Republic of Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education
And Scientific Research
Baghdad University
College of Science
Examining The Effects Of Baghdad Medical
City Waste Water On The Quality Of Tigris
River
A Thesis
Submitted to the College of Science /University of Baghdad In partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Master Degree of Science in
Biology/Ecology
By
Warqa’a Nawfal Ma’alah
B.Sc. in Biology, University of Baghdad
Collage of science, Biology Department, 2011
Supervised by
Prof. Dr. Muhammad N. Al-Azzawi
1435
2013
Supervisor Certification
I certify that this thesis was prepared under my supervision at the
Department of Biology / College of Science / University of Baghdad, as
a partial requirement for the degree of Master of Science in
Ecology.
Signature:
Prof. Dr. Muhammed N. Al-Azzawi
Supervisor
Biology Department
College of Science
University of Baghdad
Date:
/ / 2013
In view of the available recommendation, I forward this thesis for
debate by the examining committee.
Signature:
Prof. Dr. Sabah N. Alwachi
Head of Biology Department
College of Science
University of Baghdad
Date:
/ / 2013
Committee Certification
We, the examining committee, certify that we have read this thesis and
examined the student in its contents and that in our opinion; it is
adequate for awarding Degree of Master of Science in Ecology.
Signature:
Signature:
Dr. Sedik A. Al-Hiyaly
Dr. Ahmed J. Mohammed
Member (Assistant Professor)
/12/2013
Member (Lecturer)
/12/2013
Signature:
Signature:
Dr. Muhammad N. Al-Azzawi
Supervisor (professor)
/12/2013
Dr. Fawzi S. Al-Zubaidi
Chairman (Professor)
/12/2013
Approved by The Council of The College of Science, University of
Baghdad.
Signature:
Prof. Dr. Saleh Mahdi Ali
Dean of College of Science
(Professor)
University of Baghdad
/12/2013
Acknowledgement
Thanks for Al-mighty God for his generosity and mercy.
It is a pleasure to thank the many people who made this thesis
possible.
I feel deeply indebted to my supervisor Dr. Muhammad N. AlAzzawi for his Guidant support and kindness. Besides my advisor,
I would like to thank Dr. Sedik Al-Hiyaly, Dr. Ithar Al-Mayaly,
Dr. Ahmed Jasim and Dr. Nazar Auda.
Special thanks to (Hussam Harby, Nefean Medhat, Muhammad
Aead and Amar Hamza) in Private Nursing Home Hospital Bacteriology lab.
I would like to express my deep feelings to my dear colleagues in
Lab. And special thanks to all friends who helped and assisted
me.
Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to thank my dearest family
who encouraged and assisted me in every step of my life, I will
indebted to my dear parents and brothers.
To
Whom gave me their endless love,
Whom gave me their patience and support,
Who lighten my way to achieve this work,
I introduce my work with respect.
@ Warqa’a_Ma’alah
summary
Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of Tigris river water
were assessed monthly to assess the impact of pollutants of Baghdad
Medical City hospital wastewater for the period from October 2012 to
September 2013. The Baghdad Medical City complex located on Baghdad
on the east side of the Tigris river (Rusafa) extends between Sarafiya bridge
and Bab Al-Muadham bridge. Four stations were selected during this study;
the first station located 500 meters beyond the Medical City Complex, as
control. The second station represents Medical City discharge into the river.
The third station placed 500 meters after the second station, and the forth
station is located 2000 meters after the second station. While Al-Wathba
water intake that is located 70 meters before station-2 has been considered
the fifth station to ensure the pollution source.
Samples collected on monthly basis from the four stations and
seasonally from the fifth station, at depth of approximately 10-20 cm of
water surface, two repeating samples for months. The results obtained
showed that the values of Electrical Conductivity, Salinity, Turbidity,
Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Chlorides, Total
Hardness, Calcium and Magnesium ions, Total Dissolved Solid, Total
Suspended Solid, Nitrate, Heavy Metals (Fe, Cd, Pb, Ni and Zn),Total
Bacterial Count, Total Coliform, Fecal Coliform, Total Streptococcus, and
Fecal Streptococcus in the station 2 were found to be higher than those of
other stations in mostly months during the study period. The pH and
Oxygen Demand appeared lower in station 2 than those of other stations.
The results showed that Air and Water temperature values ranged
between (12-33 and 11-32)°C respectively,the Turbidity values (7.4 - 250)
NTU, Electrical Conductivity (537 - 1690)µs/cm, Salinity (0.32 - 1.05)%o.
The Total Dissolved Solid (339 - 1081) mg/l,Total Suspended Solid (3202008) mg/l.
It was found that Tigris river water is alkaline with pH ranging from
6.02 to 9.1 with a reasonable ventilation as the oxygen values recorded
varied monthly (0.3 -11.5) mg/l. The Biological Oxygen Demand values
were found to be higher at some stations (0 -6.5) mg/l, while Chemical
Oxygen Demand was (31 - 710) mg/l. The Total Hardness was very high
and ranged between (170- 625) mg/l, the Calcium (65 - 260) mg/l and
Magnesium (10.9 - 104) mg/l. The Chlorides values ranged between (35190) mg/l, but Nitrate values was (0.5 -70) mg/l. These maximum results
mostly exceed the permissible limit for Iraqi and WHO standards for river
system maintain.
The study results showed that the concentrations of Heavy Metals
(Iron, Cadmium, Lead, Nickel and Zinc) were varied between 0.9 - 0.014
mg/l, 0.1 - 0.001 mg/l, 0.6 - 0.01 mg/l, 0.4 - 0.004 mg/l, and 0.22 - 0.004
mg/l respectively. Mean concentrations of these metals in Tigris river
showed monthly variations during the study period and the Fe, Ni and Zn
within permissible limit, while Pb and Cd exceeding permissible limit for
Iraqi and WHO standards for river system maintains.
The biological factors were recorded the values of the Total bacterial
count (10000 - 2700000) cell/1ml. While Total and Faecal coliform (2003700
and
100-2400)
cell/100ml
respectively.
Total
and
Faecal
Streptococcus (200-2800 and 0-920) cell/100ml respectively. The means
values of this study were allowable but not desirable, while the maximum is
not allowable.
The result of Al-Wathba water intake station when compared with
the first station (the control), there was a significant differences with
Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solid, Total Hardness, Magnesium, Chemical
Oxygen Demand, and Bacteriological tests except Faecal Streptococcus.
List of contents
No.
1
1-1
1-2
1-2-1
1-2-2
1-2-3
1-2-4
1-2-5
1-2-6
1-2-7
1-2-8
1-2-8-1
1-2-8-2
1-3-8-3
1-2-9
1-2-9-1
1-2-9-1-1
1-2-9-1-2
1-2-9-1-3
1-2-9-1-4
1-2-9-1-5
1-2-9-1-6
Title
Chapter one: Introduction and literature review
Introduction
Literature review
Water pollution
Types of pollution sources
Tigris River as a source of drinking water
Water and bacteria group
1
4
4
4
5
6
Microorganism and water borne diseases
Factors that helps the spread of water borne
diseases
Environmental problems with hospital wastes water
Characteristic and type of medical wastes
Solid Wastes
Liquid Wastes
Gaseous wastes
Water quality
physicochemical properties
Temperature
Hydrogen Ion (pH)
Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Turbidity
Salinity
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) 5
Chloride ion (Cl–1)
Total Hardness
Calcium ion (Ca +2)
Magnesium ion ( Mg +2)
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
7
10
1-2-9-1-7
1-2-9-1-8
1-2-9-1-9
1-2-9-1-10
1-2-9-1-11
1-2-9-1-12
1-2-9-1-13 Nitrate ion (NO3–2)
1-2-9-1-14 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
1-2-9-2 Heavy Metals (HMs)
1-2-9-2-1 Environmental Pollution with heavy metal
1-2-9-2-2
1-2-9-2-3
Page
No.
Heavy metals toxicity symptoms
Iron
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Title
No.
1-2-9-2-4
1-2-9-2-5
1-2-9-2-6
1-2-9-21-2-9-3
1-2-9-3-1
1-2-9-3-2
1-2-9-3-3
1-2-9-3-4
2
2-1
2-2
2-2-1
2-2-2
2-2-3
2-2-3-1
2-2-3-2
2-2-4
2-3
2-4
2-4-1
2-4-2
2-4-2-1
2-4-2-2
2-4-2-3
2-4-2-4
2-4-2-5
2-4-2-6
2-4-2-7
2-4-2-8
2-4-2-9
2-4-2-10
2-4-2-11
2-4-3
2-4-4
2-4-4-1
Cadmium
Lead
Nickel
Zinc
Microbial properties of water
Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C)
Total Coliform (TC)
Fecal Coliform (FC)
Total and Faecal Streptococci (TS & FS)
Page
No.
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26
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Chapter two: Materials and method
The Study Area
30
Materials
Apparatuses and Equipments
Chemical compounds
Culture Media
Ready culture media
Prepared culture media
Stains, reagents and solutions
Sample collection
Methods
Sterilization
Physico-chemical measurements
Temperature
Hydrogen Ion (pH)
Electrical conductivity (EC)
Turbidity
31
31
32
33
33
33
33
33
34
34
34
34
34
34
35
Salinity
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) 5
Chloride ion (Cl–1 )
Total Hardness , Calcium and Magnesium ion
Total Suspended Solids ( TSS ) and Total
Dissolved Solids ( TDS )
Nitrate (NO3–2)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Heavy Metals test
Microbial tests
Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C)
35
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No.
2-4-4-2
2-4-4-3
2-4-4-4
2-4-4-5
2-4-4-6
3
3-1
Title
Total Coliform (TC) &Faecal Coliform Count (FC)
Streptococci &Faecal Streptococci (FS)
FC: FS Ratio
Diagnosis
Statistical Analysis
Chapter three: Result and discussion
physicochemical properties
Page
No.
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40
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41
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42
3-1-1
Air and Water Temperature
42
3-1-2
3-1-3
3-1-4
3-1-5
3-1-6
3-1-7
3-1-8
3-1-9
3-1-10
3-1-11
3-1-12
3-1-13
3-2
3-2-1
3-2-2
3-2-3
3-2-4
3-2-5
3-3
3-3-1
3-3-2
3-3-3
3-3-4
3-3-5
3-3-6
3-3-7
3-4
Hydrogen Ion (pH)
Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Salinity
Turbidity
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
45
47
49
50
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 5
Chloride ion (Cl–1)
Total Hardness (T.H.)
Calcium and Magnesium ion
52
53
54
56
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Nitrate (NO3-2)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Heavy Metals (HMs)
Iron (Fe)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
Nickel (Ni)
Zinc (Zn)
Microbial properties
Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C)
Total Coliform (TC)
Faecal Coliform (FC)
Total Streptococci (TS)
Faecal Streptococci (FS)
FC: FS Ratio
Diagnosis
The fifth station (Al-Wathba water intake)
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
58
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Title
No.
Appendix
Page
No.
96
List of tables
Table
Title
no.
1-1
The bacteria transmitted through drinking water and sources of
transmission
1-2
The types and colours of the bags or containers used to collect waste
1-3
The international marks of the waste
1-4
Iraqi, WHO and American Standard sfor River Water Quality
Page
9
12
13
21
1-5
Iraqi, WHO and American Standards for River Water Quality
27
1-6
Bacteriological characteristics of the surface water
29
2-1
Apparatuses and Equipments used in this study
31
2-2
Chemicals used in the study
32
2-3
Ready culture Media used in the study
3-1
Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and standard
deviation (Second Line), for physical and chemical
33
44
characteristics in studied stations during 2012-2013.
3-2
3-3
The correlation among water parameters.
Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and standard
deviation (Second Line), for heavy metals studied (Fe, Cd, Pb,
45
63
Ni and Zn) at studied stations during 2012-2013.
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
The correlation among some water parameters and heavy metals
Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and standard deviation
(Second Line), for bacteriological characteristics at studied stations
during 2012-2013
FC: FS Ratio
Bacteria genera and species isolated from four stations selected by
API System
64
69
74
75
List of figures
Fig.
No.
2-1
Sampling stations on Tigris River: Map from (Google Earth Pro).
31
3-1
Monthly variation in Air Temperature (oC) during 2012/2013
43
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
3-10
3-11
3-12
Title
page
o
Monthly variation in water Temperature ( C) in Tigris river during
2012/2013
Monthly variation in Hydrogen Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2012
Monthly variation in Electrical conductivity in Tigris river during
2012/2013
Monthly variation in Salinity in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Monthly variation in Turbidity in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Monthly variation in Dissolved Oxygen in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Monthly variation in Biological Oxygen Demand in Tigris river during
2012/2013
Monthly variation in Chloride Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Monthly variation in Total Hardness in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Monthly variation in Calcium Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Monthly variation in Magnesium Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2013
43
47
48
49
50
51
53
54
55
57
58
3-13 Monthly variation in Total Dissolved Solids Ion in Tigris river during
2012/2013
59
3-14 Monthly variation in Total Suspension Solids in Tigris river during
2012/2013
60
3-15 Monthly variation in Nitrate in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-16 Monthly variation in Chemical Oxygen Demand in Tigris river during
2012/2013
61
62
3-17 Iron in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
3-18 Cadmium in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
63
3-19 Lead in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
66
3-20 Nickel in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
67
3-21 Zinc in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
68
3-22 Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C) monthly variation in Tigris river during
2012/2013
69
65
Fig.
Title
No.
3-23 Total Coliform monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
page
71
3-24 Faecal Coliform monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
72
3-25 Total Streptococci monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
73
3-26 Faecal Streptococci monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
74
List of appendix
Appendix .no
1
Appendix
Medical City Hospitals survey
2
Fig. a, b and c represent station-2
97
3
4
Fig. represent Al-Wathba water intake (The fifth station)
API 20E System
98
5
API Staph System
100
6
Bacillus Diagnosis
102
List of abbreviates
COD
Chemical Oxygen demand
EC
Electrical Conductivity
EDTA
Ethylene Diamin Tetra Acetic acid
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
FC
Fecal Coliform
FS
Fecal Streptococci
HMS
Heavy Metals
MPN
Most Probable Number
NTU
Nephlometric Turbidity Unit
Page
96
98
TC
Total Coliform
TDS
Total Dissolved Solids
TH
Total Hardness
UNICEF
United Nations Children's Fund
WHO
World Health Organization
APHA
American Public Health Association
FAAS
Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
1-1 Introduction
Water is a vital resource to sustain life, and a satisfactory must be of
adequate, safe and accessible, and available to all population (WHO, 2006c). However water is the important constituent of life in all natural
ecosystems. Water has wide different spectrum of domestic, industrial,
agricultural, medical, and other human applications, which in turn would
result in water contamination (Pandey, 2006).
Approximately, 20% of the world’s population lacks safe drinking
water and nearly half the world population lacks adequate sanitation, this
problem is acute in many developing countries, which discharge an
estimated 95% of their untreated urban sewage directly into surface waters,
Iraq which is one of the nine Middle Eastern countries has insufficient fresh
water (Pimental et al., 2004).
Water pollution is the contamination of water by natural and foreign
matter such as micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial or other wastes, or
sewage in quantities likely to cause harm to living organisms (Wright,
2004).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines pollution
as the presence of substances in the environment which is due to their
chemical composition or quantity, prevent or hinder the natural processes,
and cause undesirable environmental and health effects, and that any
substance that causes pollution called pollutant, (Wright & Nebel, 2002).
Wastewater generated from hospitals usually contains pathogens,
human wastes and fluids, pharmaceuticals, substances with genotoxic
properties, chemical substances, heavy metals, and radio-active wastes.
This may endanger public health and welfare, contribute to oxygen demand
and nutrient loading of the water bodies and in the process promote toxic
algal blooms and leading to a destabilized aquatic ecosystem, if discharged
without treatments into water bodies (Ojo, et al., 2012).
In developing countries, the average demand for water by hospitals is
500 L/bed/day. In addition to this high demand for drinking water, the
requirement for specific waters such as physiological solution, sterilised
water and serums. This consumption of water by hospitals, which far
exceeds the minimum household consumption of 100 L per inhabitant per
day, gives rise to large volumes of wastewater. Indeed, the chemical
substances used in hospitals for healthcare and medical research are
frequently found in liquid effluents (Emmanuel et al., 2009) that are
discharged in the same way as classical urban effluents into the communal
drainage network without prior treatment (Emmanuel et al., 2005).
