
front of the glacier there is a belt of up to 5060-m high
ice-cored end moraines (Figs 3, 4) that were clearly
formed during the LIA. Oblique air photographs from
1936 (Fig. 2) show that the glacier reached the
proximal slope of the outermost moraine at that time
(Norsk Polarinstitutt, S36, photographs 1694 and
3189). The small glaciers on western Spitsbergen
generally reached their maximum LIA position around
AD 1900 (Hagen & Liestøl 1990; Lefauconnier &
Hagen 1990) and this was probably the case for
Scottbreen. The present ice margin is some 800 m
behind the LIA moraine, and the lower part of the
DOI 10.1080/03009480601134827 # 2007 Taylor & Francis
Younger Dryas cirque glaciers in western Spitsbergen
279
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
BOREAS 36 (2007)
Fig. 1. The inset map shows the location of Svalbard. Present-day glaciers are shown in white on the main map. The maximum extent (Last
Glacial Maximum/LGM) of the Barents Ice Sheet is shown beyond the west coast (Landvik et al. 1998; Ottesen et al. 2005). The
approximate limit of the Younger Dryas ice sheet on Svalbard (modified from Svendsen et al. 2004) is indicated as a line separating
deglaciation dates of Younger Dryas and early Holocene ages. We assume errors rarely exceeded 30 km along the west coast. In the eastern
areas the ice margin was beyond the coast and cores with relevant dates were only obtained from far out in the Barents Sea. Therefore the line
is more generalized here and errors may exceed 100 km. Norwegian Polar Institute, digital map.
glacier has a significantly lower surface slope than
shown on the air photographs from 1936.
Most important for the present discussion is that the
distal part of the LIA moraine was deposited on top
of a well preserved beach terrace of about 57 m a.s.l.
(Figs 4, 5). Thus the LIA moraine shows the maximum
extent of Scottbreen after the formation of this terrace,
which, as we will demonstrate, is of Allerød age.
Jan Mangerud and Jon Y. Landvik
BOREAS 36 (2007)
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
280
Fig. 2. Oblique air photo of Scottbreen (Fig. 1) taken on 28th July 1936, approximately towards the southwest. The arrow shows the location
of Fig. 4. Norwegian Polar Institute, photograph no. S36-1694.
The beach terraces in front of Scottbreen are
dissected by meltwater channels from the glacier
(Figs 3, 4) that have exposed sandy gravelly beach
deposits with shell fragments, predominantly of Mya
truncata. Four radiocarbon dates from the mollusc
shells have yielded uncorrected ages in the range of
11 6259/50 to 11 7509/80 14C yr BP (Table 1). Assuming a marine reservoir age of 440 years, which is the
standard used for Svalbard (Mangerud & Gulliksen
1975), the corrected ages are in the range 11 185 11 310 14C yr BP, i.e. a late Allerød age. A new estimate
of the present-day reservoir age of 3809/80 (Mangerud
et al. 2006) indicates that the ages are slightly older.
Precise Allerød YD reservoir ages have not been
determined from Svalbard, but three pairs of mollusc
shell/driftwood dates from eastern Svalbard covering
the period 7000 9200 14C yr BP gave reservoir ages of
about 400 years (J. Mangerud, unpublished). Along the
west coast of Norway the reservoir age was also close
to the present day during most of the Allerød, and
some 300 years higher during parts of the YD
(Bondevik et al. 2006). We conclude that the dates
indicate a late Allerød or possibly an early YD age for
the shells.
In theory, the molluscs may have lived at several
metres of water depth or they may have been redeposited from higher and older terraces. If so, the 57-m
terrace could be younger than the shells. However, the
southern flank of the moraine cross-cuts a distinct
beach terrace at 61 m a.s.l. as well as beach sediments
at 66 m a.s.l. According to a relative sea level curve
from the area immediately to the west (Salvigsen et al.
