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D O E S A N T I -P A P A R A Z Z I M E A N A N T I -P R E S S ?:
F IRS T A M E N D M E N T IMP L I C A T I O NS O F
P R I V A C Y L E G IS L A T I O N F O R T H E
N E WS R O O M
C h r ist in a M . L ock e A r m ed w ith ca m er a s an d a gen er a l d isr ega rd for t r a ffic
l aw s, p apa r a zzi st a lk th e st reets in h opes of get t in g th e ³m on ey
sh ot ´ of th e celebr i ty d u jou r. In 2010, a C a l i forn i a l aw took
effect w ith th e a i m of cr a ck in g d ow n on cel ebr ity
ph otogr a ph ers. T h e l a t est an t i -p apa r azz i m ea su r e ext en d s
l i abi l ity beyon d th e ph otogr aph er to in clu d e th e fi rst pu bl ish er
of a ph oto th a t w a s t a k en in viol a t ion of C a l i forn i a ¶s p r iva cy
l aw . P apa r a zzi ph otos h ave crea t ed a m u lt i -m i l l ion d ol l a r
in d u st ry w ith bu yers r a n gin g from su per m a rk et -st an d
t abloid s to m a jor n ew spapers an d t el evision n etw ork s. T h e
S u prem e C ou rt h as a lon g h istory of ext rem e rel u ct an ce to
prev en t th e p ress f rom pu bl ish in g in for m a t ion i l lega l ly
obt a in ed by a th i rd pa rty d u e to F i rst A m en d m en t con cern s,
an d th e n ew l aw is squ a rely a t od d s w i th cu r r en t f ree speech
ju r isp ru d en ce. A n oth er d istu rbin g p rovision of th e n ew l aw
a l low s govern m en t a t torn eys to in it i a t e civ i l l aw su its in ord er
to col l ect pen a lt ies from ph otogr a ph ers or m ed i a ou t lets w h o
viol a t e th e pr iva cy l aw .
T h is A rt i cle exa m in es th e
con st i tu t ion a l vi abi l ity of th e n ew l aw an d th e problem s it
cou ld pose to n ew sroom s in C a l iforn i a an d a cross th e n a t ion .
I NTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 228 I. W E DDINGS , W ALE S AND W ALL -C LIMBIN G S NAP P E RS : T H E
E VOLUTION OF P RIVACY L AW .......................................... 234 II. S H IE LDING C E LE BRITIE S F ROM AGGRE SSIVE
P H OTOGRAP H E RS : L OOKING TH ROUGH A F IRST
J oseph L. a n d Ma r ion B. Br ech n er Resea r ch F ellow, Un iver sit y of F lor ida . Mem ber ,
St a t e Ba r of Geor gia . Th e a u t h or t h a n ks Br ech n er E m in en t Sch ola r a n d P r ofessor Cla y
Ca lver t a n d gr a du a t e st u den t s Wen dy Allen -Br u n n er , Ka yla Gu t ier r ez, Ka r la D.
Ken n edy, a n d Ka r a Ca r n ley Mu r r h ee for t h eir feedba ck du r in g t h e ea r ly st a ges of t h is
a r t icle.
227
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AME NDME NT L E NS .......................................................... 239 A. Civil P ena lt ies for F ir st P u blish er s ......................... 239 B. Gover n m en t -fu n ded Civil Legisla t ion ..................... 243 III. I S ANTI -P AP ARAZZI ANTI -P RE SS ? T H E C H ILLING E F F E CT
OF C ALIF ORNIA¶S L ATE ST P RIVACY L AW .......................... 244 I NTRODUCTION
Th ey a r e r u t h less, cu n n in g a n d willin g t o st op a t n ot h in g
t o get wh a t t h ey wa n t , even if it m ea n s ch a sin g a n
a m bu la n ce. 1 No, t h ey a r e n ot t r ia l la wyer s. Th ey a r e t h e n ew
gen er a t ion of pa pa r a zzi. 2 Ar m ed wit h ca m er a s a n d a gen er a l
disr ega r d for t r a ffic la ws, t h ey st a lk t h e st r eet s in h opes of
get t in g t h e ³m on ey sh ot ´ of t h e celebr it y du jou r . 3 F or
exa m ple, Br it n ey Spea r s r equ ir ed t welve police officer s t o
escor t h er a m bu la n ce t o a psych ia t r ic h osp it a l t h r ou gh a
swa r m of pa pa r a zzi. 4 Th e in ciden t pr om pt ed Los An geles Cit y
Cou n cilm a n Den n is Zin e t o ca ll for a ³per son a l sa fet y zon e´
or din a n ce for celebr it ies in 2008. 5 ³I don ¶t wa n t a r epea t of
wh a t h a ppen ed t o P r in cess Dia n a wit h a celebr it y in Los
An geles,´ Zin e r em a rked. 6
Th e cit y of Los An geles for m ed a t a sk for ce t o a ddr ess t h e
pa pa r a zzi pr oblem , wh ich cr it ics a r gu e t h r ea t en s pu blic
1. An dr ew Bla n kst ein & Rich a r d Win t on , Z in e seek s to sh i eld st a rs; R ea ct in g to
th e n eed for a pol ice escor t for B r i tn ey S pea rs, WK H FRX Q FLOP DQ Z DQ WV D³SHUVRQ DO VDIHW\
]RQ H´ L.A. T IMES ) HE D W % FRYHU LQ J %U LW Q H\ 6SHD U V¶ W U LS W R 8&/$
Medica l Cen t er in a n a m bu la n ce, escor t ed by a dozen police officer s a n d sur r ou n ded by
ph ot ogr a ph er s).
2. Mer r ia m -:HEVW HU ¶V RQ OLQ H GLFW LRQ D U \ GHILQ HV D ³SD SD U D ]]R´ D V ³D IU HHOD Q FH
ph ot ogr a ph er wh o a ggr essively pu r su es celebr it ies for t h e pu r pose of t a kin g ca n did
SK RW RJU D SK V´ P apa r azzo, in M IRRIAM -W E BSTE R O NLINE (2010), h t t p://www.m er r ia m webst er .com /dict ion a r y/pa pa r a zzi. Th e t er m t r a ces it s r oot s t o t h e 1959 F eder ico
F ellin i film L a D ol ce V i t a , feat u r in g a ph ot ogr a ph er of t h is sor t wh ose la st n a m e wa s
P a pa r a zzo. Id .
3 . S ee, e.g., Dion n e Sea r cey, A N ew C a li forn ia L aw P l a ces P apa r azzi U n d er th e
S pot l igh t , W ALL S T . J 2FW D W $ GLVFX VVLQ J W K H ³D JJU HVVLYH W D FW LFV´ RI
pa pa r a zzi a n d pr esen t in g views of oppon en t s a n d pr opon en t s of t h e n ew la w).
4. S ee Bla n kst ein & Win t on , su pr a n ot e 1.
5 . Id .
6 . S ee id . Dia n a , P r in cess of Wa les, wa s bein g pu r su ed by pa pa r a zzi wh en h er
GU LYHU FU D VK HG LQ D W X Q Q HO 3 U LQ FHVV 'LD Q D ¶V GHD W K ZD V OD W HU D W W U LEX W HG W RW K H GU LYHU ¶V
in t oxica t ion , bu t n ot u n t il a ft er t h e ph ot ogr a ph er s fa ced cr im in a l ch a r ges. H er dea t h
spu r r ed a n t i-pa pa r a zzi la ws in E u r ope a n d Ca lifor n ia . S ee , e.g., J oh n -Th or Da h lbu r g,
C h a rges D ropped A ga in st P apa r azzi I m pli ca t ed in P rin cess D i an a C rash , L.A. T IME S ,
Sept . 4, 1999, a t 6A.
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sa fet y, ca u ses u n du e econ om ic h a r dsh ip t o la w en for cem en t
a gen cies a n d t h r ea t en s per son a l pr iva cy. 7 Th e t a sk for ce
pr oposed n ew la ws t o cu r b pa pa r a zzi excess, bu t Los An geles
P olice Depa r t m en t Ch ief Willia m J . Br a t t on er r ed on t h e side
of celebr it y a ccou n t a bilit y, quippin g t ha t ³sin ce Br it n ey
[Spea r s] st a r t ed wea r in g clot h es a n d beh a vin g; P a r is [H ilt on ]
is ou t of t own n ot bot h er in g a n ybody, t h a n k God; a n d,
eviden t ly, Lin dsa y Loh a n h a s gon e ga y, we don ¶t seem t o h a ve
m u ch of a n issu e.´8
Despit e Br a t t on ¶s dism issa l of n ew la ws a s a n a n swer t o
t h e pa pa r a zzi pr oblem , t h e Ca lifor n ia Legisla t u r e deem ed t h is
a ppr oa ch a wor t h y solu t ion , pa ssin g a la w in 2009 sim ply
t it led ³P r iva cy.´9 Th e n ew la w, sign ed by Gover n or Ar n old
Sch wa r zen egger in Oct ober 2009,10 is t h e t h ir d of t h r ee la w
pa ssed by Ca lifor n ia la wm a ker s t o cla m p down on a ggr essive
celebr it y ph ot ogr a ph er s. 11 Ca lifor n ia h a d a lr ea dy est a blish ed
st a t u t or y 12 a n d con st it u t ion a l r igh t s 13 t o pr iva cy (in a ddit ion
7 . S ee Bla n kst ein & Win t on , su pr a n ot e 1. Bu t Cou n cilm a n Zin e ba lked a t t h e
est im a t ed $25,000 it cost t h e cit y t o escor t Spea r s t o t h e h ospit a l. Id . ³:HK D GW RK D YH
12 officer s escor t [Spea r s] t o t h e h ospit a l t h a t if n ot for pa pa r a zzi wou ld h a ve been u sed
W RSU HYHQ W FU LP HVRP HZK HU HHOVH´=LQ HVD LG Id .
8. J en n ifer St ein h a u er , L os A n gel es Proposes R est ra in ts on P apa r azzi , N.Y.
T IME S , Au g. 1, 2008, a t 12A.
9. Assem . B. 524, 2009-10 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2009) (en a ct ed).
10 . S ee S ch w a rzen egger sign s tough er an t i -papa r azzi l aw , ASSOC . P RE SS , Oct . 14,
2009. Dem ocr a t Ka r en Ba ss, Spea ker E m er it u s of t h e Assem bly, spon sor ed t h e bill.
2009
Legisla t ion
±
Spea ker
E m er it u s
Ka r en
Ba ss,
h t t p://www.a sm dc.or g/m em ber s/a 47/issu es/it em list /ca t egor y/213-2009-legisla t ion (la st
YLVLW HG $SU %D VV¶ :HE VLW H GHVFU LEHV $% ³7R FX U W D LO W K H SRW HQ W LD OO\
h a r m fu l sit u a t ion s a n d ot h er pr oblem s cr ea t ed by ou t of con t r ol pa pa r a zzi, AB 524
H[W HQ GV W K H µLQ YD VLRQ RI SU LYD F\¶ OD ZV W R per son s t h a t pu r ch a se, pu blish , a n d pr in t
im a ges or r ecor din gs of in dividu a ls, if t h ese per son s k n ew t h a t t h e im a ges or r ecor din gs
ZHU H REW D LQ HG LOOHJD OO\´ Id . Neit h er Ba ss n or Sch wa r zen egger issu ed a pr ess r elea se
u pon pa ssa ge or sign in g of t h e bill. 7K H ELOO ZD V OLVW HG OD VW RQ %D VV¶ OLVW RI SROLF\
pr ior it ies.
