Texas:PreludetoCivilWar
TeresaGoodin
ContextualEssay
EssentialQuestion:
HowdidthesettlingandannexationofTexasimpactAmericanforeignrelations,
politicsandthegrowingsectionalismbetweenNorth,SouthandWestduringthe
midnineteenthcentury?
ContextualEssay:
ThestoryofTexasbeginswiththeSpanishandendswiththefirstshotfired
uponFt.SumterinAprilof1861.AmericanshavebeeninterestedinTexas’cheap
andfertilelandsincethefirstpioneerssetouttomovewestoftheAppalachians,
andAmericaninvolvementinTexaswouldreachafever‐pitchbythemid
nineteenthcentury.AtfirstAmericancolonistswerewelcomedintoMexico,
encouragedtoimmigrate.Bythemid1840stheissueinTexashadtakenoveraUS
presidentialelectionandchallengedthemostexperienceddiplomatsinNorth
AmericaandEurope.ThesettlingandannexationofTexashadamajorimpacton
thecourseoftheUnitedStatesanditsrelationshipwithMexicoandtheworld
powersofthenineteenthcentury.
DatingbacktoitsSpanishorigins,thenorthernprovincesofMexicohave
alwayslaggedbehindtheotherprovincesinpopulation.Spainworkedtopromote
thesettlingofitsnorthernlandtocreateabuffertoprotectthemfromAmerican
Indiansandcompetingempires.OnceMexicosuccessfullywonitsindependence
fromSpainin1821,itfollowedinherfootstepsbypassingacolonizationlawthat
offeredlandgrantstoencourageimmigration.Mexicoalsowantedabufferzone
andwelcomedAmericancolonistsintoitsnorthernlands.Americans,especiallyin
thesouthandwest,emigratedtoTexasindroves,attractedbycheap,fertileland
thatcouldbeboughtforafewcentsanacrecomparedtoafewdollarsforsimilar
landintheUS.
StephenAustinledagroupof2,000AmericancolonistsintoTexasin1824,
andby1835AmericanimmigrantsinTexasoutnumberednativeMexicanstento
one.ThehugeincreaseinAmericansettlersalonewasenoughtomaketheMexican
governmentnervous,anddifferingviewsonreligionandslaverywouldultimately
leadtoconflict.In1830,theMexicangovernmentdecidedtobanallfuture
AmericanimmigrationandtopromotethesettlingofTexasbynativeMexicansand
Europeanemigrants.ThisnewpolicydidnotstopAmericansfromimmigrating
illegallyintoTexas.(HardRoadtoTexas,n.d.)Bylate1834,Americanscontinued
tomaketheirwaysouthoftheUSborder.InthesameyearAntonioLopezdeSanta
AnnadeclaredhimselfdictatorofallofMexicoincludingTexas,andsetaboutona
coursetosuppresstherisingindependencemovementthatwasgrowingamongthe
Americansettlers.Texanscalledconventionsin1832and1833todiscusstheir
optionsandhowtohandletheincreasingtensionwiththeMexicangovernment.By
latewinter1836,TexanswereclosetodecidingtosplitfromMexicoanddeclare
independence.InresponsetotheTexanconventions,SantaAnnaimmediately
beganmobilizinganarmytoasserthisrule.(Tindall&Shi,2004)
OneofthemostimportanteventsoftheWarforTexanIndependence
occurredatanabandonedmissioninSanAntonio,theAlamo.Ledbythebrave
MississippilawyerColonialWilliamB.Travis,189TexansandAmericanvolunteers
bracedthemselvesfortheonslaughtof5,000Mexicansoldiers.WhenSantaAnna
demandedthesurrenderoftheAlamoonFebruary23,1836,Travisrespondedwith
acanonshot.TheMexicanArmycontinuedtobombardtheAlamofortwelvedays
andwererepulsedeverytime.OnthemorningofMarch6,theAlamodefenders