1991), the latter altitude represents the marine limit
dated to c. 12 000 14C yr BP and the 57-m terrace
represents a late Allerød sea level, and thus supports
our inference that the shells accurately date the terrace.
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
BOREAS 36 (2007)
Younger Dryas cirque glaciers in western Spitsbergen
281
Fig. 3. Scottbreen with the large Little Ice Age moraines (oblique arrows). As seen from Fig. 2, the glacier front reached the foot of this
moraine as late as 1936. The vertical arrow indicates the dated marine terrace overrun by the glacier (Fig. 4). Younger terraces are seen as
horizontal lines below. Photograph taken 27th August 2002.
Fig. 4. The person is standing on the Allerød-age shoreline, 57 m a.s.l. The dated shells were found by excavating this terrace. The Little Ice
Age moraine is seen on top of the terrace to the right of the person, and as the large ridge behind and to the left of the person. The glacier is
located to the right of the photograph.
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
282
Jan Mangerud and Jon Y. Landvik
BOREAS 36 (2007)
Table 1. Radiocarbon dates from the marine terrace in front of the Scottbreen Little Ice Age moraine. All dates were performed on fragments
of marine shells, probably Mya truncata. d13C was not measured but a value of 1.0˜ rel. PDB was assumed and used for correction. The
reservoir age is according to Mangerud & Gulliksen (1975).
Field sample no.
Lab. no.
14
Assumed
reservoir age
Reservoir
age-corrected
JM1995-12a
JM1995-12b
JM1995-12c
JM1995-12d
Tua-4270
Tua-4271
Tua-4272
Tua-4273
11 7509/80
11 7609/70
11 6509/50
11 6259/50
440
440
440
440
11 3109/80
11 3209/70
11 2109/50
11 1859/50
A
C age
14
C age
B
±
±
±
±
Fig. 5. A. Longitudinal profile of Scottbreen drawn from the 1:100 000 map sheet Van Keulenfjorden, which was constructed from air
photographs taken in 1936 and has contour intervals of 50 m. Issued by Norsk Polarinstitutt 1985. B. Stratigraphical relationship between the
dated shoreline and the Little Ice Age moraine. The radiocarbon dates are corrected for a marine reservoir age of 440 years.
The marine limit was formed during the deglaciation of
the BarentsSvalbard Ice Sheet (Landvik et al. 1987;
Mangerud et al. 1992), meaning that Scottbreen
remained inside the position of the LIA moraines
from the deglaciation at about 12 000 14C yr BP until
about AD 1900, i.e. also during the YD.
Discussion
One question arising is whether Scottbreen could
have been cold-based during the YD and overrun the
terrace without depositing any till. Today, a noticeable
part of the bouldery material deposited by the glacier
is debris originating from rock falls from the steep
mountain slopes onto the glacier surface, a supply that
must have existed even if the glacier was cold-based.
However, we could not find any such debris on top
of the terraces and we consider it unlikely that the
glacier overran the terrace without depositing at least
some blocks from englacial or supraglacial transport.
During the YD, a remnant of the BarentsSvalbard
Ice Sheet still covered much of Svalbard further to the
east (Fig. 1) (Landvik et al. 1998; Svendsen et al. 2004).
In that sense the glacial history of Svalbard is similar to
the development in Scandinavia, Scotland and the
Alps, where ice sheets or ice caps also existed during
the YD. However, there are two major differences in
the glacial behaviour.
First, prominent YD moraines have not been found
on Svalbard, even if a slow-down in glacio-isostatic
rebound indicates that the retreat of the ice sheet halted
(Landvik et al. 1987, 1998). The YD ice sheet extent in
Fig. 1 is mainly mapped as the up-fjord limit of YD
shorelines and from the distribution of deglaciation
ages in stratigraphical successions (Mangerud et al.
1992). A probable reason for the lack of YD moraines
is simply that the ice sheet over Svalbard did not readvance towards the west, in contrast with the
Scandinavian, Scottish and Alp ice sheets/ice caps.