2009 Assem bly Spea ker P olicy P r ior it ies, Ma y 2009 e -Newslet t er ,
h t t p://dem ocr at s.a ssem bly.ca .gov/spea ker /News_Room /E Newslet t er s/Ma y2009/policy_pr ior it ies.a spx (la st visit ed F eb. 25, 2010).
11. In 1998, Ca lifor n ia la wm a ker s a dopt ed Civil Code sect ion 1708.8, wh ich
pr ovides for da m a ges wh en ph ysica l or con st r u ct ive in va sion of pr iva cy occur s. C AL .
C IV. C ODE § 1708.8 (Deer in g 1998). In 2005, t h e st a t u t e wa s a m en ded by A.B. 381
(2005). Th e 2009 a m en dm en t , A.B. 524, ext en ds pen a lt ies t o pu blish er s of im a ges
obt a in ed in con t r a ven t ion of t h e st a t u t e. S ee a lso La r ysa P yk, L egisla t ive U pd a te:
Pu t t in g th e B r a k es on P apa r azzi : S t a te an d F ed er a l L egisla tors Propose Pr iva cy
P rot ect ion B i l ls, 9 D E P AUL -LCA J . ART & E NT . L. & P OL ¶Y 187, 197-202 (1998)
(discu ssin g m ea su r es a t st a t e a n d feder a l levels t o com ba t pa pa r a zzi t a ct ics).
12. C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8.
13 . S ee C AL . C ONST D U W , † &D OLIRU Q LD ¶V &RQ VW LW X W LRQ VW D W HV LQ U HOHYD Q W L OCKE _F ORMATTE D
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t o r ecogn it ion of com m on la w 14 pr iva cy). Th e 2009 m ea su r e,
Ca lifor n ia Assem bly Bill 524, 15 a m en ded Sect ion 1708.8 of t h e
Ca lifor n ia Civil Code 16 t o a llow for fin es u p t o $50,000 t o be
levied on pu bl ish ers of ph ot ogr a ph ic con t en t t a ken in
con t r a ven t ion of t h e pr iva cy st a t u t e. 17
It a lso a llows
m u n icipa l a t t or n eys t o file civil a ct ion s on beh a lf of a ggr ieved
celebr it ies.18
F ou r yea r s pr eviou sly, in 2005, Gover n or
Sch wa r zen egger sign ed a n a m en dm en t t o t h e sa m e la w
t ou gh en in g pen a lt ies for ph ot ogr a ph er s a n d pr oh ibit in g
pr ofit s fr om ph ot os t a ken du r in g a lt er ca t ion s wit h
celebr it ies.19 Th e t wo Sch wa r zen egger -ba cked a m en dm en t s
pa r t :
All people a r e by n a t u r e fr ee a n d in depen den t a n d h a ve in a lien a ble r igh t s.
Am on g t h ese a r e en joyin g a n d defen din g life a n d liber t y, a cqu ir in g,
possessin g, a n d pr ot ect in g pr oper t y, a n d pur su in g a n d obt a in in g sa fet y,
h a ppin ess, a n d pr iva cy.
Id . Ca lifor n ia is on e of on ly t en st a t es (Ala ska , Ar izon a , Ca lifor n ia , F lor ida , H a wa ii,
Illin ois, Lou isia n a , Mon t a n a , Sou t h Ca r olin a a n d Wa sh in gt on ) t o expr essly r ecogn ize a
r igh t t o pr iva cy in it s con st it u t ion . Na t ion a l Con fer en ce of St a t e Legisla t u r es, P r iva cy
P r ot ect ion s in St a t e Con st it u t ion s, h t t p://www.n csl.or g/defau lt .a spx?t a bid=13467 (la st
visit ed F eb. 25, 2010).
14. Th er e is n o expr ess r igh t of pr iva cy in t h e U.S. Con st it u t ion . Th e ca u se of
a ct ion or igin a t ed in a n 1890 H a rva rd L aw R eview a r t icle by t h en -la w pa r t n er s Sa m u el
Wa r r en a n d Lou is Br a n deis. S ee Sa m u el Wa r r en & Lou is Br a n deis, T h e R igh t to
P r iva cy , 4 H ARV. L. R E V. 193 (1890). In 1960, Un iver sit y of Ca lifor n ia La w Sch ool
(Ber keley) Dea n Willia m L. P r osser a r t icu la t ed fou r t ypes of in va sion of pr iva cy:
in t r u sion ; pu blic disclosu r e of pr iva t e fa ct s; fa lse ligh t in t h e pu blic eye; a n d
a ppr opr ia t ion . Willia m L. P r osser , P riva cy , 48 C AL . L. R E V. 383, 389 (1960). Th ese fou r
t or t s wer e a dopt ed by t h e R est a t em en t (S econ d ) of T or ts , t o wh ich P r osser con t r ibu t ed.
R E STATE ME NT (S E CON D ) OF T ORTS § 652A-E (1977).
15. Assem . B. 524, 2009-10 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2009) (en a ct ed).
16. C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8.
17. Ca l. Assem . B. 524.
18. Th e n ew la w per m it s m u n icipa l a t t or n eys t o br in g civil a ct ion s t o en for ce t h e
pen a lt ies in t h e st a t u t e, wit h t h e pr oceeds t o be dist r ibu t ed equ a lly a m on g t h e
pr osecu t in g a gen cy a n d a n Ar t s a n d E n t er t a in m en t F u n d. Ca l. Assem . B. 524. An
ea r lier ver sion of t h e bill ca lled for a t h r ee-wa y split of t h e pr oceeds t o t h e a ggr ieved
per son (i.e., t h e celebr it y), t he pr osecu t in g a gen cy, a n d a r t s fu n din g. Th e en a ct ed
pr ovision st a t es:
(m ) (1) A pr oceedin g t o r ecover t h e civil fin es specified in su bdivision (d) or (e)
m a y be br ou gh t in a n y cou r t of com pet en t ju r isdict ion by a cou n t y cou n sel or
cit y a t t or n ey.
(2) F in es collect ed pu r su a n t t o t h is su bdivision sh a ll be a lloca t ed, a s follows:
(A) On e-h a lf sh a ll be a lloca t ed t o t h e pr osecu t in g a gen cy.
(B) On e-h a lf sh a ll be deposit ed in t h e Ar t s a n d E n t er t a in m en t F u n d, wh ich is
h er eby cr ea t ed in t h e St a t e Tr ea su r y.
Id .
19 . S ee a lso S ch w a rzen egger S igns L aw A i m ed a t P apa r azzi W a l lets , N.Y. T IME S ,
Oct . 2, 2005, a t 23 [h er ein a ft er S ch w a rzen egger ] ³7K H OD Z FRP HV D V W K H /RV $Q JHles
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u pda t ed
Ca lifor n ia ¶s
or igin a l
a n t i-pa pa r a zzi st a t u t e,
est a blish ed in 1998. 20
Th e 1998 la w wa s pa ssed in t h e wa ke of t h e dea t h of
P r in cess Dia n a in a P a r is ca r cr a sh wh ile ph ot ogr a ph er s
ch a sed h er ca r . 21 H er dea t h spa r ked lega l r efor m in E u r ope 22
a n d t h e Un it ed St a t es Con gr ess a lso con sider ed, bu t did n ot
en a ct , n ew la ws t o com ba t t h e da n ger s a ssocia t ed wit h
pa pa r a zzi. 23 Wh ile h er pa ssin g is oft en poin t ed t o a s a lesson
a u t h or it ies a r e t r yin g t o r est r a in a ggr essive ph ot ogr a ph er s a ft er a lt er ca t ion s in volvin g
t h e a ct r esses Reese Wit h er spoon , Lin dsa y Loh a n a n d Sca r let t J oh a n sson , a m on g
RW K HU V´ Id .
20. Assem . B. 381, 2005-06 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2005) (en a ct ed). S ee a lso Mich a el
Ma r t in ez, 7 DN LQ JVK RWVDWVWDON HUD]]L% UD]HQ SK RWRJVLQ &DOLIRUQ LD¶VVLJK WV C H I . T RIB .,
1RY D W GHVFU LELQ J W K H OD Z D V ³H[SD Q G>LQ J@ W K H VW D W H¶V LQ YD VLRQ -of-pr iva cy
t or t s t o in clu de ph ot ogr a ph er s wh o com m it a ssa u lt or t h r ea t en bodily h a r m in t a kin g a
pict u r e. It will give celebr it ies a n d ot h er s a specific civil code t o be bet t er a ble t o su e
SK RW RJU D SK HU VIRU W K HLU SU RILW VRQ W K HSK RW RSOX VW U LSOHGD P D JHV´
21 . S ee, e.g., Da h lbu r g, su pr a n ot e 6. Dia n a , P r in cess of Wa les, h a d ju st left t he
Rit z H ot el on Au gu st 31, 1997 wit h h er boyfr ien d, a bodygu a r d a n d a dr iver wh en t h e
Mer cedes-Ben z t h ey wer e r idin g in cr a sh ed in t o t h e pilla r of a t u n n el. Id . A F r en ch
ju dge la t er r u led t h a t t h e pa par a zzi pu r su in g t h e ca r wer e n ot r espon sible for t h e dea t h
of P r in cess Dia n a , Dodi F a yed a n d dr iver H en r i P a u l. Id . In st ea d, t h e ju dge fou n d t h a t
P a u l, wh o wa s lega lly dr u n k a n d t a kin g a n t i-depr essa n t s, wa s a t fa u lt . Id . Accor din g
t o t h e L .A . T i m es:
Widespr ea d fur y r ose qu ickly a t t h e idea t h a t t h e pa par a zzi m igh t h a ve
h ou n ded t h e popu la r a n d bea u t ifu l pr in cess t o h er dea t h, coolly sn a ppin g
ph ot os a s life ebbed fr om h er . Nin e ph ot ogr a ph er s a n d a pr ess m ot or cyclist
wer e det a in ed by police on su spicion of m a n sla u gh t er a n d fa ilin g t o com e t o
t h e a id of Dia n a a n d t h e ot h er pa ssen ger s.
Id .
22. ,Q U HVSRQ VHW R3 U LQ FHVV'LD Q D ¶VGHD W K W K H( X U RSHD Q &RQ YHQ W LRQ U D W LILHG$U W LFOH
8, br oa dly defin in g in dividu a l pr iva cy r igh t s. Con ven t ion for t h e P r ot ect ion of H u m a n
Righ t s a n d F u n da m en t a l F r eedom s a s a m en ded by P r ot ocol No. 11 wit h P r ot ocol Nos.
1, 4, 6, 7, 12 a n d 13, Nov. 1, 1998, 213 U.N.T.S. 222, ava il able a t
h t t p://www.ech r .coe.in t /n r /r don lyr es/d 5cc24a 7-dc13-4318-b4575c9014916d7a /0/en glish a n gla is.pdf.
S ee a lso P a t r ick J . Ala ch , Not e & Com m en t ,
P apa razzi an d Pr iva cy, 28 L OY. L.A. E NT . L. R E V. 205, 219-20 (2008) (a sser t in g t h a t
³>X @Q OLNH $P HU LFD Q OD Z ZK LFK VX ERU GLQ D W HV SU LYD F\ U LJK W V W R W K H ) LU V t Am en dm en t ,
( X U RSHD Q OD Z VW D W HV SU LYD F\ U LJK W V D Q G IU HHGRP RI H[SU HVVLRQ µD U H RI HTX D O YD OX H¶´
Th e E u r opea n Cou r t of H u m a n Righ t s in V on H an n over v. G er m an y fou n d t h a t t h e
pr iva cy r igh t s of P r in cess Ca r olin e of Mon a co wer e viola t ed wh en ph ot os wer e t a ken of
h er en ga gin g in va r iou s r ecr ea t ion a l a ct ivit ies. Von H a n n over v. Ger m a n y, 2004 -VI
E u r . Ct . H .R. 41, 61. A con cu r r in g ju dge in V on H an n over st a t ed t h a t Am er ica n cou r t s
K D YH³P D GHD IHW LVK RIW K HIU HHGRP RIW K HSU HVV´ Id . a t 78.