Physicochemical and microbiological characterisation studies
performed on hospital effluents in several industrialised countries, have
reported the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, some of which are
multi-resistant to antibiotics (Leprat, 1998), heavy metals (Emmanuel et al.,
2005), radioisotopes (Erlandsson & Matsson, 1978), organohalogens,
stemming in particular from the use of bleach on organic compounds
present in effluents (Emmanuel et al., 2004), and drug residues (Kümmerer,
2001). Some of these pollutants, especially drug residues and
organohalogens, are frequently discharged through sewage plants after
having undergone little degradation (Emmanuel et al., 2009). Hospital
wastewaters are complex mixtures (Boillot & Perrodin, 2008), capable of
generating major environmental problems, as they are 5 to 15 times more
toxic than classical urban effluents (Panouillères et al., 2007).
Hospital wastewater reveals the presence of molecules chlorinated at
high concentrations and in a punctual way the presence of heavy metals
such as mercury and silver. The application of Ames and Hamster cell tests
on hospital wastewater indicated that these effluents are potentially
mutagenic. The origin of this mutagenic potential remains to be
investigated. The value of the total hospital wastewater showed a high
toxicity as determined using the daphnia and luminescent bacteria tests
(Emmanuel et al., 2002).
So the aims of this study are as follows:
1.
Water chemical, physical and biological evaluation of Tigris river.
2.
Investigate the effect of medical waste water from Baghdad Medical
City and possible effects on Tigris river.
1-2
Literatures reviews:
1-2-1 Water pollution:
Water pollution may define as anything that degrades water quality
and adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for usage
(Cunningham et al., 2007). Thurman and Webber (1984) defined water
pollution as an addition of materials or energy by man to the aquatic
environment to be sufficient to cause harm to human health or living
resources and ecosystems, or the overlap between the legitimated uses of
the environment. Holdgate (1979) defined and described pollution as an
addition of materials or energy by man or the various non-studied human
activities to the aquatic environment which can be able to create damage to
human and organism’s health in addition to the different ecosystems.
1-2-2 Types of pollution sources:
1-2-2-1 Point pollution:
It is contamination that could be traced to a particular source such as an
industrial site, septic tank, or wastewater treatment plant (Bitton, 2005).
1-2-2-2 Nonpoint pollution:
This type of water pollution results from large areas and not from any single
source which includes both natural and human activities. Sources of
nonpoint pollution include agricultural, human, forestry, urban,
construction, mining activities and atmospheric deposition. There are also
naturally occurring nonpoint source pollutants that are important. These
however include geologic erosion, saline seeps; breakdown of minerals and
soils that may contain large quantities of nutrients and heavy metals at
varies levels (Bitton, 2005).
1-2-3 Tigris River as a source of drinking water:
Tigris is the biggest river in Iraq and the main source of drinking
water for Baghdad, which is the largest city in the country and the second
largest city in the Arab world with a population estimated by 7.5 million
(Razzak et al., 2009). Nevertheless there are no enough reliable studies,
data or statistics available internationally about Tigris River (Kavvas et al.,
2011) and its water quality while traversing Iraq, especially after the year
2003 is deteriorated. Any pollution of Tigris river may cause a direct
pollution to Euphrates river and the related water sources since both rivers
connected through Al-Tharthar lake (Rahi & Halihan, 2010). Water quality
studies have focused on cases where sever pollution problems are arises,
especially in heavily populated urban areas. Baghdad city is over populated
and produced a huge amount of wastewater from different sources which
are disposed into Tigris river directly or after treatment. In the last few
years, an increase of wastewater directly disposed in the river using
pump stations of storm sewer network have caused high pollution
levels in the river's water (Razzak et al., 2009).
According to UNICEF report, about 800 million people in Asia and
Africa are living without access to safe drinking water. Consequently this
has caused many people to suffer from various diseases. Contamination of
water has been frequently found associated with transmission of diseases
causing bacteria, Vibrio, Salmonella, bacterial and parasitic dysentery, and
acute infection diarrhea causing E.coli (Al-Bayatti et al., 2012). Poor
sanitation and food sources are integral to enteric pathogen exposure.
Drinking water is a major source of microbial pathogen and considered to
be one of the main reasons for increased mortality rates among children in
developing countries (Kondakal et al., 2009). Comprehensive evaluations
of microbial quality of water require survey of all the pathogens that have
potential for human infections (Miranzadeh et al., 2011).
Water Quality Index was analysed by Al-Obaidy et al. (2010) to
evaluate the raw and treated drinking water from Tigris river within
Baghdad. Using this approach Al-Obaidy and his colleagues showed that
Tigris water never reached “Excellent” level nor fallen to “unsuitable”
condition, except in occasional untreated water sample. It is thus important
to study and know the physical, chemical, and biological nature of this
water to ascertain hygienic quality of water sources for human consumption
and for general community purposes. Al-Fatlawy (2007) studied the quality
of drinking water for some Baghdad water liquefaction projects, including
Al - Karama station from the main source for the processing of the raw
water it is the Tigris River, and conducted chemical, physical and biological
tests of river water at the outlet water projects. Results showed high values
of the total numbers of bacteria in the winter and low concentrations in the
summer. Low rates of Coliform, Fecal Coliform and E.coli in the summer
and the height of the spring water. Where the areas of Al - Karama project,
namely: Al-Utaifiyya, Al-Kadhimiya, and Al-Horai is the best in the
percentages of chlorine, turbidity and bacteriological examination.
WHO drinking water quality guidelines and Iraqi standards both
recommended that Feacal Coliform must not exist in100 ml of portable
water sample (WHO, 2004).
1-2-4 Water and bacteria groups:
The bacteria are the most important groups of microorganisms that
are prevalent in the aquatic environment, and water normally contains
bacterial flora. In addition to Autochthonous aquatic bacteria, there is
Allochthonous aquatic bacteria, which invade the aquatic environment from
various source such as flash floods of the soil and rain and the remnants of
animal, plant tissue that may find their way to the water (Al- Sammarai,
2009).
References refers that most water bacteria are Gram-negative, nonspore-forming, bacilli form. While the others are Gram-positive, most water
bacteria is not self-nutrition play an important role in the analysis of organic
compounds in water and thus contribute effectively to rotate the elements in
the aquatic environment (Al-Moslah, 1988).
Preston et al., (1980) referred that break down organic materials is
one of the important operations carried out by microorganism contaminated
water, which lead to the production of gases such as methane, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, which affect the chemical content of the
aquatic environment.
Entry and Farmer (2000) mentioned that coliform and feacal coliform
are the most suitable evidence to study the pollution of natural water with
infected bacteria because their presence means the presence of bacteria or
micro-organisms a satisfactory to humans.
1-2-5 Microorganism and water borne diseases:
Water is the most available means for the spread of diseases in the
environment depending on the capacity of the spread, direct and continuous
contact of objects as a prerequisite for the continuation of life (WHO,
2000). Where the mortality rate resulting from the consumption of
contaminated water between (2-12) million deaths annually, and
inefficiency of the process of treatment and disinfection of water and the
lack of attention in the maintenance of distribution systems is the main
reason for the outbreak of diseases in water (Gebra and Rose, 2003).
The WHO (2010) indicated that most of the water borne diseases
generally infects the gastrointestinal tract and excreted in the feces of
infected humans and animals. It is considered Faecal contaminants of the
most prevalent and dangerous contaminants in water. There are a lot of
bacteria that have the ability to penetrate the distribution systems, grow and
reproduction inside it, but a few of them cause diseases to humans. Water is
the main source of disease infection because it is a carrier media for many
of the microorganisms that have negative effect on life in various fields, as
many of the world's population still depend on surface waters of rivers,
streams or even lakes as sources of water drinking them.
Taylor (1958) pointed that the cause of the deaths with cholera
epidemic was due to using drinking water from a wells contaminated with
human waste, and also pointed to the exposure of 18,000 people in the city
of Hamburg to cholera infection by drinking water unliquidated river Alba
and that led to more than 800 deaths. On the other hand WHO (1976)
reports refer to 80% of the diseases in the world are causing the use of
contaminated water, nearly half a million people in the world suffer from
the problems of the use of contaminated water, Ten million people (the
great majority of them are children) die each year because of some
dangerous diseases as Typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and amoebic dysentery
caused by the use of unhealthy water.
Table (1-1) shows the bacteria transmitted through drinking water and
sources of transmission. (Dziuban et a.l, 2006).
Disease and Transmission
Microbial Agent
Supply Sources of Agent in Water
Botulism
Clostridium botulinum
Bacteria can enter an open wound from
contaminated water sources. Can enter
the gastrointestinal tract by consuming
contaminated drinking water or (more
commonly) food
Cholera
Vibrio cholerae
water contaminated with the bacteria
E. coli Infection
Escherichia coli
Water contaminated with the bacteria
Dysentery
and Salmonella (the Shigella
most common Shigella
dysenteriae).
Water contaminated with the bacteria
(two distinct Legionellosis
forms: Legionnaires’ disease
and Pontiac fever)
(90% of cases Legionella
caused by Legionella
pneumophila)
Contaminated water: the organism
thrives in warm aquatic environments
Salmonellosis
sp.Salmonella
Drinking water contaminated with the
bacteria. More common as a food
borne illness.
Typhoid fever
Salmonella typhi
Ingestion of water contaminated with
feces of an infected person
Vibrio Illness
, Vibrio Vibrio vulnificus
alginolyticus, and Vibrio
parahaemolyticus
Hepatitis (type A)
Hepatitis A Virus (HAV)
Can enter wounds from contaminated
water.
Water contaminated with Hepatitis
(type A)
1-2-6 Factors affecting the spread of water borne diseases:
According to WHO (2006) report, the factors helping the spread of water
borne diseases can be summarized as follows: a. Temperature.
b. Water application
c. Ignore the health regulations and personal hygiene.
d. The presence of organic contamination.
e. Absent of conservation and deliberate pollution.
1-2-7 Environmental problems with hospital waste water:
One of the main environmental problems putting by the hospital
effluents is their discharge, in the same way as the urban classic effluents,
towards the urban sewer network without preliminary treatment (Emmanuel
et al., 2002).
There is a similarity between hospitals wastewater and household
wastewater, but it is characterized by containing hazardous many
compounds and microorganism and include bacteria, viruses, and hazardous
chemicals and materials sterilized in addition to radiation development
laboratory waste, which is characterized by the presence of chemicals toxic,
so the hospital put large amounts of liquid wastewater change their quantity
and quality from one hour to another and from one season to another, where
the discharge (300-1000 litres/person/day) hence the urgent need for waste
water treatment issued by the hospital to reduce the dangers that may be
caused these pollutants to civilian sources without treatment (Elia, 2010).
Al Tamer and Abdul Hady (2013) have examined certain hospitals in
Mosul and the impact on the Tigris river and showed the values of COD,
chlorine, sulfates and phosphates excess the permissible limits. And the
Iraqi Ministry of Environment (2009) reports show that high value of BOD,
TSS, and COD of liquid waste for Baghdad, child protection and surgical
hospitals in Baghdad Medical City.
1-2-8 Characteristic and type of medical waste:
Quality and quantity of waste water produced by every hospital
depends on different factors. Some of these factors are: bed numbers,
accessibility to water, kind of health services, number of unites; climate
situation, people’s culture and geographical situation which result in variety
of hospital waste water production and defines that necessary treatment
should be carried-out on them before their entrance into urban waste water
network (Sabzali & Shivaii, 2006).
Represents the waste of the health institutions all waste generated by
hospitals, health centres, clinics, laboratories, medical research centers,
forensic medicine and anatomy centres (Sharef et al., 2008). It’s classified
into several types according to their nature also differ in the treatment way
(Prüss, 1999; Twinch, 2011):
1-2-8-1 Solid Wastes:
Solid waste posed from health institutions can be divided in general into
several sections are different in nature and ways to deal with it and disposal
methods, it’s:
a. Municipal wastes:
Made as a result of administrative and clerical activities include (paper,
newspapers, plastic, glass, metal cans and leftovers) waste.
b. Radioactive wastes:
Resulting from the treatment of patients, increases the need for medicines,
and expired medicines, or the result of some appliances and equipment used
for treatment or diagnosis.
c. Chemical wastes:
Waste containing chemical substances: e.g. laboratory reagents; film
developer; disinfectants that are expired or no longer needed; solvents.
d. Infectious medical wastes:
May be caused by blood, bacterial, viral, parasitic and fungal labs, or be
used for patients (needles, blades, medicine containers, plastic tubes or bed
sheets and pillows contaminated and human parts) Which is different
severity by disease, Pathological samples (for patients), which has been
laboratory tested and dumped the remains in containers, their significant
impact on the spread of infection among healthy people it is essential if the
full knowledge of all the risks (Infection) and destruction of pathological
specimens immediately within the safety and security procedures
appropriate and accurate
Table (1-2) shows the types and colours of the bags or containers used to
collect waste (Iraqi Ministry of Environment, 2009).
Waste type
1 Highly infectious waste
Container Colour
Container Type
Yellow index it
Bags (or
container) leak
proof plastic
(highly infectious)
2 Waste-causing infectious
disease and anatomical
waste
3 Sharps
Yellow
Bags (or
container) leak
proof plastic
Yellow index it
Non-breach
container
(Sharp materials)
4 Chemical
pharmaceutical waste
and
Brown
Plastic bag or
container
5 Radioactive waste
-----
Metal box marked
with radiation
mark
6 Public waste of health care
Black
Plastic bag
Table (1-3) shows the international marks of the Waste (Iraqi Ministry of
Environment, 2009).
Infectious biological and medical waste
Radioactive medical waste
Incendiary chemical waste
Chemical waste
Genotoxic drugs waste Chemical waste highly reactive with water
Harmful medical waste
Flammable waste
1-2-8-2 Liquid Wastes:
Liquid waste posed from health institutions can be divided in general
into several sections which are different in nature and ways to deal with it
and disposal methods, it’s:
a) Sewage:
Sewage hospitals contain large amounts of microbial infectious diseases
(bacteria and viruses) that move easily through the water, where sewage
contaminated by infectious and contagious diseases or during epidemics.
b) Hazardous chemical liquid:
Resulting from the sterilization
devices, equipment, surfaces and
solvents including acids, organic
public sewage from analysis
treatment.
process and the daily cleaning of the
floors where there are large amounts of
and Inorganic alkaloids is discharged to
and pathological laboratories without
c) Pharmaceutical wastes:
Small amounts of drugs are discharged to sewage of different medical
departments and these drugs may contain antibiotics, cytotoxic drugs and
some other species.
d) Radioactive liquid wastes:
Small amounts of radioactive liquid waste go to sewage from the tumors
treatment departments.
e) Heavy Metal residues wastes:
Quantities of heavy metals with high toxicity are discharged, such as
mercury, silver, lead from dental services centres and radiology
departments, and by spillage from broken clinical equipment (thermometer,
blood pressure gauge .. etc.). Cadmium waste comes mainly from discarded
batteries. A number of drugs contain arsenic.
1-2-8-3 Gaseous wastes:
Gaseous waste consist of burning waste process in the central holocaust
inside the complex, where it is burning all medical solid waste (syringes,
blood bags damaged, nutritious plastic bags .. etc.) and these substances
cause pollution if not burned under suitable temperature due to be Dioxin
material, which is made up of hundreds of chemicals remain for long
periods in the environment because dioxin does not react with oxygen and
water and is not degraded by bacteria, it’s consists of two petrol ring linking
them by two oxygen atoms.
1-2-9 Water quality:
Water quality means all physical characteristics (temperature, odour,
turbidity... etc.), chemical (dissolve oxygen, salts and other chemicals) and
biological (infectious agents, phytoplankton and zooplanktons) all should
be at un effective levels of acceptability, quality described as unacceptable
in case one or more of characters change (WHO, 1996).