The last ice sheet over Svalbard comprised fast-flowing
ice along the fjords and less dynamic, possibly coldbased, ice between these ice streams (Landvik et al.
2005). Thus any moraines formed during the YD may
be confined to the floors of fjords or even to valleys
presently occupied by fjord-head glaciers. Some moraines of postulated YD age, and interpreted as the
result of a glacial re-advance, have indeed been
described recently from the floors of Isfjorden and its
tributaries (Forwick & Vorren 2005).
Second is the difference demonstrated in this paper
and earlier by Salvigsen (1979), Mangerud & Svendsen
Younger Dryas cirque glaciers in western Spitsbergen
ELA depression (m)
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
BOREAS 36 (2007)
4000 km
(1990) and Svendsen & Mangerud (1992), that glaciers located west of the ice sheet on Svalbard
(Fig. 1) were smaller during the YD than the LIA.
In contrast, all glaciers in western Europe were, as
already mentioned, much larger during the YD than
LIA (Fig. 6). The surprisingly small YD glaciers on
Svalbard could be the result of warm summers and/or
limited precipitation (snowfall). The YD summer
insolation at this latitude was about 10% higher than
today (Berger & Loutre 1991), but this was also the
case for northern Scandinavia and therefore it cannot
explain the difference in glacial response between the
two areas. Unfortunately, there are no observations on
Svalbard that can be used to construct the YD summer
temperatures but, according to a compilation by Birks
et al. (2005), the summer sea surface temperatures
south of Svalbard were 2 108C colder than today. It is
therefore reasonable to assume that summers were
colder on Svalbard too, and we conclude that the
glaciers on western Svalbard remained small because of limited snow accumulation. Regional glacier
re-advances in northern Norway during the YD
(Andersen et al. 1995; Vorren & Plassen 2002) show
that the latitudinal boundary between the dry climate
favouring glacier starvation and the climate with
enough precipitation for glacial advances was located
between Svalbard and the northern tip of Norway
(Fig. 6). The explanation for the dry climate may be the
hypothesis proposed by Birgel & Hass (2004): prevailing easterly winds over Svalbard during the YD.
Western Svalbard would then be in the precipitation
shadow, whereas there would be more precipitation in
eastern Svalbard and the Barents Sea. This pattern is
consistent with the snow accumulation postulated from
the slow-down of isostatic rebound, as mentioned
above. This is also consistent with modelling experiments that produce a YD air pressure pattern giving
westerly winds over all of Scandinavia and easterly winds over Svalbard, particularly during winter
(Renssen et al. 2001).
The YD glaciers in northwest Europe were mainly
fed by precipitation brought in with westerly or southerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean and the Nordic seas
283
Fig. 6. Estimation of how much
lower the equilibrium line altitude
(ELA) was during the Little Ice
Age and the Younger Dryas relative
to the present day ELA. Note the
very different situation in
Spitsbergen compared with
mainland western Europe.
Modified from Mangerud &
Svendsen (1990) and Svendsen &
Mangerud (1992).
(Sissons 1980; Larsen et al. 1984). However, it is clear
that the glacial re-advances that took place across such
a large and climatically diverse region as western
Europe and Iceland were mainly caused by cold
summers. Precipitation differences would regionally
modify the large-scale pattern, as in Scotland where
glaciers grew in the west whereas the east was in the
precipitation shadow (Gray & Coxon 1991). Benn &
Lukas (2006) found that precipitation in northwest
Scotland was c. 26% higher during the YD than today,
whereas in the mountains further east it was close to
present-day levels (Benn & Ballantyne 2005). The
Scandinavian Ice Sheet had its largest growth in its
southwest sector, as a result of the underlying topography (Mangerud 1980) and, perhaps more importantly, a larger winter precipitation than in other areas
(Mangerud 2004). In our interpretation, Svalbard
would be almost a mirror image of Scotland: an ice
cap in the east and a precipitation shadow in the west.