23. S ee P r ot ect ion F r om P er son a l In t r u sion Act , H .R. 2448, 105t h Con g. (1997);
P r iva cy P r ot ect ion Act of 1998, H .R. 3224, 105t h Con g. (1998); P er son a l P r iva cy
P r ot ect ion Act , H .R. 4425, 105t h Con g. (1998); P er son a l P r iva cy P r ot ect ion Act , S. 2103,
105t h Con g. (1998). S ee a lso P yk, su pr a n ot e 11; Ra n da ll Boese, R ed ef in in g P r iva cy?
A n t i-P apa r azzi L egisl a t ion and F r eed om of th e P ress, .C OMMC ¶NS L AW . (Su m m er 1999).
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of t h e da n ger s of pa pa r a zzi, 24 it m a y be bet t er ch a r a ct er ized
a s a lesson of t h e da nger s of dr u n k dr ivin g. P r in cess Dia n a ¶s
ch a u ffeu r , wh o a lso died in t h e cr a sh , wa s lega lly in t oxica t ed
a n d t a kin g con t r a in dica t ed a n t idepr essa n t s a t t h e t im e of t h e
a cciden t . 25
Rega r dless of wh er e t h e bla m e lies in t h e P r in cess Dia n a
in ciden t , su bsequ en t r u n -in s bet ween pa pa r a zzi a nd
celebr it ies con t in u e t o fu el ca lls for lega l r efor m . 26 P r ior t o h is
elect ion a s gover n or , Sch wa r zen egger , h is pr egn a n t wife a n d
you n g son wer e su r r ou n ded by ph ot ogr a ph er s in t h eir ca r . 27
Sch wa r zen egger , wh o wa s r ecover in g fr om h ea r t su r ger y a t
t h e t im e, pr essed ch a r ges, a n d t wo ph ot ogr a ph er s wer e
con vict ed of fa lse im pr ison m en t a n d fa ced possible ja il t im e. 28
In a ddit ion t o Br it n ey Spea r s¶ a m bu la n ce deba cle, a ct r esses
Lin dsa y Loha n , Sca rlet t J oha n ssen a n d Reese Wit h er spoon
a r e a lso post er ch ildr en of sor t s for t h e da n ger s of pa pa r a zzi
excess, wit h Loh a n a n d J oh a n ssen in volved in pa pa r a zzir ela t ed ca r cr a sh es a n d Wit h er spoon cla sh in g wit h
ph ot ogr a ph er s a t Disn eyla n d. 29
Alt h ou gh Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ew la w a im s t o keep t h e pu blic sa fe
a n d pr ot ect in dividu a l pr iva cy, t h er e is a n ot h er in t er est a t
st a ke: t h e F ir st Am en dm en t gu a r a n t ees of fr ee speech a n d
24 . S ee, e.g., P r iva cy: H ea rin g on A .B . 524 B efor e th e S . C om m . on th e J u d i ci a ry,
2009 Leg., 2009-10 Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2009) [h er ein a ft er P r iva cy ] (st a t em en t of Sen . E llen
M. Cor bet t , Ch a ir , S. J u dicia r y Com m .), ava il abl e a t h t t p://in fo.sen .ca .gov/pu b/0910/bill/a sm /a b_0501-0550/a b_524_cfa _20090713_124145_sen _com m .h t m l. ³,Q LQ r espon se t o t h e t r a gic dea t h of P r in cess Dia n a , Ca lifor n ia beca m e t h e fir st st a t e in t h e
n a t ion t o pa ss legisla t ion t o a t t em pt t o r ein in over zea lou s a n d a ggr essive
ph ot ogr a ph er s a n GU HSRU W HU VNQ RZQ D VµSD SD U D ]]L¶´ Id .
25 . S ee Da h lbu r g, su pr a n ot e 6.
26 . S ee a lso An dr ew Bla n kst ein , K an ye W est f a ces m isd em ean or ch a rges in L A X
scu ff le w i th papa r azzi , L.A. T IME S , Ma r . 19, 2009, a t A5 (ch r on iclin g r a pper Ka n ye
:HVW ¶V D U U HVW D IW HU D Q D LU SRU W a lt er ca t ion wit h pa pa r a zzi); An dr ew Bla n kst ein , R i ch ie
gets a rest r a in in g ord er aga in st 2 papa r azzi , L.A. T IME S , Oct . 31, 2009, a t A9 (r epor t in g
RQ W K HJU D Q W RIU HVW U D LQ LQ JRU GHU VD JD LQ VW W ZRSK RW RJU D SK HU V³D FFX VHGRIVW D ONLQ J1LFROH
Rich ie a n d h er ch ildr eQ ´IROORZLQ JD Q 2FW FD U FU D VK 27 . S ee S n ap d ecision : T w o ph otogr aph ers f a ce ja il t er m s for pl ayin g ca t -an d -m ou se
w i th th e S ch w a rzen eggers, P EOP LE , F eb. 16, 1998, a t 181. Sch wa r zen egger , st a r of
m ovies su ch a s T er m in a tor a n d T ru e L ies , m a in t a in ed h is on scr een , t ou gh -gu y per son a
in cou r t , t est ifyin g t h a t , LI K H K D G Q RW EHHQ X Q GHU GRFW RU ¶V RU GHU V W R VW D \ FD OP ³[m ]y
r ea ct ion wou ld h a ve been qu it e differ en t wit h ou t t h e su r ger y, a n d n eit h er of t h ese t wo
gen t lem en wou ld be sit t in g h er e t oda y.´ Id .
28 . S ee id .
29 . S ee, e.g., Ma r t in ez, su pr a n ot e 20 /RK D Q ¶V FD U FU D VK ZD V U HSRU W HGO\ W K H
im pet u s for t h e 2005 legisla t ive a m en dm en t . Id .
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fr ee pr ess. 30 Th e Su pr em e Cou r t r u led in B a r tn ick i v.
V opper 31 t h a t , if in for m a t ion is illega lly obt a in ed by a t h ir d
pa r t y bu t la wfu lly obt a in ed by t h e pr ess, it ca n be pu blish ed. 32
Seem in g in con flict wit h t h is h oldin g, t h e n ew la w pla ces
t ou gh fin a n cia l pen a lt ies on t h e pr ess for pu blish in g
in for m a t ion it la wfu lly obt a in s. 33
Th u s, it seem s t h a t
Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ew st a t u t e fa ces h u ge con st it u t ion a l h u r dles
pr ior t o a n y effect ive en for cem en t . 34 In a ddit ion , exist in g
t r a ffic la ws a n d t h ose a ga in st st a lkin g, t respa ssin g a n d t h e
like pr ovide sa fegu a rds a ga in st pa pa r a zzi m isbeh a vior . 35 As
30. Th e F ir st Am en dm en t t o t h e Un it ed St a t es Con st it u t ion pr ovides, in per t in en t
SD U W W K D W ³&RQ JU HVV VK D OO P D NH Q R OD Z D EU LGJLQ J W K H IU HHGRP RI VSHHFK RU RI W K H
SU HVV>@´ 86 C ONST . a m en d. I. Th e F r ee Speech a n d F r ee P r ess Cla u ses wer e
in cor por a t ed t h r ou gh t h e F ou r t een t h Am en dm en t Du e P r ocess Cla u se t o a pply t o st a t e
a n d loca l gover n m en t en t it ies a n d officia ls. S ee Git low v. New Yor k, 268 U.S. 652, 666
(1925).
31. Ba r t n icki v. Vopper , 532 U.S. 514 (2001). Th e B a r tn ick i Cou r t st a t ed:
Th e su it a t h a n d in volves t h e r epea t ed in t en t ion a l disclosu r e of a n illega lly
in t er cept ed cellu la r t eleph on e con ver sa t ion a bou t a pu blic issu e. Th e per son s
wh o m a de t h e disclosu r es did n ot pa r t icipa t e in t h e in t er cept ion , bu t t h ey did
kn ow--or a t lea st h a d r ea son t o kn ow -- t h a t t h e in t er cept ion wa s u n la wfu l.
Accor din gly, t h ese ca ses pr esen t a con flict bet ween in t er est s of t h e h igh est
or der --on t h e on e h a n d, t h e in t er est in t h e fu ll a n d fr ee dissem in a t ion of
in for m a t ion con cer n in g pu blic issu es, a n d, on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e in t er est in
in dividu a l pr iva cy a n d, m or e specifica lly, in fost er in g pr iva t e speech . Th e
F r a m er s of t h e F ir st Am en dm en t su r ely did n ot for esee t h e a dva n ces in
scien ce t h a t pr odu ced t h e con ver sa t ion , t h e in t er cept ion , or t h e con flict t h a t
ga ve r ise t o t h is a ct ion . It is t h er efor e n ot su r pr isin g t h a t Cir cu it ju dges, a s
well a s t h e Mem ber s of t h is Cou r t , h a ve com e t o differ in g con clu sion s a bou t
W K H ) LU VW $P HQ GP HQ W ¶V D SSOLFD W LRQ W R W K LV LVVX H 1HYHU W K HOHVV K D YLQ J
con sider ed t h e in t er est s a t st ake, we a r e fir m ly con vin ced t h a t t h e disclosu r es
m a de by r espon den t s in t h is su it a r e pr ot ect ed by t h e F ir st Am en dm en t .
Id . a t 517-18. S ee a lso 6P LW K Y'D LO\0D LO3 X EO¶J&R86K ROGLQ J
t h a t t h e n a m e of a you t h ch a r ged a s a ju ven ile offen der , if la wfu lly obt a in ed, cou ld be
pu blish ed); F la . St a r v. B.J .F ., 491 U.S. 524, 541 (1989) (h oldin g t h a t t h e pu blica t ion of
D U D SH YLFW LP ¶V Q D P H LI OD ZIX OO\ REW D LQ HG FD Q Q RW EH U HVW U LFW HG X Q GHU W K H ) LU VW Am en dm en t ).
32. B a r tn ick i , 532 U.S. a t 535.
33. 2005 Ca l. A.L.S. 424, 2005 Ca l. AB 381, St a t s. 2005 ch . 424.
34 . S ee Ma r c P . Mist h a l, R eign in g in [si c] th e P apa r azzi : T h e H u m an R igh ts A ct,
th e E u ropean C on ven t ion on H u m an R igh ts an d F u n d a m en t a l F reed om s, an d th e
R igh ts of P r iva cy an d Pu bl i ci ty in E n gl an d , 10 I NT ¶L L E GAL P E RSP . 287, 305-08 (1998);
5REHU W 02¶1HLO P r iva cy an d P r ess F r eed om : P apa razzi an d O th er In t ru d ers, 1999 U.
I LL . L. R E V. 703, 706-07 (1999); Rebecca Roiph e, R ecen t L egisl a t ion : A n t i -P apa r azzi
L egisl a t ion , 36 H ARV. J . ON L E GIS . 250, 252-53 (1999); Sa m a n t h a J . Ka t ze, Not e,
+ X Q WLQ J WK H + X Q WHUV $% DQ G &DOLIRUQ LD¶V $WWHP SW WR 5 HVWUDLQ WK H 3DSDUD]]L 16
F ORDH AM I NTE LL . P ROP . M E DIA & E NT . L.J . 1349, 1368-80 (2006).