1-2-9-1 physicochemical properties:
The physical and chemical properties are great important in aquatic
systems through their influence in determining the quality of good water.
This is done by comparing these factors with global standard specifications
for water quality, considering that water plays a major role in maintaining
the health and safety of the consumer (Table 1-4). These factors
continuously varying depending on the nature of geological and climatic
conditions of the study area (Stark et al., 2000).
1-2-9-1-1Temperature:
Heat affects the physical and chemical characteristics of water
directly and indirectly, as affecting the metabolic processes such as
photosynthesis, osmosis, respiration, and organization in aquatic plants and
animals as well as its impact on the density and viscosity of water and
soluble gases (Al-Aney, 2012).
1-2-9-1-2 Hydrogen Ion (pH):
pH plays a major role in the survival of aquatic organisms, and
affects their distribution in the water, because many proteins and enzymes
affected by the high and low pH. Most aquatic organisms require a pH
within range of 5 to 8.5 for optimal growth and reproduction, although they
may survive for a time at pH values outside this range. The toxicity of many
pollutants is pH dependent (Al-Zubaidi, 2011). Generally the favourite term
of living aquatic is (6 - 8.5) (USEPA, 2002). This value is in the water be
related to seasonal changes, the amount and type of organic material and
density of phytoplankton (Al-Moslah, 1988).
1-2-9-1-3 Electrical Conductivity (EC):
Electrical Conductivity was used to give an idea of the amount of
dissolved chemical ions in water, and presence of sodium, potassium, and
chlorine. There are swayed health effects on human life through these
electrolytes, like disorder of salt and water balance in infants, heart patients,
individuals with high blood pressure, and renal problems. Significant
changes in electrical conductivity may indicate that water body has received
certain pollutants (GWADW, 2009).
1-2-9-1-4 Turbidity:
Turbidity defined as an expression of the optical property of a
medium which causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than
transmitted in straight lines through the sample and it is an important water
quality variable (Lawler et al.,2006). The turbidity means water purity
measurement, the increase of the levels of turbidity in the water may
determine the growth of some organisms and if it significantly reduced in
the water, it may increase the sensitivity to toxic substances (Al-Aney,
2012), the sources of turbidity include:
a) Soil erosion.
b) Waste discharge.
c) Urban runoff.
d) Eroding stream banks.
e) Large numbers of bottom feeders that stir up bottom sediments.
f) Excessive algal growth.
Higher turbidity increases water temperatures because suspended particles
absorb more heat. This reduces the concentration of DO because warm
water holds less DO than cold. Higher turbidity also reduces the amount of
light penetrating the water, which reduces photosynthesis and the
production of DO. Suspended materials can clog fish gills, reducing
resistance to disease in fish, lowering growth rates, and affecting egg and
larval development. As the particles settle, they can blanket the stream
bottom (especially in slower waters) and smother fish eggs and benthic
macro invertebrates (Spellman, 2003).
1-2-9-1-5 Salinity:
Is a measure of dissolved salts in the water, as it is basic recipe
salinity in determining the use of water for industrial and agricultural
purposes. The salts have role in preventing the growth of bacteria through
their work to break down protein and inhibition biological processes of
bacteria and death (Humudat, 2009). The increase in salinity is coupled
with an increase of sodium chloride, chlorides, sulphates, potassium and
calcium (CWT, 2004).
1-2-9-1-6 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD5) :
Dissolved Oxygen enters into aquatic system through direct diffusion
and as a by-product of photosynthesis. DO is an indicator of water quality,
low levels can produce anaerobic conditions leading to smelly water
(Hashim, 2010). Dissolved Oxygen levels depend on physical, chemical
and biological activities in water, the oxygen content of natural waters
varied with temperature, salinity, turbulence, atmospheric pressure and the
photosynthetic activity of algae and plant (Cameron et al., 2003).
The Biological Oxygen Demand is an approximate measure of the
amount of biochemically degradable organic matter present in a water
sample; it is defined by the amount of oxygen required for the aerobic
microorganisms present in the sample to oxidize the organic matter to a
stable inorganic form (Chapman, 1996). Another definition is BOD the
measure of oxygen used up by biological and chemical processes in a
sample water over a 5days period at 250C (WHO, 2004).
One of the most important criteria in assessing the quality of raw
water, O2 concentration in water which depends on the water temperature
and the concentration of dissolved salts. It reduces when organic
contaminants increased, and in eutrophication by algae. Consumption of
dissolved oxygen in water, leading to the death of living organisms, which
are clustered at the bottom so the anaerobic bacteria become available, so
the water becomes foul-smelling as a result of the collected gases produced
by bacteria (Ben Sadiq, 2003).
1-2-9-1-7 Chloride ion (Cl–):
The chloride ion is available in all natural water at different
concentrations. As it reaches its concentration in ocean water to more than
2000 mg/l. But in the rivers and lakes water, the concentration ranges
between 20 – 80 mg/l. The sedimentary rocks the main source of chloride
ion as well as rain water and melting snow. Another source of chloride ion
in the groundwater is contaminated organic waste or industrial waste and
irrigation water. Also, the water treatment with chlorine can lead to
increased concentration of chloride ion in the water (Daly, 1994).
1-2-9-1-8 Total Hardness (T.H):
Hardness is traditional measure of water quality and suitability for
human use. The harness caused by various metals ions (calcium,
magnesium, and other metal ions polyvalent such as iron, aluminium, tin,
zinc and hydrogen ion (Lower, 2007). There are two type of hardness (AlObaidy, 2008):
- Temporary hardness: Called Carbonate hardness due to present
calcium carbonate [Ca(HCO3)2] and magnesium carbonate[Mg(HCO3)2], its
remains mostly by heating to boiling
- Permanent hardness: Called Non-Carbonate Hardness due to present
calcium and magnesium chloride and sulphate.
Some studies have found that increase hardness water lead to infect
children with eczema in Japan, and the hardness lead to rust tank (Miyak et
al, 2004).
1-2-9-1-9 Calcium ion (Ca +2):
The atomic number (20) and atomic weight (40.08). Which is the
main positive ion in natural waters. Calcium ion is a major source of
hardness so does not favour its presence in high concentrations in drinking
water. But it is one of the important elements and favourite in irrigation
water because it strengthens and permeability the soil and keeps the
building (Jassim, 1988).
Calcium ion is important of the organism body, it’s necessary in the
stages of embryonic development, pregnancy and lactation as well as its
importance in the growth of teeth, bones, blood clotting formation, and the
working of nervous system (Abed & Alwakeel, 2007). Study carried by AlAadhamy (1996) has shown that the calcium ion concentration in the
wastewater to the city of Baghdad in Rusafa was limits to 95 – 199 mg/l
which is a result of domestic water use.
1-2-9-1-10 Magnesium ion (Mg +2) :
This metals has atomic number (12) and atomic weight (24.306),
Magnesium element is less abundant in water compared with calcium as up
rate of between 1 to tens mg/l. It is a cofactor for some cellular enzymes,
many of which were involved in energy metabolism. It was also involved in
protein and nucleic acid synthesis (WHO, 2011). In a study of Al-Aadhamy
(1996) has indicated that the magnesium ion concentration in the
wastewater to the city of Baghdad - Rusafa ranging between 11 - 93 mg/l,
and this concentration result of domestic use. Use Magnesium salts is
considered toxic if inhaled, and increase the concentration of more than 125
mg/l possible cause diarrhea (APHA, 1998).
1-2-9-1-11 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS):
TDS known as the sum of positive and negative ions and some rare
secondary elements and do not include suspended solids, colloidal or
dissolved gases in solution (Davis, 1966). As in the liquidation of the
traditional drinking water may not affect the concentration of these
materials because they are soluble materials may increase its concentration
in the drinking water due to the addition of alum. The groundwater and
water joists, water drainage and household and industrial waste have an
important role to play and a great addition of large amounts of dissolved
solids to the river (Al-Obaidy, 2008). And according to Killimentov (1983)
classification the Tigris river water is fresh water in terms of concentration
of TDS.
1-2-9-1-12 Total Suspended Solids (TSS):
A Total Solids remaining on the filter paper after filtration which
includes clay, sand, silt, and other materials floating on the surface of the
water and the high value of this material is evidence of water contamination
by sewage, the effect of the suspended solids in drinking water and river
water, has found to reduces the degree of palatability of drinking water and
reduce the effectiveness of chlorine in sterilization (Mitchell, 1972).
1-2-9-1-13 Nitrate (NO3-2):
Made up most of the nitrates in the groundwater from the remains of
living organisms, manure, nitrate fertilizer and some plants convert air
nitrogen into nitrate and supplied to the soil. There are also some bacteria
that oxidize ammonia in the soil to nitrite and then to nitrate, this process
called nitrification process (Boyd, 2000).
Do not constitute nitrates alone a threat to humans and animals, but
the danger lies in derivatives that turn by microorganisms present in the
gastrointestinal tract, including derivative Amin nitrous a carcinogen as
well as hydroxyl Amin that results from some types of bacteria that are
active on nitrates and cause genetic mutations (Al-Obaidy, 2008).
1-2-9-1-14 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
The COD test is applicable to almost any aqueous sample as an index
of pollution. It is used to determine the amount of oxidizable organic matter
in effluents, it is now the most widespread procedure employed for
environmental monitoring. Because of its unique chemical properties, the
dichromate ion (Cr2O7-2) is the specified oxidant, and is reduced to the
chromic ion (Cr+3). Both organic and inorganic components of a sample are
subject to oxidation, but in most cases the organic component predominates
and is of the greater interest (Anon, 2007).
Table (1-4): Iraqi, WHO and American Standards For River Water Quality.
Parameter
Unit
Iraq
Iraq
WHO
American
Standard
1967
1967
For Rivers
water
Wastewater
discharged to
the
watercourse
For Rivers
water
For Rivers water
Temp.
°C
-
less 35
less 35
-
pH
-
6.5-8.5
6-9.5
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
DO.
mg/l
More 5
-
-
More 5
BOD5
mg/l
less 5
less 40
less 3
less 5
Turbidity
N.T.U
25
-
-
25
-
-
250
-
Conductivity µs/cm
TDS
mg/l
-
-
-
500
TSS
mg/l
-
60
-
-
T.H
mg/l
-
-
500
500
Mg+2
mg/l
-
-
50-125
-
Ca+2
mg/l
-
-
50
-
NO3-
mg/l
15
50
50
10
CL-
mg/l
200
600
250
250
COD
mg/l
-
less 100
-
-
1-2-9-2 Heavy Metals (HMs):
HMs can be defined in several ways, the HMs are a positive ions in
solution and they have a specific gravity of five times greater than that
of water. However, they represent a common type of chemical pollution
in water (Duffus, 2002). While Kim et al. (2000) define heavy metals as
a group of chemical elements that have a specific gravity greater than 5
gm/cm+3.
Some well-known toxic metallic elements with a specific gravity
that is 5 or more times that of water are iron, 7.9; cadmium, 8.65; lead,
11.34; nickel, 8.90; zinc, 7.133; mercury, 13.546; and arsenic, 5.7 (AlTameemi, 2010).
Such property, made them stable elements, and bio-accumulative.
HMs have no function in the body and can be highly toxic. They are
taken into the body via inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption (IOM,
2001).
From the biological view (Foulkes, 2000), the HMs may be divided into
four classes:
a. Class A: This group represents the iron element, which is essential
for life with high concentration.
b. Class B: The elements that do not have a clear biological role, which
when low concentrations are non-toxic or low such as: strontium.
c. Class C: includes elements such as: zinc, copper, nickel, cobalt,
Molybdenum, and chromium which are all essential, but in small
quantities for many of revival, but at high concentrations become
very toxic.
d. Class D: includes elements that even when low concentrations can be
toxic and have no clear biological functions include elements such as:
lead, uranium, mercury and cadmium.
1-2-9-2-1 Environmental Pollution with Heavy Metals
Human exposure to heavy metals raised dramatically in the last 50
years, as a result of an exponential increase in the use of HMs in industrial
processes and products (WHO, 2006).
HMs pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems
facing life on earth, since it influences all living organisms in aquatic,
terrestrial and air habitats (Vieira &Volesky, 2000). In the aquatic
system, it has become a serious threat today and of great environmental
problem because they are non-biodegradable, thus persistent in the
environment. Moreover, metals are mobilized and carried into food web
as a result of leaching from waste dumps, polluted soils and water. The
metals increase in concentration at every level of food chain and are
passed onto the next higher level–a phenomenon called biomagnification (Paknikar et al., 2003).
In recent years, drinking water standards are enforced, but fishing
water, soil and irrigation systems may be exposed to large amounts of
heavy metals. Using contaminated water for propagation as well as,
applying sewage sludge to agricultural land as a fertilizer, sometimes
causing phytotoxic effects as a result of metal accumulation in soils that
lead to contaminating the food products which finally may be distributed
to the people and the end result still affects public health (Hetzer et al.,
2006).
Therefore, it is necessary for the present and future of public health
that, people are not exposed to excessive levels of heavy metals in their
diet (Omran, 2010).
1-2-9-2-2 Heavy metals toxicity symptoms
The association of symptoms indicative of acute toxicity is not
difficult to recognize because the symptoms are usually severe, rapid in
onset, and associated with a known exposure or ingestion (CDC, 2005). The
symptoms of toxicity resulting from chronic exposure (impaired cognitive,
motor, and language skills, learning difficulties, nervousness, emotional
instability, and insomnia, nausea, lethargy, and feeling ill) are also easily
recognized; however, they are much more difficult to associate with their
cause. Symptoms of chronic and acute exposure are very similar to
symptoms of other health conditions and often develop slowly over months
or even years (WHO/UNECE, 2006).
Much of the damage produced by toxic metals stems from the
proliferation of oxidative free radicals they cause. A free radical is an
energetically unbalanced molecule, composed of an unpaired electron that
"steals" an electron from another molecule to restore its balance. Free
radicals occurs naturally when cell molecules react with oxygen (oxidation)
but, with a heavy toxic load or existing antioxidant deficiencies,
uncontrolled free-radical production occurs (Tremeller, 2008). Unchecked,
free radicals can cause tissue damage throughout the body; free-radical
damage underlies all degenerative diseases. Antioxidants such as vitamins
A, C, and E curtail free-radical activity (Krishnamurthy et al., 2007).
The net toxic manifestations produced by multiple exposures should,
therefore, be different from those produced by a single factor as a result of
their additive, synergistic or antagonistic action even though a metal may
not exist in sufficient amounts to cause any disability, the toxicity could
result when a second factor is also present (Wennberg et al., 2006).
The following paragraphs give a brief description of the harmful effects
and applications of some heavy metals (Table 1-5):
1-2-9-2-3 Iron:
It is one of the most metals crustal abundance, and be more than 5% of
the Earth's crust (Wiskinson Department of Natural Resource, 2005). Also
it is found in natural freshwater levels ranging between 0.5 - 50 mg/l,
acquires water bitter taste when it contains iron concentration higher than 2
mg/l, and can work on colouring clothes, ceramic pots when using this
water for washing (Al- Fatlawi, 2007). And is one of the essential elements
in human life for his role in the transport of oxygen in the blood and its
entry in the formation of a group of enzymes, what is responsible for the
construction of DNA (Golter & Mahler, 2006). Iron available in drinking
water as a result of its use as an agglomerated material or as a result of rust
and devour iron pipe through the process of distribution of water in the
network (WHO, 1995). And the iron play an important role in the growth of
iron bacteria, which working in oxidized to the ferric, leading to deposition
on the walls of the tubes. WHO (1996) and The Iraqi Standards No. 417 of
(1974) and the first update (2001) has selected the proportion of iron in
drinking water by no more than 0.3 mg/l. and if has increased amounts of
exposure from the allowable limits can cause tissue destruction a result be
free radicals even keep human exposure to high concentrations of iron can
lead to entry into a coma and respiratory failure leading eventually to
cardiac arrest (Emerit et al., 2001).