The glaciers on Svalbard and the Barents Sea grew in
concert with the Scandinavian, British and Alp glaciers
during the period before and around the global LGM
(Landvik et al. 1998), in contrast with what we have
described for the YD. This could indicate different
types of glacial climates between the two cold periods.
However, it should be borne in mind that YD was a
short period of about 1300 yr, whereas the LGM was
almost 10 times longer when the period of ice build-up
is included. Conditions for snow accumulation could
therefore have varied over time during the LGM.
Nevertheless, if precipitation was the main factor
causing the difference between mainland Europe and
Svalbard during the YD, then less difference in the
precipitation pattern during the LGM ice growth
would be expected. Open water, at least periodically
and during summers, has been described during the
LGM in the North Atlantic and the Norwegian Sea as
a source for precipitation on the Scandinavian and
Barents ice sheets (Hebbeln et al. 1994; Hald et al.
2001). However, open waters have also been reported
for the YD (Koç et al. 1993; Birgel & Hass 2004)
and were probably required for the ice growth in
Scandinavia.
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
284
Jan Mangerud and Jon Y. Landvik
Conclusions
. Scottbreen and other glaciers on western Spitsbergen were smaller during the YD than the LIA
(c. AD 1900), in contrast with all glaciers in western
Europe.
. The explanation for the small YD glaciers in
Spitsbergen is starvation of precipitation (snowfall),
although higher insolation may have contributed to
increased summer melting.
Acknowledgements. J. M. thanks co-leaders and students on the
UNIS excursion 1995 for help in digging and finding molluscs. We
also thank John Inge Svendsen and Øystein Lohne, who gave critical
comments on an earlier version of the manuscript, Jane Ellingsen,
who completed the drawings, and Mike Talbot, who corrected the
English language. Comments from the journals editor, Jan A.
Piotrowski, and reviewers, Jon Ove Hagen and Matthias Forwick,
also improved the manuscript and are appreciated.
References
Andersen, B. G., Mangerud, J., Sørensen, R., Reite, A., Sveian, H.,
Thoresen, M. & Bergstrøm, B. 1995: Younger Dryas ice-marginal
deposits in Norway. Quaternary International 28, 147 169.
Benn, D. & Ballantyne, C. 2005: Palaeoclimatic reconstruction from
Loch Lomond Readvance glaciers in the West Drumochter Hills,
Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 20, 577 592.
Benn, D. I. & Lukas, S. 2006: Younger Dryas glacial landsystems in
north west Scotland: an assessment of modern analogues and
palaeoclimatic implications. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 2390 2408.
Berger, A. & Loutre, M. 1991: Insolation values for the climate of the
last 10 million years. Quaternary Science Reviews 10, 297 317.
Birgel, D. & Hass, H. 2004: Oceanic and atmospheric variations
during the last deglaciation in the Fram Strait (Arctic Ocean): a
coupled high-resolution organic-geochemical and sedimentological
study. Quaternary Science Reviews 23, 29 47.
Birks, H. H., Kristensen, D., Dokken, T. & Anderson, C. 2005:
Exploratory comparisons of quantitative temperature estimates
over the last deglaciation in Norway and the Norwegian Sea.
American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph Series 158,
341 355.
Bondevik, S., Mangerud, J., Birks, H. H., Gulliksen, S. & Reimer, P.
2006: Changes in North Atlantic radiocarbon reservoir ages during
the Allerød and Younger Dryas. Science 312, 1514 1517.
Denton, G. H., Alley, R. B., Comer, G. & Broecker, W. 2005: The role
of seasonality in abrupt climate change. Quaternary Science
Reviews 24, 1159 1182.
Førland, E., Hanssen-Bauer, I. & Nordli, P. 1997: Climate statistics
and longterm series of temperatures and precipitation at Svalbard
and Jan Mayen. Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Report 21/97,
1 72.