35 . S ee Rich a r d Win t on & An dr ew Bla n kst ein , D epu t i es a r rest fou r in cra ck d ow n
on papa r azzi , L.A. T IME S , F eb. 21, 2008, a t B3.
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Ch ief Br a t t on pu t it : ³We a lr ea dy h a ve a ppr opr ia t e la ws
wit h in t h e con st it u t ion a l gu idelin es a n d we in t en d t o do t h a t
wh et h er it is er r a t ic dr ivin g, t r espa ssin g on pr iva t e pr oper t y
or a n y a ct ion t h a t goes beyon d t h e con st it u t ion a l r igh t s t o
cover a st or y.´36
Th is Ar t icle exa m in es t h e con st it u t ion a l via bilit y of
Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ew la w, n ot in g t h a t , if Ca liforn ia is su ccessfu l in
en for cin g t h e u pda t ed ver sion of it s a n t i-pa pa r a zzi st a t u t e,
ot h er st a t es a n d possibly t h e feder a l gover n m en t cou ld follow
su it . P a r t I exa m in es t h e h ist or y of t h e n ew a n t i-pa pa r a zzi
st a t u t e, fr om t h e evolu t ion of t h e com m on la w r igh t t o pr iva cy
t o t h e la t est celebr it y±ver su s-ph ot ogr a ph er sn a fu s. Using
ca se la w fr om bot h t h e U n it ed St a t es a n d Ca lifor n ia Su pr em e
Cou r t s, P a r t II a n a lyzes t h e n ew Ca lifor n ia la w fr om a F ir st
Am en dm en t st a n dpoin t . F in a lly, P a r t III of t h is Ar t icle
con clu des t h a t t h e n ewest a n t i-pa pa r a zzi la w ch ills speech
pr ot ect ed by t h e F ir st Am en dm en t : t r a dit ion a l n ews
pu blica t ion s m u st oft en in clu de celebr it y cover a ge t o m eet
r ea der dem a n d; a lso, so-ca lled ³t a bloid´ pu blica t ion s a r e n ot
com plet ely devoid of socia l va lu e a n d st ill m er it F ir st
Am en dm en t pr ot ect ion s. F u r t h er , t h is Ar t icle con clu des t h a t
t h e gover n m en t sh ou ld n ot fu n d lit iga t ion in defen se of
h igh ly-pa id celebr it ies¶ pr iva cy r igh t s.
I. W E DDINGS , W ALE S AND W ALL -C LIMBIN G S NAP P E RS : T H E
E VOLUTION OF P RIVACY L AW
Weddin gs h a ve lon g been fodder for t a bloid jou r n a list s. In
1890, t h e da u gh t er of Sa m u el D. Wa r r en m a r r ied, a t t r a ct in g
pr ess cover a ge of t h e even t ³in h igh ly per son a l a n d
em ba r r a ssin g det a il.´37 In 2009, pa pa r a zzi sn a pped ph ot os of
36. Bla n kst ein & Win t on , su pr a QRW H) RU H[D P SOHD VSD U W RIW K H/$3 '¶VVW D Q FH
of u sin g exist in g la w t o r ein in pa pa r a zzi, fou r ph ot ogr a ph er s wer e a r r est ed in
F ebr u a r y 2008 for blockin g sidewa lks wh ile wa it in g for Br it n ey Spea r s t o lea ve a sa lon
D Q G/LQ GVD \/RK D Q D Q LJK W FOX E7K H D U U HVW VZHU HP D GHLQ W K HZHHNVIROORZLQ J6SHD U V¶
h ospit a liza t ion . Win t on & Bla n kst ein , su pr a Q RW H 7K H /$3 '¶V ³W RROV LQ FOX GH D Q W Lloit er in g or din a n ces, t r a ffic la ws a n d r u les t a r get in g in fr a ct ion s su ch a s illega lly t in t ed
ZLQ GRZVRU SD SHU OLFHQ VHSOD W HV´ Id .
37. P r osser , su pr a Q RW H D W ³3 U RVVHU RI FRX U VH ID P RX VO\ LGHQ W LILHG W K H
in spir a t ion of t h e Wa r r en a n d Br a n deis a r t icle a s t h e u n wa n t ed pu blicit y given t h e
ZHGGLQ J RI 0U :D U U HQ ¶V GD X JK W HU VK RU W O\ EHIRU H W K H D U W LFOH ZD V ZU LW W HQ :K LOH RIW HQ U HSHD W HG W K LV YLHZ K D V EHHQ HIIHFW LYHO\ GLVFU HGLW HG´ 'D YLG : /HHEU RQ 6\P SRVLX P T h e R igh t to P r iva cy O n e H u n d r ed Y ea rs L a ter : T h e R igh t to 3ULYDF\¶V 3ODFH LQ WK H
In t el lectu a l H istory of T or t L aw , 41 C ASE W. R E S . L. R E V. 769, 775 (1991).
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t h e Cost a Rica n weddin g of su per m odel Gisele Bü n dch en a n d
foot ba ll pla yer Tom Br a dy, on ly t o be sh ot a t a s t h ey fled t h e
scen e of t h e n u pt ia ls. 38 Th e Br a dy-Bü n dch en in ciden t is
illu st r a t ive of t h e m oder n t r en d t owa r ds t h e h igh va lu e pla ced
u pon glim pses in t o t h e m ost in t im a t e m om en t s of celebr it ies¶
lives.39 Th e Wa r r en weddin g is su spect ed t o be t h e im pet u s
for t h e cu r r en t body of la w t h a t pr ot ect s celebr it ies fr om
in va sive ph ot ogr a ph er s. 40 Th e st or y, a s Dea n Willia m P r osser
t old it in 1960, is t h a t t h e a t t en t ion su r r ou n din g h is
da u gh t er ¶s weddin g pr om pt ed Wa r r en t o t ea m u p wit h la w
pa r t n er Lou is D. Br a n deis t o wr it e T h e R igh t to P r iva cy. 41
Th e colla bor a t ion a ppea r ed in t h e 1890 issu e of H a rv a rd
L aw R eview a n d spu r r ed a n ew body of t or t la w t h a t
con t in u es t o be deba t ed a n d r efin ed t o t h is da y. 42 Th e
r ea ct ion t o Wa r r en a n d Br a n deis ¶ pr oposit ion t h a t in dividu a ls
h old a ³r igh t t o be let a lon e´ wa s slow t o develop, bu t by t he
1930s, a com m on la w r igh t of pr iva cy h a d t a ken h old. 43 Th is
n ew r igh t sou gh t t o pr ot ect ³in dividu a ls a ga in st t he
ou t r a geou s a n d u n ju st ifia ble in flict ion of m en t a l dist r ess ´;44 in
ot h er wor ds, viola t ion s of per son a l dign it y wer e n ow
a ct ion a ble lega l r igh t s.
Wh en P r osser en dea vor ed t o est a blish h is own t a ke on
pr iva cy la w in 1960, h e ca lled t h e Wa rr en a n d Br a n deis
a r t icle ³t h e ou t st a n din g exa m ple of t h e in flu en ce of lega l
per iodica ls u pon t h e Am er ica n la w.´45 Th e sa m e ca n be sa id
of P r osser ¶s 1960 C a l iforn i a L aw R evi ew a r t icle, en t it led
P r iva cy . 46 On e cou r t h a s gon e so fa r a s t o posit ³[t ]h e la w in
it s pr esen t for m wa s con ceived a lm ost ent ir ely by P r ofessor
Willia m P r osser , wh o, in a 1960 la w r eview a r t icle in t he
38 . S ee, e.g., B rad y m u m on sh ot gu n n u ps , B OSTON H E RALD , Apr . 7, 2009, a t 19.
7K HZLQ GRZRIW K HSK RW RJU D SK HU V¶YHK LFOHZD VVK RW RX W EX W Q RRQ HZD VK X U W Id .
39 . S ee, e.g., Don n a F r eydkin & Ka r en Th om a s, S ecret cel ebrity w ed d in gs , USA
T ODAY, Ma y 16, 2005, h t t p://www.u sa t oda y.com /life/people/2005-05-16-secr et -celebweddin gs_x.h t m (discu ssin g t he t a ct ics celebr it ies u se t o a void pa pa r a zzi a t weddin gs).
40. P r osser , su pra n ot e 14, a t 383.
41 . Id . S ee gen era l ly Wa r r en & Br a n deis, su pr a n ot e 14. S ee a lso su pra n ot e 37.
42 . Id . $VRQ HFRX U W FRQ FOX GHG³7K HJHQ HVLVRIW K HU LJK W W RSU LYD F\LVW U D FHD EOHW R´
t h e Wa r r en & Br a n deis a r t icle. P eople for t h e E t h ica l Tr ea t m en t of An im a ls v. Bobby
Ber osin i, Lt d., 895 P .2d 1269, 1278 n .9 (Nev. 1995). S ee gen er a l ly Wa r r en & Br a n deis,
su pr a n ot e 14.
43. P r osser , su pra n ot e 14, a t 384; Wa r r en & Br a n deis, su pr a n ot e 14.
44. P r osser , su pra n ot e 14, a t 384.
45 . Id . a t 383.
46 . Id .
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C a l i forn i a L aw R evi ew , expou n ded t h a t t h e r igh t of pr iva cy
ga ve r ise n ot t o on e bu t t o fou r differ en t t or t a ct ion s,
som et im es ca lled µP r osser ¶s F ou r Tor t s of P r iva cy.¶´47 Th e fou r
in va sion of pr iva cy t or t s²in t r u sion , pu blic disclosu r e of
pr iva t e fa ct s, fa lse ligh t in t h e pu blic eye, a n d a ppr opr ia t ion ²
wer e a dopt ed by T h e R est a t em en t (S econ d ) of T orts ju st a few
yea r s a ft er P r osser ¶s a r t icle a n d h a ve been a dopt ed in va r iou s
wa ys by t h e m a jor it y of st a t es. 48
Wh ile it h a s been a r gu ed t h a t t h e developm en t of pr iva cy
la w ha s been a low poin t ³of logic a n d cla r it y in Am er ica n
la w,´49 it is h er e t o st a y, wit h t en st a t es goin g so fa r a s t o
in cor por a t e a r igh t t o pr iva cy in t h eir st a t e con st it u t ion s. 50 It
is t h is fou n da t ion of pr iva cy la w u pon wh ich Ca lifor n ia fir st
sou gh t t o bu ild, wh en in 1998 it en a ct ed a n a n t i-pa pa r a zzi
la w.51
Th a t la w wa s pa ssed in t h e wa ke of P r in cess Dia n a ¶s dea t h
a n d cr ea t ed a ca u se of a ct ion for con st r u ct ive in va sion of
pr iva cy, a im in g t o pr even t pa pa r a zzi fr om u sin g ³visu a l or
a u dit or y en h a n cin g device[s]´²su ch a s t elescopic len ses or
in fr a r ed ca m er a s²t o obt a in ph ot os of celebr it ies in
vu ln er a ble st a t es. 52 It a lso pr ovided a st a t u t or y ca u se of
a ct ion for ph ysica l in va sion of pr iva cy. 53 Th e st a t u t e wa s
essen t ia lly a codifica t ion a n d expa n sion of P r osser ¶s com m on
47 . Peopl e for th e E th ica l T r ea t m en t of A n i m a ls , 111 Nev. a t 628.