1-2-9-2-4 Cadmium:
Cadmium occurs in the Earth's crust at very low rate that is not
measurable, while at sometimes reaches to less than 0.001 mg/l. It’s one of
dangerous and polluting elements because of its ability to accumulate in the
bodies of living organisms: animal, plant, and especially human, as it
accumulates in the liver and kidney, in Japan the discharge of wastewater
into Jintsu River in Toyama city from fluxing and mining factory and used
the river water in irrigation rise fields lead to increase Cd in 1947 causing
Itai itai disease and mortality for more than hundred people late in 1965 and
syndromes appeared in bones (Al-Saadi, 2006).
1-2-9-2-5 Lead:
The greatest exposure to lead is swallowing lead paint chips or breathing
in lead dust. But lead in drinking water can also cause a variety of adverse
health effects. In babies and children, exposure to lead in drinking water
above the action level of lead (0.015 mg/l) can result in delays in
physiological and mental development, along with slight deficits in
attention span and learning abilities, adults who drink this water over many
years could develop kidney problems or high blood pressure (EPA,
2009). Generally lead is poisoning to the animal and plant, but for the
microorganism the modern studies have showed that resistant strains to
lead, and lead are generally not toxic to the microorganism, there compound
on the contrary mercury compounds and chromium do not use as biological
pesticides (EU commission, 2002).
1-2-9-2-6 Nickel:
Nickel present in the rocks above the basal, when nickel present in
drinking water in concentrations higher than the permissible limits causes
multiple diseases, such as: nausea, intestinal disorders and lung cancer
(WHO, 1984). Nickel like copper, iron and cobalt it increased solubility at
pH decrease (Boyd, 2000).
1-2-9-2-7 Zinc:
One of the most elements widespread on earth as there is in the air,
water and soil and in all foods. It is necessary for the body in small
quantities and as very essential of the vital activities organization within
human body, and also has the effect of the process of protein synthesis, as
Co-factor of many enzymes that regulate cell growth and the level of
hormones, and also contributes to the regulation of gene expression
(Dimirkou, 2007). But if the concentration increased the limit in the water it
causes the bitter taste of water and may cause skin diseases may lead to
death, and this is what happened in many areas of Bangladesh (Tvinnereim,
1999).
May return environmental pollution with element zinc to some industries
such as the production of dyes, plastics, rubber, ceramics and batteries also
enters in the composition of some alloys such as bronze, pesticides and
cosmetics protection against sunburn and inhibitors sweating and some
types of medicines, as well as the impact of transport and waste incineration
in increased concentration of this element in a vital ecosystem (Barakat,
2007).
Table (1-5): Iraqi, WHO and American Standards for River Water Quality.
HMS (mg/l)
Iraq 1967
For river
water
Iraq 1967
Wastewater discharged
to the watercourse
WHO
For river
water
American
Standard
For river water
Iron
Cadmium
0.3
0.005
2
0.01
-
0.3
0.003
0.005
Lead
0.05
0.1
0.01
0
Nickel
0.1
0.2
0.02
-
Zinc
0.5
2
3
5
1-2-9-3 Microbial properties of water
1-2-9-3-1 Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C):
It is an important test in the microbial water tests which gives an
estimate of the total number of bacteria in the water sample, which is
possible to develop into visible colonies on the nutrient agar under the
described conditions of temperature and duration of incubation (EPA,
2006). This test is an evaluation of efficiency of water treatment processes
especially the efficiency of the sterilization process (Al-Razzaq, 2011).
In general, it measures water quality in the distribution network
(WHO & OECD, 2003) and evidence of the quality of water treatment
process and safety of distribution systems (Hunter, 2003) and the suitability
of water for drinking and food industries and an important indicator of the
changes as possible to occur in water quality during the stages of storage
and distribution, and detection of loss of chlorine purification evidence, and
the presence of high levels of organic matter and sediments (Leclerc, 2003),
But it does not provide evidence of the need for a health risk or faecal
pollution. However, the special microbial quality it’s part of aerobic
bacteria as possible to cause injury to a group of people who are
characterized by poor immunity against diseases (WHO, 2006-a) (Table 16).
1-2-9-3-2 Total Coliform (TC):
The coliforms were defined as Gram-negative, non-spore-forming,
facultative anaerobic bacilli that ferment lactose with production of acid
and gas within 48 hours at 35-37 ºC (EPA, 2006). Coliform organisms
better referred to as total coliforms to avoid confusion with others in the
group. The total coliform group include these genera of the
Enterobacteriacease family: Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia,
Hafnia, Klebisella, Serratia, and Yersinai (Gerardi, 2006), and are not an
index of faecal pollution or of health risk, but can provide basic information
on source water quality (Al-Zubaidi, 2011).
Coliform bacteria are a group of bacteria present in great quantities in
human feces. Total coliforms have long been utilized as a microbial
measure of drinking water quality, largely because they are easy to detect
and enumerate in water (Alley, 2007).
1-2-9-3-3 Faecal Coliform (FC):
Faecal Coliforms (FC) are a subgroup of total coliforms consisting
mainly E. coli, Enterobacter, and some Klebsiella. They inhabit the
intestines of warm-blooded animals, because they can grow and ferment
lactose at a relatively high temperature 45 oC (Nollet, 2007). It is a good
indicator of faecal contamination because have species quality such as easy
of detection of it and permanent presence and in large numbers in faecal
material (UNICEF, 2008). That are many sources of organic waste water
containing bacterial communities from different sources, and the
microbiological standards should be completely free drinking water of any
bacteria that indicate contamination of water through human waste (Omar,
2006). The E. coli best evidence of faecal contamination according to
(USEPA, 2005; WHO, 2006-b) because of:
a. Their presence in large numbers in human feces and warm-blooded
animals.
b. Speed diagnosed.
c. Do not grow in water not contaminated naturally.
d. Present in the water and the isolated method similar to isolated
pathogenic microorganism living in water.
1-2-9-3-4 Total and Faecal Streptococci (TS & FS):
Unlike the Coliform bacteria, they are gram positive and also tend to
live longer in water than coliforms. Faecal streptococci have been used as
indicators of water faecal contamination in water because presence in the
intestines of humans and animals, as well as its presence in the soil and on
plants and some insects (APHA, 2005). This group includes many bacteria
species in the genus Streptococcus such as, S. faecalis, S. bovis, S. equines,
S. avium, S. faceium, and S. gallinarum that are normally found in feces
and gut of warm-blooded animals (Nollet, 2007).
Table (1-6): Bacteriological characteristics of the surface water
(Mahmood, 1988).
Bacteria Allowable concentration
Desirable concentration
Coliform group
1000/100 ml
< 100 / 100 ml
Faecal Coliform
2000/100 ml
< 100 / 100 ml
Streptococcus
2000/100 ml
< 100 / 100 ml
The Study Area
Baghdad Medical City stablished in (1970) including several
hospitals and situated in Bab Al-Muadham, Baghdad, Iraq. It’s on the east
bank of the Tigris river (Rusafa side) and located between Sarafiya bridge
and Bab Al-Muadham bridge (Iraqi Ministry of Environment, 2009).
Medical City Hospitals Survey Table (Appendix-1).
These medical centres and hospitals discharge the liquid waste
directly into the river without any treatment. Once to twice daily (in the
morning and in the evening), these disposal places contain many trees, dirty
and algal growth - but no medical, offensive material like (Syringe, needle,
blades ... etc.).
This study was carried out from October 2012 to September 2013.
Five stations were selected for sampling to make bacteriological and
physicochemical studies (Fig. 2-1):
Station 1: 500 M. beyond Medical City (Station 2) – as a control.
Station 2: Discharge point of Medical City (Appendix-2).
Station 3: 500 M. after Station 2.
Station 4: 2000 M. after Station 2.
Station 5: (Al-Wathba water intake) 70 M. beyond station-2 (Appendix-3).
Sampling from this station was according to being situated between
possible contaminated site that of control site.
Fig (2-1): Sampling stations on Tigris River: Map from (Google Earth Pro).
2-2 Materials:
2-2-1 Apparatuses and Equipments:
Table (2-1): Apparatuses and equipments used in this study are:
No.
Instruments
Company
1
pH-meter
Hanna (Mauritius)
2
Turbidity meter
Hanna (Hangary)
3
Autoclave
Hirayama (Japan)
4
Sensitive Balance
Mettzertoleno (Switzerland)
5
Incubator
Hirayama (Japan)
6
Drying Oven
Memmert (Germany)
7
EC meter
Siemens (Germany)
8
Refrigerator
Philips (Holland)
9
Thermometer 0-100 °C
Germany
10
Distiller
GFL (Germany)
11
Light microscope
Lomo MIC MED2 (Russia)
12
Colony Counter
Memmert (Germany)
13
Micro Pipette
Volaca (England)
14
Filter paper
Whatman (England)
15
Atomic absorption
Spectrophotometer
Biotech Engineering management
UV-spectrophotometer
Biotech Engineering management
16
CO.,LTD.(UK)
CO.,LTD.(UK)
2-2-2 Chemical compounds:
Table (2-2): chemicals used in the study
No.
Materials
Company – origin
1
Manganese Sulphate (MnSO4)
BDH (England)
2
Iodide Azide
BDH (England)
3
H2SO4
BDH (England)
4
Sodium Thiosulphate
BDH (England)
5
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
BDH (England)
6
Erichrom black T
BDH (England)
7
Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic
Acid (EDTA)
BDH (England)
8
Meroxide reagent
BDH (England)
9
Potassium Chromate (K2Cr2O7)
BDH (England)
10
Silver Nitrate (AgNO3)
BDH (England)
11
Hydrochloric acid (HCL)
BDH (England)
12
Deionised water
Local
13
Ethanol
Scharlau |(Spain)
14
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Gainland ,UK
15
Saline solution
Pioneer Co.(Iraq)
2-2-3 Culture Media:
2-2-3-1 Ready culture media:
Table (2-3): Ready culture Media used in the study
No.
Culture media
Company / Origin
1
Nutrient agar
Himedia (India)
2
MacConkey agar
Himedia (India)
3
MacConky Broth
Himedia (India)
These
media prepared
according
to
the
manufactured
company's
instructions, sterilized by autoclave at temperature 121 ºC and 15 Par for 15
minutes.
2-2-3-2 Prepared culture media:
· Azide Dextrose Broth
(15gm trepton + 4.5gm Beef Extract + 7.5gm Dextrose + 7.5gm Sodium
chloride + 0.2gm Sodium Azide).
The mixture was dissolved in 100 ml Distilled water and adjust pH at 7.2
then stain added (Bromo Cresol Purpule 0.1%) and sterilized by autoclave
at 121 ºC and 15 Par for 15 min (APHA, 1976).
2-2-4 Stains, reagents and solutions:
Grams stain, reagents and other solutions prepared accordance to (APHA, 2005).
2-3 Sample collection:
Samples were collected monthly from the four stations marked on the
map (Fig. 2-1), and seasonally from the fifth station. The samples were
taken at depth 10-20 cm surface water approximately, two repeating
samples for months, sterilized dark Winkler bottles 250 ml use for Dissolve
Oxygen and Biological Oxygen Demand, Sterilized glass bottles 250 ml
used for bacteriological analysis and kept them in a cool box until reach to
the laboratory at time not reach 3 hours, sterilized plastic bottles used for
physical, chemical and Heavy metals analysis (APHA, 1998).
2-4 Methods:
2-4-1 Sterilization:
1- Wet Sterilization :
Culture media sterilized by used Autoclave 121˚C, 15 Par for 15 min.
2- Dry Sterilization :
All glassware used sterilized by oven at 200˚C for 2 hours.
2-4-2 Physico-chemical measurements:
2-4-2-1 Temperature
The air and water temperature was measured by a mercury thermometer, at
depth 10 -15 cm (APHA, 1985).
2-4-2-2 Hydrogen Ion (pH)
The pH values were measured by a pH-meter (AOAC, 2005).
2-4-2-3 Electrical conductivity (EC)
Electrical conductivity measured by a portable conductivity meter (µs/cm)
(HP Technical Assistance, 1999).
2-4-2-4 Turbidity
Water turbidity was measured in the laboratory by turbidity meter (NTU)
(APHA, 2005).
2-4-2-5 Salinity
According to (APHA, 1998) measured Salinity by EC Result:
Salinity (ppt ‰) = (EC (µs/cm) – 14.78) / 1589.08
2-4-2-6 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
5
:
Water samples for Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) were collected in sterile dark Winkler bottles 250 ml, they
were washed and sterilized by the oven for 4 hrs. at 200 oC. Oxygen
fixation was done at field by adding 2 ml of Manganese Sulphate and
Iodide Azide, and in the laboratory adding 2 ml of H2SO4 to the samples
which fixed in field. Then titrate with Na-Thiosulfate (0.0125 N) and using
starch as indicator, for measured DO the following equation was used:
DO mg/l=
𝑉2 𝑥 8000 𝑥 0.0125
𝑉1−1.3
V2: volume of titrate
V1: volume of sample
BOD5 dark bottles were kept in the incubator at 25±1oC for 5 days and
measured by Winkler method, BOD was measured as the following:
BOD5= DO initial – DO after 5 days (APHA, 1998).
2-4-2-7 Chloride ion (Cl-1):
Chloride ion concentration was measured according to the method
called Argentometric Nitrate Method, where 10 ml of the sample diluted to
100 ml of distilled water, and 1 ml of potassium chromate solution as an
indicator was added, the sample titrated against silver nitrate solution
(0.0141 N) until the appearance of reddish - brown colour, then the formula
described in APHA (2005) was applied to calculate the concentration of
chloride ion, as follows:
Cl- mg/l = (A-B) (N) × 35450 / V
Where A = ml titration for sample.
B = ml titration for blank
N = normality of silver nitrate.
V = ml of sample.
2-4-2-8 Total Hardness , Calcium and Magnesium ion :
The method described in APHA (2005) was used to measuring the
values of Total Hardness, by taking 10 ml of the sample and diluted to 50
ml with distilled water, then 1 ml of ammonia regulator solution was added
where the pH =10. After the addition of a few dry indicator (Erichrom
black T) use as reagent and titrated against EDTA solution (0.05 M), and
calculated by the following equation:
Total hardness as CaCO3 mg/l = A × B × 1000 / V
Where A = ml titration for sample.
B = mg of calcium carbonate equivalent 1ml of EDTA titrated.
V = ml of sample.
Calcium ion concentration calculates by the method called EDTA
Titrametric Method (APHA, 2005). Where 10 ml of the sample diluted to
50 ml by distilled water, then 2 ml of NaOH (1 N) added to the sample to
adjust the pH to 12-13, meroxide reagent added in amount of 0.2 gm. The
samples titrated against (0.01M) EDTA-Na2 until the colour changes from
pink to purple which indicate to the end of the reaction. Calcium ion was
calculated according to the following equation:
Ca+2 mg /l = A × B × 40.08 / V
Where A = ml of titration for sample
B = gm of calcium carbonate equivalent of 1 ml of EDTA.
V = ml of sample.
Magnesium ion concentration was calculated according to the
equation described in (APHA, 1998; AOAC, 2005):
Mg+2 mg/l = (Total hardness - Calcium hardness) × 0.243
2-4-2-9 Total Suspended Solids ( TSS ) and Total Dissolved Solids (
TDS ) :
The method approved by APHA (1999) was counted to estimate the
Total Suspended Solid, that’s by drying filter papers openings diameter of
0.45 micron, then the papers placed in the oven at temperature between
103-105 °C for one hour, cooled to room temperature in a glass bell,
weighed by sensitive balance.
Flasks of capacity 500 ml dried and 250 ml of the sample filtrated
through it, the suspended solids separate and settle on the filter paper, then
the paper inserted in the oven again at the same temperature for an hour
then weighed again and applied the following equation:
TSS mg/l = (A - B) × 1000 / V
Where A = weight of filter paper after filtration.
B = weight of filter paper.
V = ml of sample
Total dissolved solids concentrations calculated according to the equation in
(HP Technical Assistance, 1999; EPA, 2001).
TDS mg/l = 0.64 × EC µs / cm.
2-4-2-10 Nitrate (NO3-2):
Nitrate measured according to APHA (2005) by using 2 ml HCl (1N)
added to the diluted sample (5 ml of sample to 50 ml by using de-ionised
water) then measured by UV-spectrophotometer at wave length 220 nm.