Forwick, M. & Vorren, T. 2005: Late Weichselian deglaciation history
of the Isfjorden area, Spitsbergen. In Forwick, M. (ed.): Sedimentary processes and palaeoenvironments in Spitsbergen fjords. Dr.
Scient. Thesis, University of Tromsø.
Geirsdóttir, A. 2004: Extent and chronology of glaciations in Iceland;
a brief overview of the glacial history. In Ehlers, J. & Gibbard, P.
(eds.): Quaternary glaciations extent and chronology. Part I:
Europe, 175 182. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Gray, J. M. & Coxon, P. 1991: The Loch Lomond stadial glaciation in
Britain and Ireland. In Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. & Rose, J. (eds.):
BOREAS 36 (2007)
Glacial Deposits in Great Britain and Ireland, 89 105. A. A.
Balkema, Rotterdam.
Hagen, J. & Liestøl, O. 1990: Long-term glacier mass-balance
investigations in Svalbard. Annals of Glaciology 14, 102 106.
Hagen, J. O., Kohler, J., Melvold, K. & Winther, J. G. 2003a: Glaciers
in Svalbard: mass balance, runoff and freshwater flux. Polar
Research 22, 145 159.
Hagen, J., Liestøl, O., Roland, E. & Jørgensen, T. 1993: Glacier atlas
of Svalbard and Jan Mayen. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Meddelelser 129,
1 141.
Hagen, J., Melvold, K., Pinglot, F. & Dowdeswell, J. 2003b: On the
net mass balance of the glaciers and ice caps in Svalbard,
Norwegian Arctic. Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 35, 264 270.
Hald, M., Dokken, T. & Mikalsen, G. 2001: Abrupt climatic change
during the last interglacial glacial cycle in the polar North
Atlantic. Marine Geology 176, 121 137.
Hebbeln, D., Dokken, T., Andersen, E. S., Hald, M. & Elverhøi, A.
1994: Moisture supply for northern ice-sheet growth during the
Last Glacial Maximum. Nature 370, 357 360.
Kerschner, H., Kaser, G. & Sailer, R. 2000: Alpine Younger Dryas
glaciers as palaeo-precipitation gauges. Annals of Glaciology 31,
80 84.
Koç, N., Jansen, E. & Haflidason, H. 1993: Paleoceanographic
reconstructions of surface ocean conditions in the Greenland,
Iceland and Norwegian seas through the last 14 ka based on
diatoms. Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 115 140.
Landvik, J. Y., Bolstad, M., Lycke, A. K., Mangerud, J. & Sejrup, H.
P. 1992: Weichselian stratigraphy and paleoenvironments at
Bellsund, western Svalbard. Boreas 21, 335 358.
Landvik, J. Y., Bondevik, S., Elverhøi, A., Fjeldskaar, W., Mangerud,
J., Salvigsen, O., Siegert, M. J., Svendsen, J. I. & Vorren, T. O. 1998:
The last glacial maximum of Svalbard and the Barents Sea area: ice
sheet extent and configuration. Quaternary Science Reviews 17,
43 75.
Landvik, J., Ingólfsson, Ó., Mienert, J., Lehman, S., Solheim, A.,
Elverhøi, A. & Ottesen, D. 2005: Rethinking Late Weichselian ice
sheet dynamics in coastal NW Svalbard. Boreas 34, 7 24.
Landvik, J. Y., Mangerud, J. & Salvigsen, O. 1987: The Late
Weichselian and Holocene shoreline displacement on the westcentral coast of Svalbard. Polar Research 5, 29 44.
Larsen, E., Eide, F., Longva, O. & Mangerud, J. 1984: Allerød Younger Dryas climatic inferences from cirque glaciers and
vegetational development in the Nordfjord area, western Norway.
Arctic and Alpine Research 16, 137 160.