48 . S ee R E STATE ME NT (S E COND ) OF T ORTS §§ 652A-I.
49. Don R. P em ber & Dwigh t L. Teet er J r ., P r iva cy an d th e P r ess S in ce T i m e, In c.
v. H il l , 50 W ASH . L. R E V. 57, 57 (1975) (bor r owin g fr om a u t h or a n d N ew Y or k er
ca r t oon ist J a m es Th u r ber fr om W RITE RS AT W ORK : T H E P ARIS R E VIE W I NTE RVIE WS 86
0 &RZOH\ HG LQ FD OOLQ J SU LYD F\ D Q D U HD RI OD Z D V ³GLVRU GHU O\ D V D ZK RU H¶V W RS
GU D ZHU ´ S ee a lso H a r r y Ka lven J r ., P r iva cy in T or t L aw ± W er e W a rr en an d B r an d eis
W ron g? 31 L AW & C ONTE MP . P ROBS D U JX LQ JW K D W ³W RU W OD Z¶VHIIRU W W R
SU RW HFW W K HU LJK W RISU LYD F\VHHP VW RP HD P LVW D NH´
50 . S ee P r iva cy P r ot ect ion s in St at e Con st it u t ion s, su pr a n ot e 13.
51 . S ee S.B. 262, 1997-98 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 1998) (en a ct ed).
52. C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8(b) st a t es:
A per son is lia ble for con st r u ct ive in va s ion of pr iva cy wh en t h e defen da n t
a t t em pt s t o ca pt u r e, in a m a n n er t h a t is offen sive t o a r ea son a ble per son , a n y
t ype of visu a l im a ge, sou n d r ecor din g, or ot h er ph ysica l im pr ession of t h e
pla in t iff en ga gin g in a per son a l or fa m ilia l a ct ivit y u n der cir cu m st a n ces in
wh ich t h e pla in t iff h a d a r ea son a ble expect a t ion of pr iva cy, t h r ou gh t h e u se of
a visu a l or a u dit or y en h a n cin g device, r ega r dless of wh et h er t h er e is a
ph ysica l t r espa ss, if t h is im a ge, sou n d r ecor din g, or ot h er physica l im pr ession
cou ld n ot h a ve been a ch ieved wit h ou t a t r espa ss u n less t h e visu a l or a u dit or y
en h a n cin g device wa s u sed.
53 . Id . a t § 1708.8(a ).
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la w t or t of in t r u sion . 54 Th e L os A n geles T i m es ca lled it
³over kill, a n in t olera ble lim it a t ion on legit im a t e n ewsga t h er in g oper a t ion s pr ot ect ed by t h e 1st Am en dm en t .´55 Bu t
a ccor din g t o t h en -St a t e Sen a t or Tom Ha yden , ³[a ]n yt h ing
t h a t a t t a cks t h e pa pa r a zzi is good for dem ocr a cy.´56
Th e 1998 la w a ppa r en t ly did n ot m eet expect a t ion s of a n t ipa pa r a zzi a dvoca t es, beca u se in 2005 t h e la w wa s expa n ded. 57
By t h is t im e, a ct ion st a r Sch wa r zen egger , wh ose r u n -in wit h
pa pa r a zzi sen t t wo ph ot ogr a ph er s t o ja il in 1999, 58 wa s t h e
gover n or of Ca lifor n ia . Th e a m en dm en t t a r get ed ph ot os
st em m in g fr om pa pa r a zzi a ssa u lt s on celebr it ies, for cin g t h e
ph ot ogr a ph er t o for feit pr ofit s fr om su ch ph ot os a n d
su bject in g h im t o t r iple da m a ges in a civil a ct ion . 59 ³Th is bill
h it s t h e pa pa r a zzi wh er e it h u r t s²t h e wa llet ,´ sa id it s
spon sor ,
Assem blyper son
Cin dy
Mon t a n ez
(D-Sa n
F er n a n do). 60 ³Mon ey is t h eir m ot iva t ion , so t a kin g t h eir
m on ey will be t h e solu t ion ,´ sh e st a t ed. 61 Mon t a n ez cit ed a
r ecen t ca r cr a sh in volvin g a ct r ess Lin dsa y Loh a n a s on e ³of a
gr owin g n u m ber of in ciden t s wh er e pa pa r a zzi [t ook] t h eir
pr ofession in a dist u r bin g dir ect ion by a ssa u lt ing a celebr it y
or t h r ea t en in g a n a ssa u lt , t o ca pt u r e a r ea ct ion on t a pe.´62
Gov. Sch wa r zen egger sign ed t h e la w, which t ook effect on
J a n u a r y 1, 2006. 63
Th e t op-dolla r va lu e of ca n did ph ot ogr a ph s, wh ich
Mon t a n ez a n d Sch wa r zen egger h oped t o da m pen , is pa r t of a n
in du st r y dr iven by Am er ica ¶s obsession wit h celebr it ies. 64 It is
³on e of t h e m ost power fu l a n d lu cr a t ive for ces dr ivin g. . .
54 . S ee P r osser , su pra n ot e 14.
55. E dit or ia l, A n t i-P apa r azzi O verk i l l , L.A. T IME S , Au g. 5, 1998, a t B6.
56. An dr ew Gu m bel, H ol lyw ood S t a rs G a in L ega l R igh t to P r iva cy , I NDE P E NDE NT
(L ONDON ), J a n . 2, 1999, a t 11. In ciden t s cit ed a t t h e t im e t h e 1998 bill wen t in t o effect
LQ FOX GHG 3 U LQ FHVV 'LD Q D ¶V GHD W K $U Q ROG 6FK ZD U ]HQ HJJHU D Q G ID P LO\ EHLQ J U X Q RII W K H
r oa d a n d Alec Ba ldwin pu n ch in g a ph ot ogr a ph er for a llegedly h a r a ssin g h is wife a n d
ch ild. Id .
57. Assem . B. 381, 2005-06 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2005) (en a ct ed).
58 . S ee S n ap D ecision , su pr a n ot e 27.
59. Ca l. Asse, B. 381; C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8 (Deer in g 2009).
60. P r ess
Relea se,
Assem blyper son
Cin dy
Mon t a n ez,
h t t p://dem ocr at s.a ssem bly.gov/t em pla t es/defa u lt .a spx?a =293&t em pla t e=pr in t a r t icle.h t m .
61 . Id .
62 . Id .
63 . S ee S ch w a rzen egger , su pr a n ot e 19.
64. Da vid Sa m u els, S h oot in g B r i tn ey , T H E ATLANTIC , Apr il 2008, a t 38.
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Am er ica n n ews-ga t h er in g.´65 F or exa m ple, ph ot o a gen cy X17
(r espon sible for m ost of t h e ph ot os ch r on iclin g Br it n ey Spea r s ¶
down wa r d spir a l) em ploys bet ween sixt y a n d seven t y
ph ot ogr a ph er s, pa yin g ea ch of t h em $800-$3,000 per week
plu s bon u ses. 66 Also on X17¶s pa yr oll a r e ³dedica t ed t ipst er s´
a n d ³pa r kin g-lot a t t en da n t s, clu b kids, a n d sh op gir ls in a n d
a r ou n d L.A.´67 Th e ph ot os t h a t r esu lt fr om X17¶s m u lt ifa cet ed a ppr oa ch a r e t h en sold t o m a ga zin es, websit es, a nd
m a jor t elevision n ews n et wor ks su ch a s CNN, ABC, NBC a n d
CBS. 68 In 2007, t h e a gen cy m a de a ppr oxim a t ely $3 m illion
fr om Br it n ey Spea r s ph ot os a lon e. 69
Th e 2005 st a t u t e t a r get in g t h e lu cr a t ive pa pa r a zzi
in du st r y wa s a lso insu fficien t in t h e m inds of la wm a ker s t o
t a m e a ggr essive ph ot ogr a ph er s, beca u se in 2009 yet a n ot h er
m ea su r e wa s in t r odu ced t o fix t h e pa pa r a zzi pr oblem . 70
Assem bly Bill 524 ext en ded Ca lifor n ia ¶s exist in g pr iva cy la ws
t o h old lia ble t h e fir st pu blish er of a ph ot o obt a in ed in
con t r a ven t ion of st a t e la w. 71 Th e bill, wh ich Sch wa r zen egger
sign ed in Oct ober 2009 a n d t ook effect on J a n u a r y 1, 2010,
³[s]eeks t o det er t h e m ost egr egiou s a ct ivit ies of so-ca lled
µpa pa r a zzi¶ by cu t t in g off a t t h e sou r ce t h e fin a n cia l in cen t ives
t h a t oft en pr esu m a bly dr ive t h e wor st a n d som et im es
ext r em ely da n ger ou s beh a vior .´72 To a ccom plish t h is goa l, t he
la w t a r get s t h e m a r ket for pa pa r a zzi ph ot os, exposin g t h ose
wh o fir st pu blish illega lly obt a in ed ph ot os t o fin es u p t o
$50,000.73 In a ddit ion , t a xpa yer s will be r espon sible for
en for cin g t h ese civil pen a lt ies on beh a lf of high -pa id
celebr it ies by wa y of lit iga t ion br ou gh t by m u n icipa l
65 . Id .
66 . Id . a t 37.
67 . Id .
68 . Id .
69 . Id . a t 38. A 2007 st u dy by P ew Resea r ch Cen t er for P eople a n d t h e P r ess
su ggest s t h a t t h e pu blic t h in k s t h e m edia wa s t o bla m e for excess cover a ge of celebr it y
sca n da ls. P ew Resea r ch Cen t er for P eople a n d t h e P r ess, P u blic Bla m es Media for Too
Mu ch
Celebr it y
Cover a ge:
Su m m a r y
of
F in din gs,
h t t p://people pr ess.or g/r epor t /346/pu blic-bla m es-m edia -for -t oo-m u ch -celebr it y-cover a ge.
70 . S ee, e.g., P a t r ick McGr eevy, B i l l a i m s to cu rb papa r azzi a ct ivi ty , L.A. T IME S ,
J u ly 15, 2009, a t A6.
71. Assem . B. 524, 2009-10 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2009) (en a ct ed).
72 . P r iva cy, su pr a n ot e 24 (st a t em en t of Sen . E llen M. Cor bet t , Ch a ir , S. Com m . on
t h e J u dicia r y).
73 . S ee Ca l Assem . B. 524; see a lso C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8(d) (Deer in g 2009).
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a t t or n eys. 74
Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ewest a n t i-pa pa r a zzi st a t u t e m a r ks a n ot h er
a t t em pt by t ha t st a t e¶s la wm a ker s t o cr a ck down on
a ggr essive ph ot ogr a ph er s. 75 Th e ost en sible goa l is t o r edu ce
t h e fin a n cia l a wa r ds a va ila ble t o pa pa r a zzi a n d t h er efor e
r edu ce t h e a ggr essiven ess of ph ot o-t a kin g t a ct ics. Wh ile t h e
pr eviou s legisla t ive m ea su r es t r ea d h ea vily on F ir st
Am en dm en t gr ou n d, t h e n ewest la w ju st m igh t be t h e st r a w
t h a t br ea ks t h e ca m el¶s ba ck. Th e n ext sect ion of t h is Ar t icle
exa m in es t h e con st it ut ion a l im plica t ion s of t h e n ew la w.