Results were recorded in unit mg/l.
2-4-2-11 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
Chemical oxygen demand was determined after oxidation of organic
matter in strong acid medium by K2Cr2O7 at 148oC, with back titration with
ferrous ammonium sulphate (0.01 M) after adding 2-3 drops of ferrion
indicator, colour change from blue-green to reddish-brown indicated the
end point (APHA, 1998). Results were expressed as mg/l. COD value was
calculated by the equation:
COD =
(a - b )´ c ´ 8000
V
Where:
a= ferrous ammonium sulphate (ml) used for blank
b= ferrous ammonium sulphate (ml) used in sample
c= molarities (mol.l-1) of ferrous ammonium sulphate
v= volume of sample (ml)
8000= milliequivalent weight of oxygen x 1000 ml/l
2-4-3 Heavy Metals test :
Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) is a common analytical
technique for the determination of metals. For the measurement, the sample
solution was directly aspirated and atomized in flame. A light beam from a
hallow cathode lamp made of the same element being determined was passed
through the flame and into monochromate to detect the amount of reduction
of the high intensity due to atomic absorption and this could directly related
to the amount of element in the sample.
The FAAS was calibrated by standard solution for each element .The
standard solution was prepared from a known weight of the element and
then standard curve was done. The calibration curve was plotted for each
element measured in all samples (APHA, 2003).
2-4-4 Microbial tests:
2-4-4-1 Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C):
The method of Pour plate mentioned in AOAC (2005) and APHA
(2005) was used, by shaking the sample bottle 25 times up and down to
ensure the mixing of contents. All testing steps have been done in a
sterilized conditions near the source of the flame, make serious dilution of
samples by normal saline solution ranged between (10-4 - 10-5) depending
on the degree of contamination of the sample. one ml of diluted sample
transferred to a sterilized petri dish by repeating each dilution, then 10-15
ml of the nutrient dissolved media cooled to a temperature of 44-46 °C and
poured to each plate , the dish was moving in a circular motion several
times to ensure homogeneity of the sample with the medium, the plates
were left until the hardening of the medium, then they were incubated
upside down in the incubator at a temperature of 37 ° C for 48 hours, after
the period of incubation the total number of each replicates of the sample
was counted, the range was extracted and multiplied by the inverse of
dilution to calculated the total number of bacteria in 1 ml of the sample
and recorded the result by the unit of (cell/1ml).
2-4-4-2 Total Coliform (TC) & Faecal Coliform Count (FC) :
Most Probable Number (MPN) procedure described by APHA
(1999), used as make serious dilution of samples by normal saline solution.
Using MacConkey broth as cultivated medium with Durham tubes for gas
detection, tubes incubated at 37±0.5 oC and 44.5±0.25 oC for 24 hrs.
2-4-4-3 Streptococci & Faecal Streptococci (FS):
MPN procedure was used as described by APHA (1976), to make
serious dilution of samples by normal saline solution. Using Azide Dextrose
broth for both Streptococci and Faecal Streptococci bacteria as cultivated
medium, tubes incubated at 37±0.5oC for 24-72 hrs. and 44.5±0.25oC for
24-48 hrs.
The result of (2-4-4-2) and (2-4-4-3) calculated by equation:
No. of cells/ml = MPN × reverse of mild dilution.
2-4-4-4 FC: FS Ratio:
To determine the pollution origin, when the FC: FS Ratio <1 is
indicated for water pollution of animal source, and whereas FC: FS Ratio ≥
1 is indicated for water pollution of human source (Geldrich, 1967).
2-4-4-5 Diagnosis:
Diagnoses were depended on culture, microscope and API system
(Appendix: 4, 5 and 6).
2-4-4-6 Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Analysis System- SAS (2010) was used to effect of
factors (station & month) in study parameters. Lest significant difference –
LSD test was used to significant compare between means this study.
physicochemical properties:
3-1-1 Air and Water Temperature:
Water temperature is an important factor that affects the rate of many
biological and chemical processes in the water way and the amount of
oxygen which dissolve in the water. The well being of aquatic life, from
bacteria to fish, is influenced by temperature. It is probably the most
important environmental variable; it affects activities, growth, feeding,
reproduction, distribution and migratory behaviours of aquatic organisms
(Suski et al., 2006).Biochemical reactions affected by temperature when a
rise of 10oC leading to an approximate doubling of the reactive rate (EPA,
2001).
The air temperature values in this study were varied from
the lowest value 12 °C which was recorded at station 1 in January
and the highest value 33 °C was observed in August at station 4.
While the water temperature values were varied from lowest
value 11 oC in January in all stations and the highest value was 32
o
C at station 4 in August (Fig. 3-1 and 3-2), Temperature recorded
at 7 a.m.
The statistical analysis showed that there was a significant
difference at (P˂0.05) in air and water temperature among
months, while no any significant differences among stations
(Table 3-1). The direct correlation between air and water
temperature (r = 0.980) was observed in the present study, while
the inverse correlation was found between water temperature and
DO. (r= -0.731) (Table 3-2).
It is clear from current results that the highest value of water and air
temperature during summer and the lowest value during winter, high
temperature in dry seasons than in wet seasons could be due to longer and
higher sun light intensity (Hart and Zabbey, 2005).
It is clear that Tigris river was affected by the surrounding air
temperature, the results showed high temperature in summer months and
low temperature in winter months. These findings had also achieved at
same conclusion with other studies in same area (Al-Lami et al., 1999;
Ismail et al., 2000; Ahmed, 2012), and in different parts of the world
(Odum, 1971; Shekha, 2008). There are no effects of Medical city
discharge point on the temperature of the river.
Air Temperature (°C)
40
Station 1
30
Station 2
20
Station 3
Station 4
10
0
Figure 3-1: Monthly variation in Air Temperature during 2012/2013
Water Temperature (°C)
40
Station 1
30
Station 2
20
Station 3
Station 4
10
0
Figure 3-2: Monthly variation in Water Temperature in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Table (3-1): Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and
standard deviation (Second Line), for physical and chemical
characteristics in studied stations during 2012-2013.
Stations
Parameters
Air Temperature ◦C
Water
Temperature ◦C
pH
Turbidity NTU
D.O mg/l
BOD mg/l
TDS mg/l
E.C. µS/cm
St.1
St.2
St. 3
St.4
St.5
12 – 32
13 – 32
13 – 32
13 – 33
12 – 29
22.91 ± 1.54
23.37 ± 1.09
23.83 ± 1.58
24.33 ± 1.37
22 ± 1.27
a
a
a
a
a
11 – 30
11 – 31
11 – 31
11 – 32
11 – 27
21.25 ± 1.23
21.83 ± 0.98
22 ± 1.06
22.25 ± 1.29
21 ± 1.04
a
a
a
a
a
6.1 – 9
6.02 – 8.7
6.52 – 9
6.64 – 9.1
5.95 – 7.4
7.97 ± 0.54
7.35 ± 0.62
7.69 ± 0.68
7.76 ± 0.51
6.79± 0.57
a
a
a
a
a
7.4 – 51
16.4 – 250
7.5 – 135
7.4 - 64
22 – 60
18.91 ± 0.41
61.50 ± 1.04
40.48 ± 0.74
28.35 ± 0.58
36.5± 0.44
d
a
b
c
bc
6.4 – 11.5
0.3 – 9.4
3 – 11.5
3.5 – 8.8
6–8
7.85 ±0.52
4.86 ±0.33
6.48 ±0.53
6.9±0.35
a
b
a
a
a
0.6 – 5.2
0–6
1.1 – 6.5
0.8 – 4.8
1.1–3.8
2.58 ±0.07
3.05 ±0.02
3.08 ±0.02
2.6 ± 0.02
2.2±0.02
a
a
a
a
a
339– 492.8
384 – 1081
346– 837.7
356.4– 833
403.2 – 707.2
425.22 ±20.5
708.14 ±33.7
505.14 ±19.6
495.69 ± 22.9
523.5±16.3
c
a
b
b
a
530 – 770
600 –1690
541 –1309
557 –1302
630–105
664.75 ±22.7
1106.75 ±42.91
789.41 ±22.07
774.66 ± 21.68
818±19.4
b
a
b
b
b
6.88 ±0.71
Salinity ppt %o
TSS mg/l
T.H. mg/l
Ca++ mg/l
Mg++ mg/l
Cl- mg/l
NO3-2 mg/l
COD. mg/l
0.32 – 0.47
0.36– 1.05
0.33 – 0.8
0.34 –0.81
0.38–0.68
0.404±0.02
0.677±0.01
0.482±0.02
0.474±0.02
0.5±0.02
a
a
a
a
a
320 – 844
496 – 2008
476 – 800
456 – 896
400-730
577± 10.6
1006.4±10.3
665.8±7.3
686±9.2
590±10.8
c
a
b
b
c
190 – 460
250 – 625
210 – 435
170 – 440
305–365
309.5±10.6
399.1±12.1
328.3±10.7
320±8.3
346.25±12
c
a
bc
bc
b
65 – 165
85 – 260
75 – 205
95 – 205
85–165
115.4±7.42
181.2±8.34
145.1±8.51
140.2±6.33
125±7.32
b
a
b
b
b
24.3 –72
24.3–04.4
27.9– 70.4
10.9 – 69
46 – 63
47±1.69
52.9±2.91
44.4±2.43
39.9±5.19
53.6±39.2
ab
a
b
b
b
35 – 75
46 – 190
44 – 104
42 – 101
40 – 82
57±1.34
107.5±6.30
71.1±3.78
66.5±2.89
59.5±2.56
b
a
b
b
b
0.5 – 13
3.8 – 70
2 – 18
1.4 – 15
3 – 10
5.1±0.03
16±0.69
7.6±0.22
6.1±0.38
6.43±0.2
b
a
b
b
b
30 – 210
330 – 710
90 – 655
55 – 355
210–610
79.41± 3.6
566.58±19.4
380.66±13.8
194.75±7.3
420±17.4
d
a
b
c
b
*Station that carrying similar character have no any significant difference between them.
Table (3-2): The correlation among water parameters.
Air
Temp
Water
Temp
pH
E.C.
Sal.
DO
BOD
Turbi
.
TDS
TSS
TH
Ca
Mg
Cl-
Water
Temp.
0.980
Ph
0.671
0.617
EC
0.216
0.242
0.184
Sali.
0.213
0.236
0.206
0.998
DO
-0.659
-0.731
-0.204
0.266
0.281
BOD
0.330
0.291
0.182
0.520
0.525
-0.024
Turbid
-0.579
-0.540
-0.910 -0.198
-0.206
0.157
-0.124
TDS
0.219
0.245
0.186
0.999
0.998
0.263
0.521
-0.199
TSS
-0.319
-0.398
0.234
0.199
0.217
0.186
-0.186
0.199
TH
-0.062
-0.012
0.054
0.706
0.694
0.212
0.234
-0.079
0.707
0.327
Ca
0.145
0.204
0.277
0.518
0.542
0.019
0.184
-0.078
0.518
0.098
0.521
Mg
-0.166
-0.146
-0.122
0.544
0.516
0.260
0.176
-0.028
0.545
0.305
0.866
0.034
Cl-
-0.593
-0.582
-0.067 -0.072
-0.069
0.544
-0.440
0.012
-0.072
0.680
0.305
-0.040
0.336
COD
0.293
0.347
0.082
0.373
0.367
-0.243
0.392
-0.198
0.374
-0.236
0.153
0.412
-0.028
-0.398
NO3
-0.319
0.463
0.222
0.298
0.302
-0.147
0.767
-0.101
0.299
-0.061
-0.145
-0.079
-0.099
-0.672
0.710
3-1-2 Hydrogen Ion (pH):
The pH value is the measurement of acidity and alkalinity of waters
(Bee, 2005). Hydrogen ion concentration is one of the vital environmental
characteristics which effect the survival, metabolism, physiology and
growth of aquatic organisms (Lawson, 2011). pH represent the activity and
effectiveness of the hydrogen ion in the water, and in general, most of the
natural water tend to be alkaine because of the carbonates and bicarbonates
(Liere et al., 1991; Al-Saadi & Mauloud, 1991).
The present study results showed that the highest value of water pH
was 9.1 in July at station-4, which considered alkaline; while the lowest
value was 6.02 in April at station-2, which slightly acidic (Fig. 3-3). The
COD
0.187
statistical analysis showed a significant differences among months
and among stations for water pH at (P˂0.05) (Table 3-1).The
direct correlation with water temperature (r= 0.617) was observed
in present study (Table 3-2).
High pH during summer and autumn might resulted from the rate of
photosynthesis by dense phytoplankton blooms and this leads to consumption
of large amounts of carbon dioxide in water (Lawson, 2011), as well as the
excessive using of CaCO3 to control pipe corrosive (Morin, 2009), in addition
to that the effects of sand storm which increasing CaCO3 concentration in
water (Johnson et al., 2009), also one of the important factors influencing
water pH, was the rainfall which occurs during winter. The rain is naturally
slightly acidic due to the carbon dioxide dissolved in it (WASC, 2002).
In the station-2, pH was 6.02 - 8.7 similar to hospital waste water in
France, which is 6.26 – 8.52 (Emmanuel, 2002) which is lowest values might
be due to the presence of pollution, or the degradation organic materials
which produced dissolved carbon dioxide as a result of low temperature
which lead to forming HCO3and increasing H+ ion (McCauley et al., 2009),
pH higher than 7 but lower than 8.5 according to Abowei (2010) was
ideal for biological productivity, but pH at 4 was detrimental to aquatic life.
Iraqi natural water was weak alkaline which might be results from calcium
salts that Iraqi soil rich with it (Hassan, 2004). In the Tigris, Euphrates, and
Shatt al-Arab rivers seasonal variations were observed with the lower
values during the winter and spring and higher values during summer and
autumn (IMET and IF, 2005).
The present study ranges slightly above of those report by AlFatlawy (2007) who found pH values was ranged between (7.4- 8.2),
Nashaat (2010) who found that pH values were between (7.4-8.8) in Tigris
River, but agree with them that pH increase in summer and decrease in
winter due to temperature and CO2solubility.
The minimum pH recorded in present study were within Iraqi, WHO
and American standards, and the Maximum is above them, which was
PH
ranged between 6.5-8.5 (Table 1-4)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-3: Monthly variation of Hydrogen Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-3 Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Salinity:
The electrical conductivity is a good mark to estimation of total
dissolved substances in the water on the one hand and the purity of the
water on the other hand, it’s one of the quick ways to note the changes that
occur in the natural aquatic environment and the elements dissolved
(APHA, 2005). Also it related to total dissolved solids, chlorides, and
salinity. Salinity was a measure of the amount of salts in the water; salty
water conducts electricity more readily than pure water. Therefore,
electrical conductivity is routinely used to measure salinity (WASC, 2002).
The results indicated that the highest value of EC was 1690 µs/cm,
and salinity was in 1.05 ‰ in November and September at Station-2. While
the lowest values of EC was 537 µs/cm in January and salinity was 0.32 ‰
a gain in January and June at Station-1 (Fig. 3-4 and 3-5).The statistical
analysis showed a significant differences among months for E.C. and
salinity at (P˂0.05), but no any significant differences among stations
was observed except E.C.at station-2 (Table 3-1). Conductivity and
salinity showed a direct correlation with BOD, TDS, T.H, Ca and Mg
(Table 3-2). However, the values of EC increased during summer and
autumn and decreased during winter and spring that’s might be due to the
high temperature during summer and autumn in Iraq which led to increase
evaporation, then increase salts concentration as so as increase of many
pollutants concentration, also the additional amount of calcium carbonate
CaCO3, then work on precipitating them on the pipes surfaces which cause
the increase of EC in water.
Mustafa, (2012) showed that the range of EC value in Tigris river
was 689-1386 µS/cm and salinity 0.44 - 0.887‰, while Hashim (2010)
recorded that the maximum value of E.C. in Tigris river was 1515 µS/cm
and salinity 0.969 ‰, whereas the minimum value for E.C. 953 µS/cm and
salinity was 0.609 ‰, this results near to the present study finding. The
salinity results were within the range of freshwater salinity that ranged from
Conductivity (µs/cm)
0 to 3.5‰ (Pitt, 2000).