Lefauconnier, B. & Hagen, J. 1990: Glaciers and climate in Svalbard:
statistical analysis and reconstruction of the Brøggerbreen mass
balance for the last 77 years. Annals of Glaciology 14, 148 152.
Mangerud, J. 1980: Ice-front variations of different parts of the
Scandinavian Ice Sheet, 13,000 10,000 years BP. In Lowe, J. J.,
Gray, J. M. & Robinson, J. E. (eds.): Studies in the Lateglacial of
North-West Europe, 23 30. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Mangerud, J. 2004: Ice sheet limits on Norway and the Norwegian
continental shelf. In Ehlers, J. & Gibbard, P. (eds.): Quaternary
Glaciations: Extent and Chronology, Vol. 1 Europe, 271 294.
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Mangerud, J. & Gulliksen, S. 1975: Apparent radiocarbon ages of
recent marine shells from Norway, Spitsbergen, and Arctic
Canada. Quaternary Research 5, 263 273.
Mangerud, J. & Svendsen, J. I. 1990: Deglaciation chronology
inferred from marine sediments in a proglacial lake basin, western
Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Boreas 19, 249 272.
Mangerud, J., Bolstad, M., Elgersma, A., Helliksen, D., Landvik, J.
Y., Lønne, I., Lycke, A. K., Salvigsen, O., Sandahl, T. & Svendsen,
J. I. 1992: The last glacial maximum on Spitsbergen, Svalbard.
Quaternary Research 38, 1 31.
Mangerud, J., Bondevik, S., Gulliksen, S., Hufthammer, A. &
Høisæter, T. 2006: Marine 14C reservoir ages for 19th century
Downloaded By: [Swets Content Distribution] At: 10:00 20 June 2007
BOREAS 36 (2007)
whales and molluscs from the North Atlantic. Quaternary Science
Reviews, 25, 3228 3245.
Ottesen, D., Dowdeswell, J. A. & Rise, L. 2005: Submarine landforms
and reconstruction of fast-flowing ice streams within a large
Quaternary ice sheet: the 2500-km-long Norwegian Svalbard
margin (578 808N). Geological Society of America, Bulletin 117,
1033 1050.
Renssen, H., Isarin, R. F. B., Jacob, D., Podzun, R. & Vandenberghe,
J. 2001: Simulation of the Younger Dryas climate in Europe using a
regional climate model nested in an AGCM: preliminary results.
Global and Planetary Change 30, 41 57.
Salvigsen, O. 1979: The last deglaciation of Svalbard. Boreas 8, 229 231.
Salvigsen, O., Elgersma, A. & Landvik, J. Y. 1991: Radiocarbon
dated raised beaches in northwestern Wedel Jarlsberg land,
Spitsbergen, Svalbard. In Repelewska-Pekalowa, J. & Pekala, K.
Younger Dryas cirque glaciers in western Spitsbergen
285
(eds.): Polar Session. Arctic Environment Research, 9 16. Institute
of Earth Sciences, Marie Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin.
Sissons, B. 1980: Palaeoclimatic inferences from Loch Lomond
advance glaciers. In Lowe, J. J., Gray, J. M. & Robinson, J. E.
(eds.): Studies in the Lateglacial of North-West Europe, 31 44.
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Svendsen, J. I. & Mangerud, J. 1992: Paleoclimatic inferences from
glacial fluctuations on Svalbard during the last 20 000 years.
Climate Dynamics 6, 213 220.
Svendsen, J. I., Gataullin, V., Mangerud, J. & Polyak, L. 2004: The
glacial history of the Barents and Kara sea region. In Ehlers, J. &
Gibbard, P. (eds.): Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology,
Vol. 1 Europe, 369 378. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Vorren, T. O. & Plassen, L. 2002: Deglaciation and palaeoclimate
of the Andfjord-Vågsfjord area, North Norway. Boreas 31,
97 125.