II. S H IE LDING C E LE BRITIE S F ROM AGGRE SSIVE
P H OTOGRAP H E RS : L OOKING TH ROUGH A F IRST AME NDME NT
L E NS
Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ewest a n t i-pa pa r a zzi st a t u t e con t a in s t wo
m a jor pr ovision s t h a t a r e of sign ifica n t con cer n : 1) it ext en ds
lia bilit y t o fir st pu blish er s of illega lly obt a in ed ph ot os; 76 a n d
2) it a u t h or izes t h e gover n m en t t o pu r su e civil a ct ion s ba sed
on pr iva t e in dividu a ls¶ m en t a l dist r ess. Th is sect ion a n a lyzes
t h ese issu es sepa r a t ely. 77
A . C ivi l P en a lt ies for F i rst Pu bl ish ers
A m a jor a ddit ion t o Ca lifor n ia ¶s ca dr e of a n t i-pa pa r a zzi
legisla t ion is t h e n ew pr ovision t h a t ext en ds lia bilit y fr om
ph ot ogr a ph er s t o in clu de m edia ou t let s. 78 Th e la w t a r get s
74 . S ee Ca l. Assem . B. 524; see a lso C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8(m )(1).
75 . S ee gen er a lly C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8; Assem . B. 381 2005-06 Leg., Reg. Sess.
(Ca l. 2005) (en a ct ed); Ca l. Assem . B. 524.
76. Ca l. Assem . B. 524.
77 . Id .
78. Th e n ew la w st a t es t h a t :
(f) (1) Th e t r a n sm ission , pu blica t ion , br oa dca st , sa le, offer for sa le, or ot h er u se
of a n y visu a l im a ge, sou n d r ecor din g, or ot h er ph ysica l im pr ession t h a t wa s
t a ken or ca pt u r ed in viola t ion of su bdivision (a ), (b), or (c) sha ll n ot con st it u t e
a viola t ion of t h is sect ion u n less t h e per son , in t h e fir st t r a nsa ct ion followin g
t h e t a kin g or ca pt u r e of t h e visu a l im a ge, sou n d r ecor din g, or ot h er ph ysica l
im pr ession , pu blicly t r a n sm it t ed, pu blish ed, br oa dca st , sold or offer ed for sa le,
t h e visu a l im a ge, sou n d r ecor din g, or ot h er ph ysica l im pr ession wit h a ct u a l
kn owledge t h a t it wa s t a k en or ca pt ur ed in viola t ion of su bdivision (a ), (b), or
(c), a n d pr ovide com pen sa t ion , con sider a t ion , or r em u n er a t ion , m on et a r y or
ot h er wise, for t h e r igh t s t o t h e u n la wfu lly obt a in ed visu a l im a ge, sou n d
r ecor din g, or ot h er ph ysica l impr ession .
Id .
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fir st pu blish er s of ph ot os t a ken in t h e cou r se of ph ysica l or
con st r u ct ive in va sion of pr iva cy ³in a m a n n er t h a t is offen sive
t o a r ea son a ble per son ´ or du r in g a n a ssa u lt wit h t h e in t en t
t o ca pt u r e a n im a ge. 79 If t h ese pu blish er s h a ve ³a ct u a l
kn owledge´80 t h a t t h e ph ot o wa s t a ken in a wa y t ha t viola t ed
t h e su bject ¶s pr iva cy or du r in g a n a ssa u lt by t h e
ph ot ogr a ph er s, t h e pu blish er s a r e su bject t o fin es u p t o
$50,000.81
Th is pr esen t s a t wofold pr oblem . F ir st , it bu r den s m edia
ou t let s wit h t h e da u nt in g t a sk of det er m in in g n ot on ly if t h ey
will be t h e ³fir st ´ pu blish er (wh ich , con sider in g t h e pa ce of
on lin e pu blica t ion , will be a m er e gu ess in som e
cir cu m st a n ces), bu t if t h e ph ot o wa s t a ken in a m a n n er
³h igh ly offen sive t o t h e r ea son a ble per son .´82
F r om a
ju r isdict ion a l st a n dpoin t , t h is r a ises pr elim in a r y qu est ion s of
h ow t h e Ca lifor n ia la w will a pply t o m edia ou t let s ba sed in,
for exa m ple, New Yor k. If it a pplies a t a ll, wh o exa ct ly is ³a
r ea son a ble per son ?´ A ³r ea son a ble´ Ca lifor n ia n m igh t differ
fr om a r ea son a ble New Yor ker , a n d a Mississippia n m ight
h a ve a st a n da r d of r ea son a blen ess a lt oget h er differ en t fr om
eit h er Ca lifor n ia or New Yor k. Th e n ew la w is silen t a s t o
t h ese scen a r ios, m a kin g it va gu e a n d over br oa d on it s fa ce.
P er h a ps m or e t r ou blin g t h a n t h e ju r isdict ion a l con cer n s
r a ised by t h e la t est a n t i-pa pa r a zzi st a t u t e is t h e a ppa r en t
con flict of t h e Ca lifor n ia la w wit h exist in g Su pr em e Cou r t
pr eceden t s. H igh Cou r t ca ses h a ve con sist en t ly h eld t h a t , if
t h e pr ess obt a in s in for m a t ion la wfu lly, even if t h e in for m a t ion
it self wa s illega lly obt a in ed by a t h ir d pa r t y, r est r a in t s on
pu blica t ion a r e u n con st it u t ion a l. 83
Id .
79 . Id .
80. 7K HOD ZGHILQ HV³D FW X D ONQ RZOHGJH´D V
a ct u a l a wa r en ess, u n der st a n din g, a n d r ecogn it ion , obt a in ed pr ior t o t h e t im e
a t wh ich t h e per son pu r ch a sed or a cqu ir ed t h e visu a l im a ge, sou n d r ecor din g,
or ot h er ph ysica l im pr ession , t h a t t h e visu a l im a ge, sou n d r ecor din g, or ot h er
ph ysica l im pr ession wa s t a ken or ca pt u r ed in viola t ion of su bdivision (a ), (b),
or (c). Th e pla in t iff sh a ll est a blish a ct u a l kn owledge by clea r a n d con vin cin g
eviden ce.
81 . Id .
82 . Id .
It sh ou ld be n ot ed t h a t som e con t r a ct s bet ween pu blica t ion s a n d
ph ot ogr a ph er s wou ld in clu de pr ovision s for fir st pu blica t ion .
83 . S ee, e.g., Ba r t n icki v. Vopper , 532 U.S. 514, 517-18 (2001); F la . St a r v. B. J . F .,
491 U.S. 524, 541 (1989); /D Q GP D U N &RP P F¶Q V ,Q F v. Vir gin ia , 435 U.S. 829, 843
(1978); N.Y. Tim es Co. v. Un it ed St at es, 403 U.S. 713, 714 (1971) .
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In B a rtn i ck i v. V opper , t h e Cou r t a ddr essed t h e issu e of
³wh a t degr ee of pr ot ect ion , if a ny, t h e F ir st Am en dm en t
pr ovides t o speech t h a t discloses t h e con t en t s of a n illega lly
in t er cept ed com m u n ica t ion .´84 In B a rtn ick i , a cell ph on e
con ver sa t ion a bou t sch ool boa r d collect ive ba r ga inin g wa s
illega lly in t er cept ed by a n u n kn own t h ir d pa r t y. 85 A t a pe of
t h a t con ver sa t ion wa s a n on ym ou sly pa ssed a lon g t o Vopper ,
wh o pla yed t h e t a pe on h is pu blic a ffa ir s t a lk sh ow. 86
Ba r t n icki, a u n ion negot ia t or wh o enga ged in t h e illega lly
in t er cept ed con ver sa t ion , a r gu ed t ha t Vopper a n d ot h er
m em ber s of t h e m edia ³kn ew or h a d r ea son t o kn ow´ t h a t t h e
r ecor din g wa s illega lly obt a in ed, a n d t h er efor e , wer e lia ble t o
h im for da m a ges. 87
Th e Cou r t fr a m ed it s qu est ion a s: ³Wh er e t h e pu n ish ed
pu blish er of in for m a t ion h a s obt a in ed t h e in for m a t ion in
qu est ion in a m a n n er la wfu l in it self bu t fr om a sou r ce wh o
h a s obt a in ed it u n la wfu lly, m a y t h e gover n m en t pu n ish t h e
en su in g pu blica t ion of t h a t in for m a t ion ba sed on t h e defect in
a ch a in ?´88 Th e a n swer wa s n o, given t h e fa ct s of t h e ca se,
beca u se t o do so wou ld viola t e t h e F ir st Am en dm en t . 89
Th e B a rtn ick i Cou r t ¶s decision r elied in pa r t on it s
pr eviou s r u lin g in F lor id a S t a r v. B .J . F . 90 In F lor id a S t a r , a
n ewspa per la wfu lly obt a in ed t h e n a m e of a sexu a l a ssa u lt
vict im (by wa y of t h e sh er iff¶s office¶s m ist a ken r elea se of t h e
n a m e) a n d su bsequ en t ly pu blish ed t h e vict im ¶s n a m e. 91 A
F lor ida la w m a de it illega l t o pu blish t h e n a m e of a r a pe
vict im .92 Th e Cou r t h eld t h a t im posin g da m a ges on t h e
84 . B a r tn i ck i , 532 U.S. a t 517.
85 . Id a t 518 .
86 . Id a t 519 .
87 . Id a t 519-20 . B a r tn i ck i r elied on feder a l a n d st a t e (P en n sylva n ia ) cr im in a l
wir et a ppin g st a t u t es. Id a t 520 . S ee a lso 18 U.S.C. § 2511(1) (2000).
88 . B a r tn i ck i , 532 U.S. a t 528 (qu ot in g Boeh n er v. McDer m ot t , 191 F .3d 463, 48485 (D.D.C. 1999) (Sen t elle, J ., dissen t in g)).
89 . S ee id . D W 7K H &RX U W Q RW HG LW V ³r epea t ed r efu sa l t o a n swer ca t egor ica lly
wh et h er t r u t h fu l pu blica t ion m a y ever be pu n ish ed con sist en t wit h t h e F ir st
$P HQ GP HQ W ´D Q GHP SK D VL]HGW K D W LQ GLYLGX D OID FW cir cu m st a nces a r e key. Id . a t 529.
90 . Id . a t 529 (cit in g F la . St a r v. B.J .F ., 491 U.S. 524, 532-33 (1989)).
91 . F l a . S t a r , 491 U.S. a t 526-27.