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-4: Monthly variation of Electrical Conductivity in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Salinity (%0)
1.2
1
Station 1
0.8
Station 2
0.6
Station 3
0.4
Station 4
0.2
0
Figure 3-5: Monthly variation in Salinity in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-4 Turbidity:
The obtained results reveal that the highest value of turbidity was 250
NTU in February at station-2, while the lowest value was 7.4 NTU in June
in station-1 (Fig. 3-6). The statistical analysis detected a significant
differences among months and among stations at (P˂0.05), (Table
3-1).
The turbidity increased during rainy seasons was attributed
to soil erosion in the nearby catchment and massive contribution
of suspended solids from hospitals or factory sewage (Al-Obaidi,
2009). Surface runoffs and domestic wastes mainly contribute to
the increased turbidity, and increased of water levels in winter
and there movement lead to non precipitation of suspended solids
(Gangwara et al., 2012).This study disagreed with the recent study of
Rezooqy (2009) in Iraq, which found that Turbidity was increased during
summer, Srivastava, et al., (2011) and Patel &Parikh (2013) studies in
India. Nevertheless, agreed with Al-Fatlawi (2007) and Al-Shimary (2005),
which found that the turbidity was increased in all locations during winter
but decreased in summer and spring.Station-2 appears highest value in all
study time because it’s discharge point.
Turbidity (NTU)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-6: Monthly variation in Turbidity in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-5 Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
The present results showed that the highest value for DO was 11.5
mg/l at station-1in December, while the lowest value was 0.3 mg/l at
station-2 in November (Fig.3-7). The DO results from station2 are lower
than other station because the high discharge sewage. The statistical
analysis revealed a significant differences at (P˂0.05) in DO among
months, but no significant differences among stations except station-2
(Table 3-1).
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Tigris river raising in
winter this may be due to the increase aeration because of rainfall, in
addition to the decrease of temperature in winter that increase the oxygen
solubility (Adeyemo et al., 2008). Higher water flow during winter is
suggested to contribute significantly in elevating dissolved oxygen
concentrations the disturbance of water could lead to the increase of
dissolved oxygen in water (Tobin et al., 2001).
Then the decreasing in the dissolved oxygen rates in summer at
Tigris river may be due to the raise of temperature to 40 oC that leads to
decline dissolved oxygen concentration in water, as well as, the waste
discharge of high inorganic matters, and the nutrients could lead to decrease
in dissolved oxygen concentration as a result of the increased microbial
activity occurring during the degradation of the organic matters by
self‐purification (Dallas & Day, 2004). When the temperature increases the
oxygen holding capacity of water decreases, which means that temperature
plays a major role in the biological processes (Al-Saad et al., 2010).
Dissolved oxygen concentration in water play an important role in
metabolic activity of all aquatic organisms (Wetzel, 2001). Iraqi, WHO and
American standards for river water mentioned that the optimal values of
DO was more than 5 mg/l (Table1-4), while USEPA (2000) mentioned that
the minimum values for DO is 4.5mg/l, but UNESCO (2000) mentioned
that DO concentration of 9 mg/l is optimal, while 7-8 mg/l considered
acceptable, and 3.5-6 mg/l considered poor. In the present study Tigris river
considered acceptable according to DO except in some months in study
area.
The results of current study were similar to the studies of Wahab
(2010) on Tigris river which recorded levels between 4-6.77 mg/l, the study
of Hassan et al. (2010) on Euphrates River who recorded values between
3.1-13 mg/l, as well as the study of Ali (2010) on Greater Zab River. Also
the study of Iqbal et al., (2004) on Soanriver - Pakistan, who found the
DO. (mg/l)
values between 4.6-9.3 mg/l.
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-7: Monthly variation in Dissolved Oxygen in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-6 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5):
The current work has shown that the highest value of BOD was 6.5
mg/l in December at station-3, while the lowest value was zero in
November at station-2 (Fig. 3-8). The results of statistical analysis refer that
significant different at (P˂0.05) between months but no any significant
differences between stations (Table 3-1). The BOD results from station-2
were higher than other stations because the high discharge sewage.
Generally the increase of BOD in autumn and winter may be due to
the organic matter which enters in large quantities with rainfall and
increasing in water temperature start to decay the organic substances
leading to decrease in DO value and increase BOD (Voulgaropoulos et al.,
1987).
The results of this study were higher than that observed Al-Nimrawee
(2005) found the range for BOD5 was 0.9-3.5 mg/l in Tigris river, and Aziz
(2006) found the range for BOD5 was 1.3-4.6 mg/l in Greater Zab river,
whereas it was lower than that reported by Abed Al-Razzaq (2011) with a
range of 0.006-640 mg/l in Tigris river and Shekha (2008) found the range
for BOD5 was0.4-38.8mg/l in Greater Zab river. Unpolluted waters
typically have BOD values of 2mg/l or less, while those receiving
wastewaters may have value up to 10mg/l (Chapman, 1996).
BOD. (mg/l)
7
6
Station 1
5
Station 2
4
Station 3
3
Station 4
2
1
0
Figure 3-8: Monthly variation in Biological Oxygen Demand in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-7Chloride ion (Cl-1):
Chloride ion found in natural water in different concentrations, the
presence of chlorides in the water is an indication that water pollution by
sewage, which contains human urine that contains of chlorides that up to 6
g/day.
Excess
presence
of
Chloride
in
water
leads
to
gastrointestinal disease, diarrhea, and skin allergies (Cheepi,
2012).
The present study result showed that the highest value of Cl-1 was
190 mg/l in December at Station-2, while the lowest value was 35 mg/l in
August at Station-1(Fig. 3-9).
The statistical analysis revealed a significant differences at
(P<0.05) in Cl -1 among months but no any significant differences
among stations was observed except with station-2 (Table3-1).The
direct correlation with TSS (r= 0.680), while the inverse
correlation with air and water temperature (r= -0.593 and r= 0.582 respectively) was observed in present study (Table, 3-2).
Highest Cl-1 values in winter because of raining and decrease in
spring, and retrained to raise in summer because of dust storms in region
(Wang et al., 2005). The Cl-1 results from station-2 are higher than other
station because the high discharge sewage.
The current results complied with those of other study of Al-Lami et
al., (1996), who found that Cl-1 values between 73-183 mg/L in Tigris river,
but was lower than that reported by Abed Al-Razzaq (2011), recorded Cl-1
values varied between 27.28-237.85 mg/l in Tigris river. The Cl-1
concentration was within the permissible limit for Iraqi, WHO and
American standards for river water, which was 200 mg/l (Table 1-4).
CL- (mg/l)
200
Station 1
150
Station 2
100
Station 3
Station 4
50
0
Figure 3-9: Monthly variation in Chloride Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-8 Total Hardness:
The current results found that the highest value for T.H. was 625
mg/l in January at Station 2, while the lowest value was 170 mg/l in June at
Station 4 (Fig. 3-10). The statistical analysis showed a significant
difference among months for T.H at (P˂0.05), and a significant
difference among stations except station 3 and 4 (Table 3-1). The
direct correlation with E.C. and salinity (r= 0.706 and r= 0.694
respectively), was observed in present study (Table 3-2).
Means rates tend to decrease in spring and increase in summer due to
the dust storms and sediment a large amount of dust particles which is rich
in calcium carbonate also the age of the pies and its content of salts, and
also high values in winter because the rains fall on the ground. Then
increase of material in water in the lands next to the water sources (Skipton
et al., 2004). This study agreed with the studies of (Al-Saady et al., 2000;
Nada et al., 2002; Al-Fatlawy, 2007 and Rezooqy, 2009).
Kevin (1999) classified freshwater into four groups according to T.H:
with less than 50 mg/l are soft, from 50 to 100 mg/l are moderate hardness,
waters from 100 to 200 mg/l are hard, and waters hardness above 200 mg/l
consider very hard. While USEPA (2000) classified waters according to
CaCO3 as the following: 50-150 mg/l is moderator hard water, 150-300
mg/l hard water, and more than 300 mg/l very hard water. From these
results, Tigris river water is considerable as moderate hard to very hard
water because its range 170 - 625 mg/l, these results similar to Sharad
(2004) found the hardness of Tigris river range from 239 to 600 mg/l.
700
T.H. (mg/l)
600
500
400
300
Station 1
200
Station 2
100
Station 3
0
Station 4
Figure 3-10: Monthly variation in Total Hardness in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-9 Calcium and Magnesium ion:
Study results showed that the highest value for Ca+2 was 260 mg/l in
February at Station 2, while the lowest value was 65 mg/l in October at
Station 1 (Fig. 3-11). The statistical analysis showed a significant
difference among months for Ca +2 at (P˂0.05), but no any
significant differences among stations was observed except with
station2 (Table 3-1). The positive correlation with T.H and Mg +2
(r= 0.521, and r= 0.034 respectively) (Table 3-2).
The results showed that there is an increase in calcium values during
summer and winter, increase in summer due to the decrease of water levels
and increase in evaporation in summer, also the dust storms that the CaCO3
may be the major content of the dust particles in it caused the increase in
Ca+2 values (Wagnent et al., 2005; Sullivan et al., 2007), and the increase
in winter might be due to the rain falls that bring salts including calcium
then increase of it concentration in water, also the stop of dredging
operations occurred near the project intake exposed new layers of soil led to
increase salts in water including calcium. Then the Ca+2 tended to decrease
in autumn and spring due to the appropriate temperature, in which helped in
dissolving of CO2 forming carbonic acid which help in dissolving the Ca+2
ions. This study similar to studies of Al-Nimrawee (2005), and Al-Fatlawy
(2007) on Tigris River. The values of calcium in this study lower than the
results of Nashaat (2010) 70-490 mg/l, and Abed Al-Razzaq (2011) 80-730
mg/l on Tigris River.
The highest value for Mg+2 was 104 mg/l in January at Station 2,
while the lowest value was 10.9 mg/l in June at Station 4 (Fig. 3-12).The
statistical analysis showed a significant differences among months
for Mg +2 at (P˂0.05), but no any significant differences among
stations was observed except with station1 and 2 (Table, 3-1). The
direct correlation with T.H, Ca, TSS, TDS, EC, DO., BOD and
Salinity (r= 0.866, r= 0.034, r= 0.305, r= 0.545, r= 0.544, r= 0.260,
r= 0.176 and r= 0.516 respectively) (Table, 3-2).
Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions decreased to low level during the spring season
that might be due to the raise of water levels and to the growth of aquatic
plants which lead to consumption of a lot of salts (Mahmood, 2008). More
ever, Kocet al.,(2008) showed that the bio adsorption of Mg+2 ions by
plants tend to be increase during spring season which lead to decrease the
amount of Mg+2 as a result of consumption.
The results were similar to those of Nashaat (2010) on Tigris River,
and Al-dehaimmy (2006) on Euphrates River. While the study results
contrast with the results of Wahab (2010), Hashim (2010) and Abed AlRazzaq (2011) on Tigris River.
300
Station 1
Ca+² (mg/l)
250
200
Station 2
150
Station 3
100
Station 4
50
0
Figure 3-11: Monthly variation in Calcium Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2013
Mg+² (mg/l)
120
100
Station 1
80
Station 2
60
Station 3
40
Station 4
20
0
Figure 3-12: Monthly variation in Magnesium Ion in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-10Total Dissolved Solids (TDS):
The results showed the highest value for TDS was 1081 mg/l in
November and September at Station-2, while the lowest value was 339 mg/l
in June 2013 at Station-1 (Fig. 3-13). The statistical analysis showed a
significant difference among months at (P˂0.05), but no any
significant differences among stations except station 1 and 2
(Table,
3-1).
The
direct
correlation
between
TDS
and
Conductivity (r= 0.706) agree with (Al-Obaidi, 2009).
The present work showed that the high value in summer and autumn
season as may be due to the increasing of dust storms and the increase in
the rates of dry fallout into resources of surface water (Jain,2001), as well
as the increase salts concentrations especially calcium salts which increase
TDS values (Goddard et al.,2009). These results agree with those of AlSaadi et al., (1999) on Tigris and Euphrates River, Wahab (2010), Hashim
(2010) on Tigris River.
TDS (mg/l)
1200
1000
Station 1
800
Station 2
600
Station 3
400
Station 4
200
0
Figure 3-13: Monthly variation in Total Dissolved Solids in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-11 Total Suspended Solids (TSS):
Present study findings showed the highest value for TSS was 2008
mg/l in February at Station 2, while the lowest value was 320 mg/l in
August at Station 1 (Fig. 3-14).The statistical analysis showed a
significant
difference
among
months
at
(P˂0.05),
but
no
significant difference among stations except stations 1 and 2
(Table 3-1).
The TSS values were increased in winter and decreased in spring due
to increase in water level, soil erosion and rainfall, as well as, other matters
such as algae and organic matter. These results agree with Al-Lami et al.
(1999) in Tigris river, which recorded that the TSS value ranged between 5
– 2465 mg/l, but higher than Al- Nimrawee (2005) which was found that
TSS value ranged from 10 to 235 mg/l and Al-Fatlawey (2007) that found
the TSS value was ranged between 32.5- 848.3 mg/l in Tigris river.
USEPA (2002) divided water in to three types depending on TSS
value as: the concentration less than 20 mg/l as pure water, the water has
values ranged from 20–80 mg/l as low turbidity water, values more than
150 mg/l as turbid water. According to TSS values recorded in the present
study, it can be noted that Tigris river is turbid water.
2500
Station 1
TSS (mg/l)
2000
Station 2
Station 3
1500
Station 4
1000
500
0
Figure 3-14: Monthly variation in Total Suspension Solids in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-12Nitrate (NO3-2):
Study results showed the highest value for NO3 was 70 mg/l in May
in Station 2, while the lowest value was 0.5 mg/l in January in Station
1(Fig. 3-15). The statistical analysis revealed significant differences
at (P<0.05) in NO3 among months but no any significant
differences among stations was observed except in station2 (Table
3-1). The positive correlation between NO3-2 and BOD 5 (r= 0.767)
was observed in present study (Table 3-2).
The results agree with Abed Al-Razzaq (2011) with a range of
between 0.58-49.5 mg/l in Tigris river, the values of NO3 in some months is
higher the permissible limit for both Iraqi and WHO standards, which was
15 mg/l, station2 in May 2013 is higher the Iraqi river standard those
NO3-2 (mg/l)
receiving wastewaters, which was 50 (Table 1-4).
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-15: Monthly variation in Nitrate in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-1-13 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
The present study data showed that the highest value of COD was
710 mg/l in October at station2, while the lowest value was 31 mg/l in
November at station1 (Fig. 3-16).The statistical analysis revealed a
significant differences at (P<0.05) in COD among months and
stations was observed (Table 3-1).
The COD results from station2 were higher than other stations (330710) mg/l because the high discharge sewage, high organic matter in this
site, which coincided with undetectable oxygen throughout several months
during the studied period. These results agree with Shekha (2008) with a
range 31.3 – 901mg/l on Greater Zab river, lower than Sarafraz (2007) with
range 124.4 – 1560 mg/l on Iran hospital waste water, and lower than
Emmanual (2002) with range 604 - 2590 mg/l on France hospital waste
water.The minimum values of COD is within the permissible limit for Iraqi
river standards, but the means and maximum values are higher that (Table
1-4).
COD. (mg/l)
800
700
Station 1
600
Station 2
500
Station 3
400
Station 4
300
200
100
0
Figure 3-16: Monthly variation in Chemical Oxygen Demand in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-2 Heavy Metals (HMs):
3-2-1 Iron (Fe):
The maximum and minimum Iron levels for all samples were 0.9 0.014 mg/l. The maximum values were observed in February at station 2,
while the minimum values were observed in November at station 4 (Fig. 317), Iron increased in winter months, and increase in all study period in
station-2 because the hospitals waste water.
The statistical analysis of the data showed a significant differences
among months at (P˂0.05) but no such significant differences among
stations except station 1 and 5 (Table 3-3). The direct correlation with Ni
(r= 0.760) (Table 3-4). The Fe values within Iraqi and American river
standards except in winter is higher those (Table 1-5).