awakenedtoabugleplaying“Deguello”(nomercytothedefenders).Thishaunting
tuneprecededaMexicanassaultfromallsides.TwicetheMexicanswererepelled,
butthethirdtimethenorthernwallwasbreached.Mexicansoldiersswarmedthe
Alamo,andviolent,oftenhand‐to‐handcombatfollowed.Traviswaskilled,andonly
16women,childrenandservantssurvived.SantaAnnaimmediatelydeclareda
victory,yettheMexicansoldiersrealizedtheimportanceofwhathappenedatthe
Alamo,asindicatedbyoneofSantaAnna’saides,“Onemoresuch‘gloriousvictory’
andwearefinished.”(Tyndall&Shi,2004,p.552)SamHouston,commanderofthe
TexanArmywasabletousethebraveryexhibitedattheAlamoasarallyingpoint
andheadedeastpickingupreinforcementsalongtheway.Houstonsurprisedthe
MexicansatSanJacintoonApril21,1836anddefeatedtheMexicanarmywithin
fifteenminutes.SantaAnnawastakenprisonerandforcedtosignatreaty
recognizingTexanindependenceinexchangeforhislife.Thistreatymarkedthe
borderattheRioGrandeRiver.MexicorefusedtorecognizeTexanindependenceor
theRioGrandeborder.
Bytheendoftheconflict,theUShadnotfullyrealizedhowtheBattleofSan
Jacinto,andtheWarforTexanIndependencewouldimpactAmericanpolitics,
economicsanddiplomacy.AmajorityofTexansconsideredthemselvesAmericans
atheartandfavoredimmediateannexationtotheUnitedStates.(Ferrell,1975)
TheBritishalsobegancourtingtheTexansandattemptedtoworkasamediator
betweenMexicoandTexas.TheannexationofTexasimmediatelysparkedsectional
tensionthatwasfeltinCongress,nationalpoliticsandabroad.
BritishinvestmentsinMexicoincreasedonceMexicowonitsindependence
fromSpainandlostitsmothercountry’seconomicsupport.BritainviewedMexico
asasourceforcheapresourceslikecotton,andatariff‐freemarketforthe
importationofmanufacturedgoods.ThisprofitablerelationshipworriedtheUS,
whichfearedworld‐wideBritishdominationifitcouldgainastrongholdinthe
economiesofthewesternhemisphere.(Roeckell,1999)SomeTexansfavoredan
alliancewithBritain,whileothersfearedthatTexascouldbecometoodependenton
Britaineconomically.(HardRoadtoTexas,n.d.)
ThoseactiveintheBritishabolitionistmovementviewedTexasasakey
targetfortheabolitionofslavery,whichconcernedbothslave‐holdersinTexasand
thesouthernUS.(HardRoadtoTexas,n.d.)ManyBritishholdersofMexicanbonds
wereQuakersandradicalabolitionists.MembersoftheBritishandForeignAnti‐
SlaverySocietyalsosoughttoendslaveryinTexas,andTexasdiplomatAshbel
Smithwentsofarastoaccusethegroupofstirringupabolitionistsentimentinthe
Americannorth.(Smither,1929)Britainchosetoofferitselfasanintermediary
betweenTexasandMexico,andpledgedseveraltimestoassistthetwocountriesin
reachingapeaceagreementifTexaspledgedtoremainindependentandrefused
annexationtotheUS.Britishdiplomatscontinuedtooffertheirservices,andthe
powerfulLordAberdeenworkedtogetTexastoagreetoa“diplomaticact”that
wouldsettleborderissueswithMexicoandtaketheannexationoptionoffofthe
table.(HardRoadtoTexas,n.d.)BritainunderestimatedthepeopleofTexas.Most
wereAmericantransplantswhostillviewedthemselvesasAmerica.While
presidentSamHoustonandpresident‐electAnsonJonesappearedtofavoraBritish
alliance,mostTexanscontinuedtosupportannexationtotheUS.