92 . Id . a t 541. Th e Cou r t cla r ified it s h oldin g by n ot in g:
We do n ot h old t h a t t r u t h ful pu blica t ion is a u t om a t ica lly con st it u t ion a lly
pr ot ect ed, or t h a t t h er e is n o zon e of per son a l pr iva cy wit h in wh ich t h e St a t e
m a y pr ot ect t h e in dividu a l fr om in t r u sion by t h e pr ess, or even t h a t a St a t e
m a y n ever pu n ish pu blica t ion of t h e n a m e of a vict im of a sexu a l offen se. W e
h old on ly t h a t wh er e a n ewspa per pu blish es t r u t h fu l in for m at ion wh ich it h a s
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n ewspa per for pu blish in g t h e n a m e viola t ed t h e F ir st
Am en dm en t . 93
Th e Su pr em e Cou r t h a s on ot h er occa sion s a ddr essed t h e
issu e of in for m a t ion lega lly obt a in ed by t he pr ess bu t illega lly
obt a in ed by a t h ir d pa r t y. In S m ith v. D a i ly M a i l Pu bl ish in g
C o. , t h e m edia pu blish ed t h e n a m e of a m in or a ccu sed of
killin g a n ot h er you t h . 94 Th e m in or ¶s n a m e wa s la wfu lly
obt a in ed by t h e m edia by a skin g a u t h or it ies a n d wit n esses t o
t h e sh oot in g, wh ich h a d t a ken pla ce a t a ju n ior h igh sch ool. 95
Th e Cou r t h eld t h a t t r u t h fu l pu blica t ion of t h e you t h ¶s n a m e,
la wfu lly obt a in ed, cou ld n ot be r est r ict ed. 96 In N ew Y ork
T i m es C o. v. U n it ed S t a t es , a lso kn own a s t h e P en t a gon
P a per s ca se, t h e Cou r t r efu sed t o en join pu blica t ion of a ser ies
of a r t icles a bou t t h e Viet n a m Wa r ba sed on docu m en t s st olen
fr om t h e P en t a gon by a gover n m en t con su lt a n t .97
Th u s, t h e Su pr em e Cou r t h a s con sist en t ly r efu sed t o
silen ce t h e pr ess even if in for m a t ion wa s illega lly obt a in ed by
a t h ir d pa r t y. Wh y, t h en , wou ld Ca lifor n ia legisla t or s pa ss a
la w t h a t pen a lizes pu blica t ion of ph ot os t a ken in
con t r a ven t ion of t h e a n t i-pa pa r a zzi st a t u t e? A bill a n a lysis
by t h e Ca lifor n ia Sen a t e J u dicia r y Com m it t ee ch a r a ct er ized
B a rtn ick i a s st a n din g for t h e pr oposit ion ³t h a t la ws t h a t
pr oh ibit t h e disclosu r e of u n la wfu lly obt a in ed in for m a t ion,
wh er e t h e on e disclosin g kn ows or h a s r ea son t o kn ow t h a t it
wa s u n la wfu lly obt a in ed, a r e n ot n ecessa r ily fa cia lly
u n con st it u t ion a l, bu t m a y be fou n d t o be u n con st it u t ion a l a s
a pplied.´98 An Assem bly a n a lysis n ot ed t h a t ³t h e bill would
[n ot ] n ecessa r ily, on it s fa ce, viola t e t h e F ir st Am en dm en t .´99
Id .
la wfu lly obt a in ed, pu n ish m en t m a y la wfu lly be im posed, if a t a ll, on ly wh en
Q D U U RZO\W D LORU HGW RD VW D W HLQ W HU HVW RIW K HK LJK HVW RU GHU ´
93 . Id .
94. Sm it h v. Da ily Ma il P u EO¶J&R 443 U.S. 97, 99 (1979).
95 . Id . a t 98.
96 . S ee id . D W 7K H &RX U W SRLQ W HG RX W W K D W ³VW D W H D FW LRQ W R SX Q LVK W K H
SX EOLFD W LRQ RIW U X W K IX OLQ IRU P D W LRQ VHOGRP FD Q VD W LVI\FRQ VW LW X W LRQ D OVW D Q GD U GV´ Id .
97 . S ee N.Y. Tim es Co. v. Un it ed St a t es, 403 U.S. 713, 714 (1971). S ee a lso Willia m
R. Glen don , Sym posiu m , T h e D ay th e P r esses S topped : A H istory of th e Pen t agon P apers
C ase: T h e Pen t agon P apers ± A V i ctory for a F ree P ress, 19 C ARDOZO L. R E V. 1295, 1295,
1305 (1998) (discu ssin g t h e ba ckgr ou n d of t h e P en t a gon P a per s ca se).
98 . P r iva cy, su pr a n ot e 24 (st a t em en t of Sen . E llen M. Cor bet t , Ch a ir , S. Com m . on
t h e J u dicia r y).
99 . In vasion of P r iva cy: H ea rin g on A .B . 524 B efor e th e A ssem . C om m . on th e
J u d i ci a ry , 2009 Leg., 2009-10 Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2009) [h er ein a ft er In vasion of P r iva cy ]
(st a t em en t of Assem . Mike F eu er , Ch a ir , Assem . Com m . on t h e J u dicia r y), ava il abl e a t
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It a ppea r s, t h en , t h a t Ca lifor n ia la wm a ker s wer e qu it e a wa r e
of t h e F ir st Am en dm en t im plica t ion s t h a t B a rtn ick i im posed
on t h e n ew a n t i-pa pa r a zzi la w, bu t fa vor ed en a ct in g a la w
t h a t wa s ³n ot n ecessa r ily fa cia lly un con st it u t ion a l,´100
defer r in g a t r u e con st it u t ion a l a na lysis t o lower cou r t s a n d
lit iga t or s.
B . G overn m en t-fu n d ed C ivi l L egisl a t ion
Th e lit iga t or s t est ing t h e n ew la w¶s F ir st Am en dm en t
im plica t ion s will do so in lit iga t ion t h a t t h e Ca lifor n ia
Newspa per P u blish er s Associa t ion ca lls ³excr u cia t in gly
expen sive.´101 Wh o will foot t h e bill? Accor din g t o a m ea su r e
in t h e la t est pr iva cy a m en dm en t , t a xpa yer s will. 102 Th e la w
a u t h or izes pu blic pr osecu t or s t o pu r su e civil a ct ion s a ga in st
ph ot ogr a ph er s a n d pu blish er s wh o viola t e t h e pr iva cy
st a t u t e. 103 P r oceeds fr om t h ese a ct ion s (wh ich m igh t ea sily
cost m or e t o lit iga t e t h a n t h e $50,000 m a xim u m fin e for
pu blica t ion ) a r e t o be dist r ibu t ed equ a lly a m on g t he
pr osecu t in g a gen cy a n d a n Ar t s a n d E n t er t a in m en t F u n d. 104
Th u s, pu blic r esou r ces in a st a t e fa cin g a $21 billion bu dget
deficit 105 will be u sed t o ³pr ot ect t h e pr iva t e pr oper t y a n d
per son a l m om en t s´ of celebr it ies. 106 If pa pa r a zzi a ct ion s a r e a
pr oblem of su ch pr opor t ion a s t o wa r r a n t t h e n ewest
r est r ict ion s, it wou ld seem t h a t t h er e will be in n u m er a ble
oppor t u n it ies for en for cem en t .
Con cept u a lly, t h is pr ovision is sim ila r t o vict im
com pen sa t ion st a t u t es t h a t a u t h or ize t h e gover n m en t t o
in it ia t e civil a ct ion s t o seize fu n ds fr om cr im in a ls on beh a lf of
h t t p://in fo.sen .ca .gov/pu b/09-10/bill/a sm /a b_05010550/a b_524_cfa _20090511_105624_a sm _com m .h t m l.
100 . P r iva cy, su pr a n ot e 24 (st a t em en t of Sen . E llen M. Cor bet t , Ch a ir , S. Com m . on
t h e J u dicia r y).
101 . Id .
102. Assem . B. 524, 2009-10 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Ca l. 2009) (en a ct ed).
103 . Id .
104 . Id .
105. Sh a n e Goldm a ch er , &DOLIRUQLD¶VEX G JHWZ RHVZ LOOFRQ WLQ X HIRU\HDUVUHSRUWVD\V
L.A. T IME S , Nov. 19, 2009, ava i l able a t h t t p://a r t icles.la t im es.com /2009/n ov/19/loca l/m ebu dget -deficit 19.
106 . P r iva cy, su pr a n ot e 24 (st a t em en t of Sen . E llen M. Cor bet t , Ch a ir , S. Com m . on
t h e J u dicia r y) GLVFX VVLQ JW K H&D OLIRU Q LD 1HZVSD SHU 3 X EOLVK HU V$VVRFLD W LRQ ¶VRSSRVLW LRQ t o A.B. 524).
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vict im s or t h eir su r vivor s. 107 F or exa m ple, pr oceeds fr om
Sa lva t or e ³Sa m m y t h e Bu ll´ Gr a va n o¶s book a bou t his
exper ien ce in t h e m ob wer e seized by t h e gover n m en t a n d t h e
$420,000 wa s t h en dist r ibu t ed t o h is vict im s ¶ fa m ilies.108
Th ese t ypes of vict im com pen sa t ion st a t u t es a r e a fa r cr y fr om
t h e a n t i-pa pa r a zzi pr ovision , h owever .
Th e fin a n cia l
pen a lt ies a r e r ela t ed t o cr i m in a l wr on gdoin g a n d a pply a ft er
gu ilt h a s been det er m in ed; h owever , t h e fin a n cia l pen a lt ies
pu r su ed by t h e gover n m en t in Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ew la w a r e
r ela t ed t o civi l wr on gdoin g a n d t h e bu r den of lit iga t ion will
a pply pr ior t o a det er m in a t ion of wh et her a n in va sion of
pr iva cy h a s occu r r ed.
As a Sen a t e J u dicia r y Com m it t ee a n a lysis poin t ed ou t ,
con sider a t ion sh ou ld be given t o ³whet h er t h er e is a
com pellin g pu blic in t er est t h a t ju st ifies a u t h or izin g cit y
a t t or n eys or cou n t y cou n sels t o lit iga t e a t or t a ct ion pu r su a n t
t o t h e st a t u t e, a n d wh y t h e r em edies a lr ea dy a va ila ble t o
pr iva t e pa r t ies a r e n ot su fficien t .´109
Wh ile t h e u se of
gover n m en t r esou r ces t o seize fu n ds for cr im e vict im s a n d
t h eir fa m ilies seem s t o ser ve a com pellin g pu blic in t er est ,
a lloca t in g sca r ce r esou r ces t o defen d t h e pr iva cy r igh t s of
h igh -pa id celebr it ies does n ot .
III. I S ANTI -P AP ARAZZI ANTI -P RE SS ? T H E C H ILLING E F F E CT OF
C ALIF ORNIA¶S L ATE ST P RIVACY L AW
To celebr it ies, pa pa r a zzi a r e n o dou bt m u ch like t h eir
³swa r m in g in sect ´ n a m esa kes²a n n oyin g a n d a t t im es even
da n ger ou s. 110
Bu t , bet ween P oin t A of t h e a ggr essive
107. F lor ida , for exa m ple, h a s a vict im com pen sa t ion st a t u t e t ha t a llows t h e st a t e
(a s well a s vict im s a n d ot h er a ggr ieved pa r t ies) t o pu r su e civil r est it u t ion lien s a ga in st
t h e cu r r en t a n d fu t ur e a sset s of cr im in a ls. F LA. S TAT . § 960.29 (2010). S ee a lso J u lie
Goldsch eid, C r i m e V i ct i m C om pen sa t ion in a Post -9/ 11 Wor ld , 79 T UL . L. R E V. 167
(2004) (a n a lyzin g bot h st a t e com pen sa t ion sch em es a n d t h e 9/11 F u n d).
108. Gr eg B. Sm it h , .LQ RI *UDYDQ R¶V 9LFWLP V *HW * LQ 3D\EDFN , N.Y. D AILY
N E WS , J u ly 22, 2004, a t 3. S ee a lso Ar izon a v. Gr a va n o, 204 Ar iz. 106, 108 (2000).
109 . P r iva cy, su pr a n ot e 24 (st a t em en t of Sen . E llen M. Cor bet t , Ch a ir , S. Com m . on
t h e J u dicia r y).
110. Th e P a pa r a zzi Refor m In it ia t ive, fou n ded in 2009 by a for m er H ollywood
ERG\JX D U GW R³edu ca t e t h e SX EOLFRQ W K HSD SD U D ]]LLQ GX VW U \´YRLFHGLW VVX SSRU W RI$%
524 du r in g t h e legisla t ive pr ocess.