(Fe) conc. (mg/l)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-17: Iron in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
Table (3-3): Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and
standard deviation (Second Line), for heavy metals studied (Fe,
Cd, Pb, Ni and Zn) at study stations during 2012-2013.
Stations
St.1
St.2
St. 3
St.4
St.5
0.02 – 0.19
0.06 – 0.9
0.06 – 0.5
0.014 – 0.29
0.03–0.09
0.08±0.001
0.29±0.003
0.15±0.002
0.09±0.002
0.075±0.002
b
a
a
a
b
0.001-0.006
0.0035
a
0.01 – 0.1
0.005 – 0.08
0.003 – 0.03
0.003 – 0.006
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.0045
a
a
a
a
0.012–0.15
0.14 – 0.6
0.06 – 0.5
0.01 – 0.2
0.006 – 0.12
0.05
0.27
0.18
0.06
0.044
c
a
b
c
c
0.004–0.13
0.01 – 0.4
0.04 – 0.11
0.02 – 0.09
0.005 – 0.05
0.03
0.14
0.06
0.04
0.033
a
a
a
a
a
Heavy metals
Iron (mg/l)
Cadmium (mg/l)
Lead (mg/l)
Nickel (mg/l)
Zinc(mg/l)
0.004–0.08
0.017–0.22
0.01 – 0.1
0.005–0.08
0.03 – 0.07
0.04
0.09
0.07
0.04
0.047
a
a
a
a
a
*Station that carrying similar character has no any significant difference between them.
**The standard deviation in this table is not affected because it’s five zero after points.
Table (3-4): The correlation among some water parameters and heavy
metals.
Water
Temp.
TSS
TH
NO3
Cl-
Fe
-0.560
Pb
Fe
Pb
Cd
0.476
0.102
-0.160
0.357
-0.619
0.574
0.604
-0.612
0.803
0.286
Cd
0.346
-0.613
-0.070
0.166
-0.539
0.074
-0.490
Ni
-0.393
0.421
-0.071
-0.232
0.356
0.760
0.261
-0.265
Zn
-0.008
0.233
-0.365
0.282
-0.058
0.015
-0.228
0.150
Ni
-0.341
3-2-2 Cadmium (Cd):
The maximum and minimum cadmium levels for all samples were
0.1 - 0.001 mg/l, the maximum values were observed in September in
station-2, while the minimum values were observed in November in station1 (Fig. 3-18), The highest values were represented in the station-2, which
may related to the Medical city hospital discharges. The statistical analysis
of the data showed no significant differences among months and stations at
(P˂0.05) (Table 3-3).
The cadmium concentration was not affected by the seasonal or
climatic changes because the major source of cadmium contamination is the
corrosion of transferring pipes made of cadmium as well as the wastewater
involving cadmium into the river without processing (Machemer and
Wildman, 1992). The Cd values is higher the Iraqi, WHO and American
standards (Table 1-5).
(Cd) conc. (mg/l)
0.12
0.1
Station 1
0.08
Station 2
0.06
Station 3
0.04
Station 4
0.02
0
Figure 3-18: Cadmium in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
3-2-3 Lead (Pb):
The maximum and minimum lead levels for all samples were 0.6 0.01 mg/l. The maximum values were observed in January at station 2,
while the minimum values of Pb were reported in March at station4 (Fig. 319), lead increased in winter months. The statistical analysis of the data
showed significant differences among months at (P˂0.05) and significant
differences among stations except between station 2 and 3 (Table 3-3).
The lead concentrations during winter were higher than spring and
summer. The lead concentration increased due to the Cars exhausts because
the cars fuel contain Tetra ethyl lead and Tetra methyl lead As enhancers
of fuel, then the rains work on washing them to the rivers (Akoto et al.,
2008; Yazdi & Behzad, 2009).
Generally, the values of pb for stations 2 and 3 exceeding the
permissible limit for Iraqi river standards, and in other stations within in
some months (Table, 1-5).
0.7
(pb) conc. mg/l
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Station 1
0.2
Station 2
0.1
Station 3
0
Station 4
Figure 3-19: Lead in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
3-24 Nickel (Ni):
The maximum and minimum nickel levels for all samples were 0.4 0.004 mg/l. The maximum values were reported in December in station 2,
and the minimum values were observed in October in station 1 (Fig. 3-20).
The statistical analysis revealed significant differences at (P<0.05)
in Ni among months but no any significant differences among
stations (Table 3-3).
May be due to the weak capacity of nickel to form stable complexes
in combination with organic material in the water, which may help to
reduce the nickel concentrations in the water (Hart, 1981).
The Ni values are within Iraqi river standard, except station 2 in
December is higher, and in mostly months is higher WHO values (Table 15).
(Ni) conc. (mg/l)
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-20: Nickel in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
3-2-5 Zinc (Zn):
The maximum and maximum zinc levels for all samples were 0.22 0.004 mg/l. The maximum values were reported in April in station 2, while
the minimum values were observed in August in station 1 (Fig. 3-21). The
statistical analysis revealed no significant differences among
months and stations (Table 3-3).
The pollution sources with zinc is not linked to climate, pollution
with zinc come from the disposal of untreated water containing zinc via
throw it in the river or water bodies in general (Martin et al., 2007; Babel
and Dacera, 2006).
The Zn concentration for all selected sites in the Tigris river within
the permissible range of values reported by the Iraqi, WHO and American
Standards river water (Table 1-5). While the maximum concentration of Zn
was above the USEPA (2007) recommended maximum values 0.015 mg/l.
(zn) conc. (mg/l)
0.25
0.2
0.15
Station 1
0.1
Station 2
0.05
Station 3
0
Station 4
Figure 3-21: Zinc in Tigris river monthly variation during 2012/2013
3-3 Microbial properties:
3-3-1 Total bacterial count (T.B.C):
This group represents mostly bacteria entering the water from sewage
and types of bacteria that drift with soil to water during the seasons of rains
and floods (Allocthonous), as well as the original bacteria in water
(Autocthonous) (Al-Fatlawy, 2007). Figure (3-22) shows monthly changes
in T.B.C for the four selected stations, values ranged between 10000
cell/1ml in station 1 during April to 2700000 cell/1ml in station 2 during
March. The statistical analysis revealed significant differences at
(P<0.05) in T.B.C among months and stations. (Table 3-5).
The highest number found in station 2 in all study period, where
hospital sewage discharge, and increase in February and March, then
decrease and retrained increase in July, August and September, these
differences may be associated with patient’s number in hospitals from
months to other.
T.B.C (cell/ml)
3000000
Station 1
2500000
Station 2
2000000
Station 3
1500000
Station 4
1000000
500000
0
Figure 3-22: Total Bacterial Count (T.B.C) monthly variation in Tigris river during
2012/2013
Table (3-5): Minimum and maximum (First Line), mean and standard
deviation (Second Line), for Bacteriological characteristics at study
stations during 2012-2013.
Stations
St.1
St.2
St. 3
St.4
St.5
Total Bacterial
10000– 400000
300000–2700000
100000–2200000
100000–1130000
300000 – 900000
Count
174166.7±48.1
1241667±40.3
908333.3±62.9
452500±29.4
500000±33.7
e
a
b
d
c
Total
200– 2400
680– 3700
400 – 2800
200 – 1700
45–240
Coliform
775±43.9
2155±58.4
897.5±33.8
501.6±23.05
124.25±5.6
cell/100ml
c
a
b
d
e
Faecal
100 – 930
200 –2400
180 – 1100
100 –610
20 – 68
Coliform
285.8±11.5
1145±43.9
381.6±12.4
217.5±9.2
50.25±4.2
cell/100ml
c
a
b
d
e
Total
200 – 2000
610– 2800
200– 2800
200– 2800
61 – 200
Streptococcus
398.3±12.7
1622.5±33.4
972.5±16.1
619.1±9.3
95.75±4.8
d
a
b
c
e
0±0
180 – 920
180 – 400
180 – 200
20 – 40
d
460±17.5
213.3±8.3
190±8.1
26.66±1.9
Parameters
cell/1ml
cell/100
Faeal
Streptococcus
a
cell/100
b
c
d
*Station that carrying similar character have no any significant difference between them.
3-3-2 Total Coliform (TC):
Coliform bacteria had been used historically to assess the
microbial quality of drinking water, also no consider as indicators
of faecal contamination, but their presence indicates that your
water supply may be vulnerable to contamination by more
harmful microorganisms. Some Coliform bacteria may be part of
the natural bacterial flora in water and intestines of human and
warm-blooded animals. Coliforms are also considered useful for
monitoring treatment processes and assessing the disinfection of
new or repaired mains (WHO, 2003).
The figure (3-23) shows monthly changes in TC values which ranged
between 200 cell/100ml in January, May and June in station1, and in
January, March and July in station4 to 3700 cell/100 ml in station2 during
April. The statistical analysis revealed significant differences at
(P<0.05) in TC between months and stations (Table 3-5).
Hot months are associated with increased TC because of temperature,
human and microorganism activities increased (Waite, 1980). The highest
number appears in station 2 in all study period, where hospital sewage
discharges, organic and inorganic nutrient increased.
Result similar to Ibrahim et al., (2013) was 1600 cell/100ml in
Tigris river, but lower than Mayaly (2000) which was 230600 cell/100ml.
This study showed that the minimum TC is allowable but not desirable
concentration, were the maximum TC is higher concentration, not allowable
(Table 1-6).
TC (cell/100ml)
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
station 4
Figure 3-23: Total Coliform monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-3-3 Faecal Coliform (FC):
The FC is associated with this bacteria in gut, because of their largest
number, longer survive in water and easy in detection and considered as
evidence of the presence of intestinal pathogenic bacteria in the water,
although detection of FC is use in all global laboratories for water pollution
detection and suitability for drinking uses but it should be noted that it does
not have to be sourced from the human intestine is also present in the
intestines of warm-blooded animals (Edberg, 2000). FC has been shown to
represent 93% - 99% of Coliform bacteria in faeses from humans, poultry,
cats, dogs and rodents (WRC, 2003). FC is considered as an indicator for
recent microbial pollution (Al-Jebouri, 1981).
The figure (3-24) shows monthly changes in FC, the lowest 100
cell/100 ml was encountered in Station-1 during November 2012 and
February 2013 and the highest 2400 cell/100 ml was recorded in station-2
during May 2013 can be attributed to suitable environmental conditions for
bacteria growth in this season and also returned to hospital and domestic
waste waters and indiscriminate defecation along the river banks by both
humans and other animals that graze along the river banks (Al-Fatlawy,
2007).
The statistical analysis revealed significant differences at
(P<0.05) in F.C between months and between stations too (Table
3-5). Study result above Ibrahim et al., (2013) which was 863 cell/100
ml, this study showed that the means of FC was allowable but not desirable
(Table 1-6).
FC (cell/100ml)
3000
2500
2000
1500
Station 1
1000
Station 2
500
Station 3
0
Station 4
Figure 3-24: Faecal Coliform monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-3-4 Total Streptococci (TS):
The lowest 200 cell/100 ml of TS was measured in station1 during
October, November, December 2012 and from March to September 2013,
and in station-3 during March, April, May, June and September 2013, and
in station-4 during March, April, May, June, October and September, to the
highest 2800 cell/100 ml was observed in January 2013 in stations 2, 3, 4
and in February 2013 in station-2, because humans and animals activity
(Fig. 3-25). The statistical analysis showed a significant differences
among months at (P˂0.05) and significant differences among
stations (Table 3-5).
Tigris river varies considerably concentration because of
self-purification mechanism, good mixing, and larger water
volume. The increase in numbers of TS during winter especially
at station 2 and 3, May be due to the organic matter which enters
in large quantities of station 2 and low water temperature which
act on survival of the bacteria for longer period (Atlas et al.,
1996).This study showed that the means of TS was allowable but not
TS (cell/100ml)
desirable, and the maximum values are not allowable (Table 1-6).
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Figure 3-25: Total Streptococci monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-3-5 Faecal Streptococci (FS):
The Faecal Streptococcus is intestinal bacteria, have been used as
indicators of fecal contamination in water because their presence in the
intestines of humans and animals, as well as its presence in the soil and on
plants and some insects (APHA, 2005). There are several studies
demonstrated that faecal streptococci have been considered to be
useful indicators of faecal contamination of water resources
(Mwakalobo et al., 2013).
Monthly changes were explain in figure (3-26) in FS the lowest is Nil
was observed in station-1 during the all study time, to the highest 920
cell/100 ml measured from station-2 in October. In station-1 there are no
factory, no discharge and no humans or animals activity so it’s Nil, and the
highest in station-2 in January because the hospital discharge and their
bacterial activity. The statistical analysis revealed significant
differences at (P<0.05) in FS between both months and stations
(Table 3-5). The results agree with Al-Rahbi (2002) on Al-Habania &
Al-Tharthar reservoirs was 600 cell/100 ml. This study showed that
the FS was allowable but not desirable except station 1 which is desirable
(Table 1-6).
FS (cell/100ml)
1000
Station 1
800
Station 2
600
Station 3
400
Station 4
200
0
Figure 3-26: Faecal Streptococci monthly variation in Tigris river during 2012/2013
3-3-6 FC: FS Ratio:
Table (3-6) shows the lowest value for this ratio is (0) in Station1 in
all study time, and the highest is (8) in May Station 2. Station 1 is animal
source, there are no factory, no human activities, and station 4 in April and
May is animal source because hospital sewage diluted with river and
reduces after this away. In station 2, 3 is humans source because hospital
sewage, also in station 4 in all study time except April and May.
Table (3-6): FC: FS Ratio.
FC/FS
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Oct.
0
1.5
1.12
1
Nov.
0
1.7
2
1.1
Dec.
0
1
1
1
Jan.
0
1.12
1
1.1
Feb.
0
1.11
1
1
March
0
6.6
6
1.1
April
0
3.5
2
0.5
May
0
8
2
0.5
June
0
2
1
3.3
July
0
4
1
1
August
0
3.5
2.25
1
Sept.
0
2
2
1.1
3-3-7 Diagnosis:
Table (3-7): Bacteria genera and species isolated from four stations selected
by API System.
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
E.Coli
E.Coli,
E.Coli,
E.Coli
Onchrobactriumauthropi Onchrobactriumauthropi Onchrobactriumauthropi Onchrobactriumauthropi
Panteoa
Panteoa
Panteoa
Panteoa
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus cereus
Sarcina maxima
Sarcina maxima
Sarcina maxima
Sarcina maxima
Burkholderiacepia
Staph(Micrococcus spp)
Burkholderiacepia
Burkholderiacepia,
Klebselliaoxytoca
Enterobacteraerogenes
Staph(Micrococcus spp)
Klebsiella pneumonia
Enterobacteraerogenes
Klebsiella pneumonia
Staph.hominis
Pseudomonsaeruginosa
Pseudomonsaeruginosa
Pseudomonsaeruginosa
Klebselliaoxytoca
Salmonella typhi
Enterobacteraerogenes
Klebsiella pneumonia
Pseudomonsaeruginosa
Salmonella typhi
The results of bacterial isolates and diagnosis from the water during
this study agree with Humudat (2009) and Al-Jubouri (2005), who found
that the maintain isolates in water samples are mostly negative to Gram
stain. The maintains of negative gram stains may be due to the possession
of the outer membrane, which works to protect bacteria G-ve from the
external effects (Al-Wa'ili, 2008).
3-4 The fifth station (Al-Wathba water intake):
Al-Wathba water intake located between station-1 (The control) and
station-2 (Medical city hospital discharge), and to be sure from results and
pollution source, take seasonally samples from it.
Results of this station when comparing with station 1 (the control)
shows a significant differences with Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solid, Total
Hardness, Magnesium, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and bacteriology tests
except Fecal Streptococcus at (P<0.05) (Table 3-1, 3-3 and 3-5).
Conclusions:1) The results revealed that the most examined water parameters were more
than Iraqi, and WHO standards for the water river.
2) The waste water of Medical City hospitals in Baghdad affects the
characteristics of Tigris river water.
3) High organic materials in water discharge appear by (COD) parameter,
this is due to the higher use of chemical compounds, solution and
sterilizers.
4) Results showed that the Fe, Ni and Zn within permissible limit, while pb
and Cd exceeding permissible limit for Iraqi and WHO standards for
river system maintains.
5) The values of biological factors are not allowable in river.
6) Al-Wathba water intake station effect on the biological and some
physicochemical characteristic of Tigris river.
Recommendation:1) The authorities should have a monitoring programme to maintain the
Tigris river without pollution.
2) Finding a local treatment unit for liquid waste treatment proposed by the
hospitals and in accordance with the environmental requirements.
3) Examining the solids medical waste, and disposal methods and the
impacts on the surrounding environment.
4) Reformulation of enacting laws - regarding punish violators of factories
and facilities that pose a direct waste - and entering it into effect.
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o WHO/UNECE, (2006). Health Risks of Heavy Metals from
Long-Range Trans Boundary Air Pollution: Incorporating First
Addendum. Recommendations. 3rd eds. World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland 1: 113.
o WHO. (World Health Organization). (2010). Position Papers.
o WHO.(World Health Organization). (2011). Hardness in
drinking-water background document for development of
WHO World Health Organization guidelines for drinkingwater quality. Geneva 27, Switzerland.
o WHO and OECD. (2003). Assessing microbial safety of
drinking water. UK.
o Wiskinson Department of Natural Resources. (2005). Iron
in drinking water Bureau of Drinking Water & Ground Water.
WiskinsonDepartment of Natural Resources, Washington, D.
C. 2.
o WRC. (Water Resources Commission).(2003). Ghana Raw
Water Criteria and Guidelines. Domestic Water, Vol. 1, CSIRWater Research Institute, Ghana.
o Wright, J. (2004) Environmental chemistry. Routledge.
o Wright, R. T. and B. J. Nebel (2002). Environmental science
toward a sustainable future. 8th ed. Pearson Education, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey. P: 439-463.
o (Y)
o Yazdi, M. and N. Behzad, 2009. Heavy metals contamination
and distribution in the parks city of Islam Shahr, SW Tehran,
Iran. Open Environ. Poll. Toxicol. J., 1: 49-53.
Appendix 1: Medical City Hospitals survey
Hospital Name
Year
Beds
no.
Inpatients
daily
Outpat
ients
daily
Opera
tion
daily
Staff
No.
Space
(M²)
Floor
No.
Outpatient
clinic
Emergency
Private
Nursing
Home
Hospital
1982
349
30
8
11
443
5000
7
Available
Not
Available
Baghdad
Teaching
Hospital
1970
1000
75
900
47
2371
83190
11
Available
Available
Specialized
Burn Hospital
2010
47
5-15
10
5-8
238
6500
2
Available
Available
Child
Protection
Teaching
Hospital
1983
200
30
90
6
560
6552
4
Available
Available
Kazy AlHarery
Surgical
Specialties
Hospital
1980
672
50
255
24
1200
6440
16
Available
Available
Gastroenterol
ogy &
Herpetology
center.
1994
85
305
--------
2
230
4000
1
Not
Available
Available
a
b
c
Appendix 2: Fig. a, b and c Represent station-2.
Appendix 3: Fig. represents Al-Wathba water intake station.
Appendix 4: API 20E System
API 20E. is an identification system for the Enterobacteriaceae. This test
applied according to the supplied company (Bio-Merieux) instructions as
following:
Inoculums preparation:
Checking the purity of tested bacteria, isolates with 18-24 hours growth
were transferred to API 20E. Medium, mixed well to prepare a homogenous
bacterial suspension with a turbidity equivalent to 0.5 McFarland standards.
Strip preparation:
An incubation box was prepared by distribution of 5ml distilled water to
wells of tray to create a humid atmosphere. Then the strip was removed
from its packaging and placed in the incubation box.
Strip inoculation:
By using a micropipette, the microtubes were filled with inoculated
medium; the tip of the pipette was placed against the side of the cupule
(upper part) to avoid bubbles formation at the base of the tube. Filling only
the lower part (tube), with the exception of the two tests of arginine
hydrolysis and urease production (ADH, URE) which the lower part filled
with bacterial inoculums and the cupules filled with mineral oil. Then the
incubation box was closed by the lid and incubated at 37ºC for 18- 24
hours.
Reading the strip:
The strip is read after inoculation and incubation at 37oC for 18-24
hrs. By noting color changes after the various indicator or added reagents.
The identification of the unknown bacteria is achieved by determining a
seven digits profile index number and consulting the Api 20E profile index
booklet
(Rump, 1999).
Test
Abbreviations
Results
Negative
Positive
β- galgctosidase
ONPG
Colorless
Yellow
Arginine dehydrolase
ADH
Yellow
Red-orange
Lysine decarboxylase
LDC
Yellow
Orange
Ornithine decarboxylase
ODC
Yellow
Red-orange
Citrate Utilization
CIT
Pale green
Blue-greenish blue
H2S Production
H2S
Colorless
Black precipitate
Urease
URE
Yellow
Red-orange
Tryptophan deaminase
TDA
Yellow
Dark brown
Indol Production
IND
Green ring
Pink ring
Voges Proskauer
VP
Colorless
Pink-red
Gelatinase
GEL
Dye not spread
Black dye spread
Glucos Fermintation
GLU
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Mamnitol Fermintation
MAN
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Inositol Fermintation
INO
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Sorbitol Fermintation
SOR
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Rhamnose Fermintation
RHA
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Sucrose FERMINTATION
SAC
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Melebiose Fermintation
MEL
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Amygdaline Fermintation
AMY
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Arabinose Fermintation
ARA
Blue-greenish blue
Yellow
Appendix 5: API Staph System
API Staph. is an identification system for the genera Staphylococcus and
Micrococcus. This test applied according to the supplied company (BioMerieux) instructions as following:
Inoculums preparation:
After checking the purity of tested bacteria, isolates with 18-24 hours
growth were transferred to API Staph. Medium, mixed well to prepare a
homogenous bacterial suspension with a turbidity equivalent to 0.5
McFarland standards.
Strip preparation:
An incubation box was prepared by distribution of 5ml distilled water to
wells of tray to create a humid atmosphere. Then the strip was removed
from its packaging and placed in the incubation box.
Strip inoculation:
By using a micropipette, the microtubes were filled with inoculated
medium; the tip of the pipette was placed against the side of the cupule
(upper part) to avoid bubbles formation at the base of the tube. Filling only
the lower part (tube), with the exception of the two tests of arginine
hydrolysis and urease production (ADH, URE) which the lower part filled
with bacterial inoculums and the cupules filled with mineral oil. Then the
incubation box was closed by the lid and incubated at 37ºC for 18- 24
hours.
Reading the strip:
After the incubation period, the results were read by referring to the
reading table, with the addition of the following reagents:
- VP test: one drop of each VP1 and VP2.
- NIT test: one drop of each NIT1and NIT2.
- PAL test: one drop of each ZYM A and ZYM B.
The results of these three tests were read after 10 minutes according to
the reading table. The results were read according to the manufacture
company guidance by recording the results (+ or -), then these results
converted to numbers, the strip was divided to seven groups, each group
contained three tests which numbering with (1,2,4), each positive test gave
its own number which was recorded on the results sheet while the negative
test was given (0). Then the summation of these three numbers were
measured and they were limited between (0-7), finally the code number
consisting of seven numbers was obtained and interpreted with the numbers
of an Analytical Profile Index supplied by the manufacture company to
identify the genus and species of the tested bacteria.
Test
Symbol
Negative result
Positive result
Negative control
0
Red
Yellow
Acidification of D-Glucose
GLU
Red
Yellow
Acidification of D-Fructose
FRU
Red
Yellow
Acidification of D-Mannose
MNE
Red
Yellow
Acidification of Maltose
MAL
Red
Yellow
Acidification of Lactose
LAC
Red
Yellow
Acidification of D-Trehalose
TRE
Red
Yellow
Acidification of D-Mannitol
MAN
Red
Yellow
Acidification of Xylitol
XLT
Red
Yellow
Acidification of D-Melibiose
MEL
Red
Yellow
Reduction of nitrate to nitrite
NIT
Colorless-light pink
Red
Alkaline phosphatase
PAL
Yellow
Violet
Acetyl-methyl-carbinol
production
VP
Colorless
Violet-pink
Acidification of Raffinose
RAF
Red
Yellow
Acidification of Xylose
XYL
Red
Yellow
Acidification of Sucrose
SAC
Red
Yellow
Acidification of α-methyl-Dglucoside
MDG
Red
Yellow
Acidification of N-acetylglucosamine
NAG
Red
Yellow
Arginine dihydrolase
ADH
Yellow
Orange-red
Urease
URE
Yellow
Red-violet
Appendix 6: Bacillus Diagnosis
After culture on Nutrient agar, stained by a gram stain and diagnosis by
Microscope.
a
Fig. a: Bacillus cereus on Nutrient agar.
b
Fig. b: Bacillus cereus on Microscope.
cope
‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﺻﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫ُﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﻬﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻜﺘﺮﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﻧﻬﺮ ﺩﺟﻠﺔ ﻭ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻣﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺮ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪ ۲۰۱۲‬ﺍﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺃﻳﻠﻮﻝ ‪ .۲۰۱۳‬ﻳﻘﻊ ﻣﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻐﺪﺍﺩ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻬﺮ ﺩﺟﻠﺔ )ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﻓﺔ( ﺗﻤﺘﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺟﺴﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺟﺴﺮ ﺑﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻈﻢ‪ .‬ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺮﺕ ﺍﺭﺑﻊ ﻣﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻘﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻊ‬
‫ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ ﺏ ‪ ٥۰۰‬ﻣﺘﺮ ﺍﺫ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ‪ ،‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﺼﺮﻳﻒ ﻣﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺮ‪ ،‬ﺗﻘﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ‪ ٥۰۰‬ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻌﺔ ﻓﺘﻘﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫‪ ۲۰۰۰‬ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪.‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺃﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺛﺒﺔﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺏ‪ ۷۰‬ﻣﺘﺮ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺧﺬﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ ﻭﺑﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻴﻦ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺷﻬﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻭﻣﻮﺳﻤﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ‬
‫ﺃﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺛﺒﺔ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻤﻖ )‪ (۲۰ - ۱۰‬ﺳﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ‪ .‬ﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺇﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻴﺰ‬
‫ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺣﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻜﻮﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻱ ﻟﻸﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ‬
‫ﻟﻸﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪﺍﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻐﻨﻴﺴﻴﻮﻡ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺘﺮﻳﺖ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ )ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﺩﻣﻴﻮﻡ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻜﻞ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ(‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﻭﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻏﻠﺐ ﺍﻷﺷﻬﺮ‪ .‬ﻭﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻵﺱ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﻴﻨﻲ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻷﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺍﺑﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ ۳۳ – ۱۲‬ﻭ‪ْ (۳۲-۱۱‬ﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺘﺎﻟﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻜﻮﺭﺓ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۲٥۰ – ۷.٤‬ﻧﻔﺜﺎﻟﻴﻦ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻛﺪﺭﺓ ‪ ،‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪– ٥۳۷‬‬
‫‪ (۱٦۹۰‬ﻣﺎﻳﻜﺮﻭ ﺳﻴﻤﻨﺰ ‪ /‬ﺳﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ . %o(۱,۰٥ – ۰.۳۲‬ﺃﻣﺎﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﺘﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۱۰۸۱ – ۳۳۹‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪.(۲۰۰۸ – ۳۲۰‬‬
‫ﺇﻥ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﻧﻬﺮ ﺩﺟﻠﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻳﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻵﺱ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﻴﻨﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۹,۱ –٦,۰۲‬ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺫﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺗﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺟﻴﺪﺓ ﺇﺫ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﻣﺴﺠﻠﺔ ﺗﻐﺎﻳﺮﺍً ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ ً ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺎ ً ﺇﺫ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۱۱,٥ – ۰,۳‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﺭﺗﻔﻌﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻱ ﻟﻸﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﻭﻗﺪ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﻴﻤﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (٦,٥ – ۰‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪،‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻟﻼﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪- ۳۱‬‬
‫‪ (۷۱۰‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ‪/‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪،‬ﻭﺟﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺮ ﻋﺴﺮﺓ ﺟﺪﺍً ﺇﺫ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪(٦۲٥ – ۱۷۰‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻲ )‪ (۲٦۰ -٦٥‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻐﻨﻴﺴﻴﻮﻡ )‪ (۱۰٤ - ۱۰,۹‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻳﺪ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ) ‪ (۱۹۰ – ۳٥‬ﻣﻠﻐﻢ ‪ /‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ .‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻜﺎﻧﺖ )‪(۷۰–۰,٥‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﻐﻢ‪/‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ .‬ﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﺑﻪ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺍﺻﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻗﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺻﻴﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻷﻧﻬﺎﺭ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﻪ ﻓﺘﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۰,۰۱٤ - ۰,۹‬ﻣﻠﻴﻐﺮﺍﻡ‪/‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺩﻣﻴﻮﻡ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۰,۰۰۱ - ۰,۱‬ﻣﻠﻴﻐﺮﺍﻡ‪/‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ )‪ (۰,۰۱ - ۰,٦‬ﻣﻠﻴﻐﺮﺍﻡ‪/‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۰,۰۰٤ - ۰,٤‬ﻣﻠﻴﻐﺮﺍﻡ‪/‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ (۰,۰۰٤ - ۰,۲۲‬ﻣﻠﻴﻐﺮﺍﻡ‪/‬ﻟﺘﺮ‪ .‬ﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻴﺰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺮ ﺩﺟﻠﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻜﻞ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﺑﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﺩﻣﻴﻮﻡ ﺗﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﺑﻪ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺍﺻﻔﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻗﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺻﻴﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻷﻧﻬﺎﺭ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻓﺘﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻴﺔ )‪- ۱۰۰۰۰‬‬
‫‪ (۲۷۰۰۰۰۰‬ﺧﻠﻴﺔ‪۱/‬ﻣﻞ‪ .‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ ۳۷۰۰ – ۲۰۰‬ﻭ‬
‫‪ (۲٤۰۰-۱۰۰‬ﺧﻠﻴﺔ‪۱۰۰/‬ﻣﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺘﺎﻟﻲ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺑﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻓﺘﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ ۲۸۰۰ – ۲۰۰‬ﻭ ‪ (۹۲۰-۰‬ﺧﻠﻴﺔ‪۱۰۰/‬ﻣﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ‪ .‬ﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻣﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺮﻏﻮﺏ ﺑﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﺑﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺃﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺛﺒﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺘﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻻﻭﻟﻰ )ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ(‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻓﺮﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻜﻮﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻨﻴﺴﻴﻮﻡ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ‬
‫ﻟﻸﻭﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺤﻮﺻﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻜﺘﺮﻳﻠﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﻣﺎﻋﺪﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ‬
‫ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺑﻐﺪﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ‬
‫ﺗـﻘـﻴﻴﻢ ﺗـﺄﺛﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻀـﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺑﻐﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻧـﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﻧﻬﺮ ﺩﺟـﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺭﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻘﺩﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺟﻠﺱ ﻛﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ – ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺑﻐﺩﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻭﻫﻲ ﺟﺯء ﻣﻥ ﻣﺗﻁﻠﺑﺎﺕ ﻧﻳﻝ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺎﺟﺳﺗﻳﺭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﻳﺎﺓ ‪ -‬ﻋﻠﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺋﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻘﺩﻣﺕ ﺑﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺭﻗﺎء ﻧﻮﻓﻞ ﻣﻌﻠﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻛﺎﻟﻭﺭﻳﻭﺱ ﻋﻠﻭﻡ ﺣﻳﺎﺓ ‪ -‬ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺑﻐﺩﺍﺩ – ‪۲۰۱۱‬‬
‫ﺑﺈﺷﺭﺍﻑ‬
‫ﺃ‪.‬ﺩ‪.‬ﻣﺣﻣﺩ ﻧﺎﻓﻊ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺯﺍﻭﻱ‬
‫‪۲۰۱۳‬‬
‫‪۱٤۳٥‬‬