AmericanpoliticiansshiedawayfromTexasimmediatelyfollowingits
independence.AndrewJacksondelayedofficialrecognitionoftheRepublicofTexas
untilhislastdayinoffice,anxiousaboutthesectionalconflictandpotentialwarthat
couldresultfromUSinvolvementinTexas.AsBritaincontinuedtoofferits
diplomaticservicestoTexas,southernslaveholdersgrewnervousaboutthe
burgeoningrelationshipbetweenTexasandtheabolitionistBritishEmpire.The
movetowardsannexationbeganwithPresidentJohnTyler.(Tindall&Shi,2004)
Tyler,whomanagedtoalienatehimselffromboththeDemocratsandthe
Whigs,understoodhowtheannexationofTexascouldbenefittheUSandthe
institutionofslavery.TheannexationofTexaswasacentralissueintheelectionof
1844.TheWhigpartydecidedtopursueananti‐annexationplatform,andthey
citedpotentialsectionalconflictandwarwithMexicoastwoimportantreasonsto
leaveTexasalone.LeadingWhigcandidateHenryClayremarkedthatannexation
was“dangeroustotheintegrityoftheUnion,”inhis“RaleighLetter”of1844.While
Tylercontinuedtoworkforannexationduringhislastmonthsaspresident,leading
candidatesHenryClayandJamesPolkbattledovertheTexasissueintheir
campaigns.Polk,theDemocraticcandidatewasbackedbyformerpresidentAndrew
JacksonwhoviewedtheannexationofTexasasanecessitybytheelectionof1844.
Jacksonadvised“obtainit[Texas]theU.Statesmust–peaceablyifwecan,but
forciblyifwemust.”(Ferrell,p.192)Polkenteredthecampaignwithaplatform
thatsupported“there‐annexationofTexasattheearliestpracticableperiod.”(Holt,
p.11)Polk’spro‐annexationplatformhelpedhimtowineightofthirteenslave
states,allowinghimtonarrowlydefeatClay.Polkalsowonsevenofthirteen
Northernstates,yettheWhigpartydidbenefitfromClay’santi‐annexationpolicy
andcarriedtherestoftheNorth.
LameduckpresidentTylercontinuedtodraftatreatyofannexation,which
ultimatelyfailedintheUSSenate.Theanti‐slaveryandWhiginfluencewastoo
greattopassTyler’streaty.(Holt,2004)AfterTyler’sannexationtreatyfailedin
Congress,hedecidedtotryajoint‐resolution,whichonlyrequiredasimplemajority
topasstheannexationbillratherthan2/3rds.(Holt,2004)Afterbitterdebatein
theHouseandtheSenate,thetreatypassedbyaslimmargin(27:25intheSenate;
120:98intheHouse)(Tindall&Shi,2004).Tylersignedtheannexationbillon
March1,1845andofferedTexasstatehood.TexaswasadmittedtotheUnionon
December29,1845.
AsannexationpickedupsupportinCongress,theBritishreluctantlybacked
awayfromTexas.Mexico’sdictatorAntonioLopezdeSantaAnnarealizedthathis
threatsofwarwouldnolongerbebackedupbytheBritishmilitaryandresigned
himselftolosingTexastotheUS.France,whichhadalsodemonstratedsome
interestinTexasbackedoffwiththeBritish,leavingthenewrepublicopento
Americanannexationandinfluence.TheannexationofTexascreatedsectionaland
partisanconflictintheUS,aswellasstressedtherelationshipoftheUSandleading
EuropeanpowersandMexico.Thesectionalissuesthatwerebroughttothesurface
throughtheannexationdebateswouldcontinuetoplaguetheUSfordecadesuntil
thefiringonFt.SumterinAprilof1861.Thenationwouldfinallysettletheseissues
withcivilwar.
WORKSCITED
Ferrell,R.H.(1975).Americandiplomacy:Ahistory.NewYork,NY:Norton.