S ee P a pa r a zzi Refor m In it ia t ive,
h t t p://www.pa pa r a zzi-r efor m .or g/a bou t /h t t p://www.pa pa r a zzi-r efor m .or g/a bou t /
(la st
visit ed F eb. 25, 2010). Legisla t ive h ist or y con t a in s t h is descr ipt ion of t h e da n ger
su bm it t ed by t h e P a pa r a zzi Refor m In it ia t ive t o t h e Assem bly Com m it t ee on J u dicia r y:
F ir st a n d for em ost , it u t t er ly st u n s m e t h a t n o on e else h a s been k illed -
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ph ot ogr a ph er a n d P oin t B of sweepin g r est r ict ion s on speech ,
t h er e lies a br oa d spect r u m of exist in g r em edies for h a za r dou s
beh a vior . Th e Los An geles Ch ief of P olice, a s exper ien ced
wit h t h e pa pa r a zzi pr oblem a s on e ca n be, h a s wa r n ed a ga in st
u n con st it u t ion a l pr iva cy la ws wh en exist in g la ws ca n a ch ieve
t h e sa m e goa l. 111 La ws a ga in st r eckless dr ivin g, loit er in g,
sidewa lk blockin g, t r espa ssin g, fa lse im pr ison m en t , st a lking
a n d dr ivin g a veh icle wit h ou t a t a g a r e on ly a few of t h ose
u sed by la w en for cem en t t o r ein in t h e pa pa r a zzi. 112 Th ese
la ws a r e in a ddit ion t o t h e civil r em edies a va ila ble t o
celebr it ies. Th ese la ws a r e su fficien t for t h e m a n ch a r ged
wit h pr ot ect in g H ollywood fr om pa pa r a zzi-a ssocia t ed sa fet y
h a za r ds, bu t a ppa r en t ly n ot for Ca lifor n ia la wm a ker s.
In st ea d, t h ey h a ve en a ct ed a la w t h a t pu n ish es pu blica t ion
of la wfu lly obt a in ed in for m a t ion , a m ove t h a t t h e U.S.
Su pr em e Cou r t h a s n ot ³ca t egor ica lly´ r eject ed 113 bu t ha s
con sist en t ly disa ppr oved in a va r iet y of con t ext s . Th ese ca ses
in volved in for m a t ion m u ch m or e sen sit ive t h a n celebr it y
ph ot os, su ch a s cla ssified P en t a gon docu m en t s 114 a n d a r a pe
vict im ¶s n a m e.115 Legisla t ive hist or y in dica t es a posit ion on
t h e pa r t of Ca lifor n ia legisla t or s t h a t t h e la w ³is n ot
n ecessa r i ly fa cia lly un con st it u t ion a l,´116 a n d it s via bilit y will
va r y depen din g on t h e fa ct u a l con t ext . Th is for ces t h e m edia
in t o t a king a h u ge risk wit h t h e pu blica t ion of ever y ph ot o
fr om a n in depen den t sou r ce.
An edit or m u st con sider
wh et h er t o pu blish a ph ot o (wh ile sim u lt a n eou sly vet t in g t h e
pa pa r a zzo, pedest r ia n or celebr it y. Wit h h igh speed ca r ch a ses sh oot in g
t h r ou gh t h e st r eet s of Los An geles wit h n o r ega r d for st r eet ligh t s or ot h er
la ws, it is on ly a m a t t er of t im e befor e disa st er st r ikes a ga in .
Bu t on a n ot h er level, a m or e ba sic h u m a n level, n o in dividu a l deser ves t o be
t r ea t ed t h e ZD \ W K H SD SD U D ]]L W U HD W P RVW RI W K HLU ³VX EMHFW V´ /LNH SD FNV RI
wolves, t h ey lit er a lly h u n t t h eir vict im s, su r r ou n din g t h em in veh icles or on
foot , followin g t h em a n d t a kin g ph ot os h opin g t o get som et h in g t h ey ca n sell.
Wh et h er t h e celebr it y wa n t s it or n ot , wh et h er ch ild in volved or n o, t h e
pa pa r a zzi per sist . Wit h ca m er a s fla sh in g a n d video r u n n in g, t h ey en da n ger
pedest r ia n s, dr iver s, t h e celebr it y a n d even t h em selves.
In vasion of P r iva cy , su pra n ot e 99 (st a t em en t of Assem . Mike F eu er , Ch a ir , Assem .
Com m . on t h e J u dicia r y).
111 . S ee Win t on & Bla n kst ein , su pra n . 34.
112 . Id .
113. Ba r t n icki v. Vopper , 532 U.S. 514, 529 (2001).
114. N.Y. Tim es Co. v. Un it ed St a t es , 403 U.S. 713, 714(1971).
115. F la . St a r v. B.J .F ., 491 U.S. 524, 541(1989).
116 . P r iva cy, su pr a n ot e 24 (st a t em en t of Sen . E llen M. Cor bet t , Ch a ir , S. Com m . on
t h e J u dicia r y) (em ph a sis a dded).
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ph ot o for offen siven ess a n d wh et h er a n yon e else h a s
pu blish ed) or r isk get t in g sla pped wit h a civil su it by t h e
gover n m en t . As n ewsr oom s a n d bu dget s sh r in k, t h e a n swer
m igh t in cr ea sin gly be t o su ppr ess in for m a t ion . F or som e
blogger s or a lt er n a t ive pu blica t ion s, a la wsu it by t h e
gover n m en t cou ld r esu lt in a t ot a l sh u t down .
Of cou r se, som e a r gu e t h a t t h e ph ot os sn a pped by
pa pa r a zzi h a ve n o socia l va lu e a n d a r e not ³n ews´ a n ywa y.
Th is is, h owever , ir r eleva n t t o t h e lega l a n a lysis of t he
con st it u t ion a lit y of t h e la t est a m en dm en t t o sect ion 1708.8
beca u se t h e la w is writ t en so br oa dly t ha t it h a s t h e pot en t ia l
t o pu n ish pu blica t ion of ph ot os of pu blic officia ls en ga gin g in
n ewswor t h y a ct ivit ies.
Also, r ega r dless of t h e cu lt u r a l
pr oblem s a n a t ion a l obsession wit h celebr it y sca n da ls (a n d
ign or a n ce of polit ica l issu es) r a ises, t h er e is a dem a n d for
t h ese ph ot os. Newspa per s a n d ot h er m edia ou t let s m u st
fu lfill t h eir ³F ou r t h E st a t e´ wa t ch dog fu n ct ion , bu t m u st a lso
m eet con su m er dem a n d. If m eet in g t h is con su m er dem a n d
m ea n s pu blish in g celebr it y ph ot os , t h u s en a blin g it t o a lso
con du ct in vest iga t ive r epor t in g on pr essin g polit ica l a nd
socia l issu es, t h en t h e pr ess sh ou ld be per m it t ed t o do so
wit h ou t pr ior r est r a in t . In ot h er wor ds, if celebr it y fodder
h elps pa y t h e bills, it is a lso pr ovidin g t h e m u ch -n eeded
r esou r ces t o pr om ot e t r a dit ion a l in vest iga t ive pieces.
Newsr oom s a r e n ot t h e on ly on es t r im m in g bu dget s in
r ea ct ion t o econ om ic woes.
Gover n m en t s, in clu din g
Ca lifor n ia ¶s, a r e a lso fa cin g t h e da u n t in g t a sk of doin g m or e
wit h less. Despit e t h is fa ct , t h e Ca lifor n ia Legisla t u r e pa ssed
a la w t h a t will r esu lt in ³excr u cia t in gly expen sive´117 F ir st
Am en dm en t lit iga t ion . P u blic la wyer s a r e n ow ch a r ged wit h
pu r su in g civil a ct ion s for t h e pr iva cy viola t ion s of
in dividu a ls. 118 Th ese in dividu a ls, t h ou gh , ca n a lr ea dy a va il
t h em selves of exist in g t or t (a n d som et im es cr im in a l)
r em edies. 119 Th e pr ovision of Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ew la w a llowin g for
117 . Id . (st a t em en t of Ca lifor n ia Newspa per P u blish er s Associa t ion ).
118 . S ee C AL . C IV. C ODE § 1708.8 (Deer in g 2009).
119 . S ee id . S ee a lso Ga lella v. On a ssis, 487 F .2d 986, 995 (1972) (m odifyin g a lower
FRX U W ¶V LQ MX Q FW LRQ D JD LQ VW SK RW RJU D SK HU 5RQ *D OHOOD IU RP FRP LQ J ZLW K LQ D FHU W D LQ GLVW D Q FHRI- D FTX HOLQ H.HQ Q HG\2Q D VVLVD Q GU HMHFW LQ J*D OHOOD ¶VD U JX P HQ W W K a t t h e F ir st
$P HQ GP HQ W ZD V ³D ZD OO RI LP P X Q LW \ SU RW HFW LQ J Q HZVP HQ IU RP D Q \ OLD ELOLW \ IRU W K HLU FRQ GX FW ZK LOH JD W K HU LQ J Q HZV´ G a lell a LV W K H IRFX V RI W K H GRFX P HQ W D U \ ILOP ³6P D VK + LV&D P HU D ´D SSHD U LQ JD W W K H6X Q GD Q FH) LOP ) HVW LYD O3 RVW LQ JRI5RJHU E ber t t o
5RJHU ( EHU W ¶V
- RX U Q D O
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pu blic fu n ds t o be u sed t o r igh t t h e wr on gs of a ggr ieved
celebr it ies is a n ir r espon sible u se of t a xpa yer m on ey.
Wh ile Ca lifor n ia ¶s n ewest a n t i-pa pa r a zzi m ea su r e will
h a ve t h e m ost im pa ct in t h a t st a t e, it m igh t st ill pose a
da n ger for pu blica t ion s a n d n ews ou t let s ou t side of Ca lifor n ia .
Alt h ou gh t h e civil pr ocedu r e a n d ju r isdict ion a l issu es r a ised
by t h e n ew la w a r e beyon d t h e scope of t h is Ar t icle, it seem s
t h a t , if a pa r en t com pa n y h a s t ies t o Ca lifor n ia , t he
pu blica t ion of ph ot os by it s n on -Ca lifor n ia ba sed su bsidia r ies
m igh t expose t h e com pa n y t o lia bilit y. Also, t h e su ccess of t h e
la t est a n t i-pa pa r a zzi la w (or per h a ps it s pa ssa ge a lon e) cou ld
pr om pt ot h er st a t es or t h e feder a l gover n m en t t o en a ct
sim ila r m ea su r es a t t h e cost of st iflin g t h e pr ess.
P r iva cy la ws like Ca lifor n ia ¶s 2009 a m en dm en t t o sect ion
1708.8 of it s civil code t h r ea t en t h e F ir st Am en dm en t , wa st e
t a xpa yer r esou r ces, a n d pa n der t o wea lt h y a n d polit ica lly
in flu en t ia l celebr it ies. Newsr oom s bu r den ed wit h dwin dling
bu dget s a n d t h e pr essu r e t o be ³fir st ´ in a n en vir on m en t of
in st a n t pu blica t ion via t h e In t er n et sh ou ld n ot be fu r t h er
sh a ckled by a la w t h a t ca lls on t h e m edia t o m a ke
det er m in a t ion s t h a t a r e sim ply n ot r ea list ic.
h t t p://blogs.su n t im es.com /eber t /2010/01/sm a sh _h is_ca m er a _bu t _n ot _im m ed.h t m l#m or e
(J a n . 25, 2010, 10:39 E ST).