RobertFerrell’sclassictexttakesadiplomaticapproachtothesubjectofTexasin
themidnineteenthcentury.FerrellsuccessfullyincludesperspectivesofMexico,
Britain,France,variouspoliticians,internationaldiplomats,andmilitaryleaders.
Ferrell’stextprovidesvaryingperspectiveswhilereinforcingtheviewofAmerican
exceptionalism.HeaddressesexpansionfromaEuro‐centricperspective,not
unusualforsourcespublishedaroundthenation’sbicentennial.
Holt,M.F.(2004)Thefateoftheircountry:Politicians,slaveryextension,andthe
comingoftheCivilWar.NewYork,NY:Hill&Wang.
Holt’sworkanalyzestheroleofwestwardexpansion,territorialacquisition,slavery
anddiplomacyonAmericanpoliticsinthenineteenthcentury.Histhesisisthat
Texasignitedmorepartisanconflictsthansectional,andlinkstheannexation
debatestothedeathoftheWhigsandrebirthoftheDemocraticparty.This
deviationfromsectionalismtopartypoliticsrepresentsamoremodernviewofUS
expansioninthemid‐nineteenthcentury.
Roeckell,L.M.(1999)Bondsoverbondage:Britishoppositiontothe
annexationofTexas.JournaloftheEarlyRepublic,19(2),257‐278.
RoeckellstudiesBritishinvolvementinMexicoandTexas.TheinvestmentofBritish
citizensinTexasandMexicomadethefateoftheRepublicofTexasanational
concernofGreatBritain.Roeckelllinksabolitionismandeconomicswithathorough
examinationofwhowasinvestinginTexasandwhatBritainstoodtogainfroman
alliancewiththeLoneStarRepublic.
Smither,H.(1929)EnglishabolitionismandtheannexationofTexas.
TheSouthwesternHistoricalQuarterly,32(3),193‐205.
SmitheralsoanalyzestheinvolvementofBritishcitizens,leadersanddiplomatsin
TexasandMexicoanddetailstheroleofBritishandAmericanabolitionistsinTexas.
Smither’sanalysisfocusesontheeffectsoftheabolitionistmovementonTexas,
representingthewidelyheldtwentiethcenturythesisthatanti‐slaverysentiment
andsectionaltensioncontrolledthepoliticsanddiplomacyofAmericanexpansion.
Tindall,G.B.&Shi,D.E.(2004)America:Anarrativehistory.NewYork,NY:
Norton.
ThisquintessentialsurveytextinUSHistoryprovidesadetailedbackgroundof
AmericanimmigrationintoTexas,theWarforTexasIndependenceandthe
annexationdebatesthatfollowed.Thisresourceisagoodplacetobeginwhen
learningaboutthecomplexitiesoftheAmericanannexationofTexas.
(2011,March3).HardroadtoTexas–Texasannexation1836‐1845.
Retrievedfromhttp://www.tsl.state.tx.us/exhibits/annexation/index.html
ThisspecialexhibitispresentedbytheTexasstatelibraryandarchives.TheHard
RoadtoTexassiteprovidesaccesstooriginalandtranscribedprimarysource
documentsrelatingtoTexasandannexation,aswellaswell‐researchedsecondary
analysisonthemanyfactorsthatwentintothedecisionoftheUStoannexTexas.
WORKSCONSULTED
Barker,E.(1946).TheannexationofTexas.TheSouthwesternHistoricalQuarterly,
50(1),49‐74.
Barker,N.(1967)TheRepublicofTexas:AFrenchview.TheSouthwestern
HistoricalQuarterly,71(2),181‐193.
Narrett,D.E.Achoiceofdestiny:Immigrationpolicy,slaveryandtheannexationof
Texas.TheSouthwesternHistoricalQuarterly,100(3),271‐302.
Schroeder,J.H.(1985)Annexationorindependence.TheSouthwesternHistorical
Quarterly,89(2),137‐164.
(n.d.).ThehandbookofTexasonline.Retrievedfrom
http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook