The Sport Psychologist, 1991, 5, 355-364
Homophobia, the World of Sport,
and Sport Psychology Consulting
Robert J. Rotella
The University of Virginia
Mi Mi Murray
Springfield College
Homophobia has been an issue of concern in the world of sport for decades.
It has had a negative impact on the world of athletes, coaches, and sport psychology consultants. Both heterosexuals and homosexuals are affected.
Homophobia has kept some from striving for excellence while interfering
with and hindering some who pursued success in sport. Specialists in sport
psychology who claim to care about the development of human potential in
sport must be concerned about the impact of homophobia. An honest look
at attitudes, beliefs, and values is a necessary step forward if change is to
occur. A move in the direction of healthy acceptance of differing sexual preferences is suggested, along with an effective philosophy for doing so. A wish
list for the future is included.
I don't want my son playing that sport. Most of the guys who play that sport
are homosexuals. They are not going to get my son and make him a homosexual. No way. I don't care how much he likes the sport.
I know she is one of the best players in the country but there is no way we
are going to recruit her. I hear she is a lesbian and she would just destroy
our whole team. Besides, she would kill our recruiting for next year. Other
coaches would use it against us.
1 don't care what anyone says, you are not born homosexual. They will be
your best friend; they will wait for a moment of weakness and then they seduce
you. You can't be too careful. They are very dangerous.
Others can say I am biased and narrow-minded if they wish, but I cannot
afford to be understanding and helpful to homosexual athletes. As a sport
psychologist, it would destroy my reputation and cred&ility with too many
other athletes. It would give me the wrong reputation. Besides, it is against
my Christian beliefs.
Robert J. Rotella is with the Department of HPE, Ruffner Hall, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA'22903. Mi Mi Murray is with the Department of Pliysical
Education and Health Fitness, Springfield Collegk, Springfield, MA 01109.
-
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Rotella and Murray
As a sport psychologist I will work with homosexual athletes, but I must admit I do believe that there was a traumatic experience or a family or parentchild problem early in life causing the condition. I feel I must help them
straighten out their sexual preferences.
I don't really have any problem with homosexual athletes, coaches, or sport
psychologists. But I do resent the fact that their silence and secrecy causes
others to think that all of us are homosexual. It is more of an image thing;
how they affect my image is my biggest problem with it.
The first thing you must do when you are recruiting is find out the sexual
preference of the coach and team. If the coach or any of the players are
homosexual, the team doesn't have a chance of unity or success. If the coach
refuses to discuss sexual preference openly and honestly, you can be sure
the coach and at least several players are homosexual.
The preceding statements are direct quotes from individuals generally considered healthy, well educated, and actively participating in the contemporary
world of athletics. In each case the statements were listened to and supported
with silent acceptance or vocal agreement, as if they were statements of fact.
It is not uncommon for such statements to be followed by mean and dispirited
comments intended to demean, reject, and dehumanize others because of their
sexual preference.
Few issues seem to stir emotions and elicit feelings of resentment and hatred
as do socially learned attitudes and beliefs concerning homosexuality. Simple mention of the topic brings strongly felt fears and anxieties to the surface. Homophobia is the irrational fear andlor intolerance of homosexuality. It may also be used
in reference to those afraid of being thought of as homosexual, either because
of their own latent homosexuality or because of an irrational fear that they will
be found guilty by association. Internalized homophobia is when the dominant
and negative stereotypes held by society are internalized by homosexuals. Often
heterosexism goes hand in hand with homophobia. The ramifications of homophobia for the healthy development of both homosexuals and heterosexuals are equally
significant and detrimental to sport performance. Listed below are some of the
possible ramifications of homophobia.
1. (a) Some parents will discourage their children from making an honest
commitment to sports due to their concern that participation may influence their
children's sexual preference. (b) Some heterosexual and homosexual athletes will
quit their preferred sport because they do not know how to mentally, emotionally, or morally deal with other athletes who are perceived to have or who actually
do have differing sexual preferences. (c) Heterosexual athletes, coaches, fans,
and sport psychologists may mask their uncomfortableness about homosexuality
by adding to rumors, myths, lies, and general misinformation about others, or
by exaggerating the meaning of homosexuality.
2. (a) Some athletes may go to ridiculous extremes to prove to others that
they are indeed heterosexual, including being sexually active with numerous partners in a short time for the mere purpose of projecting a desired image.
(b) Playerlcoach, coachlcoach, and playerlplayer relationships may be destroyed
and the development of open, honest interactions precluded due to perceptions
regarding coaches' or players' sexual preferences. Relatedly, coaches and players
Homophobia and Sport Psychology
357
may avoid close-knit relationships in order to avoid the suggestion or the possibility of being referred to as gay.
3. (a) Some homosexual athletes and coaches intentionally undermine their
successes because of fear that their true sexual preferences will be discovered
and they will be publicly "ousted" by the media. Some heterosexual athletes may
do the same to avoid being labeled homosexual. (b) Some heterosexual athletes,
due to their own fears, will perform far below their ability when competing against
actual or perceived homosexuals; their own homophobia creates emotional and
mental distractions. (c) Some fans will support or not support athletic teams and
athletes based on the sexual preference of the coach or athletes. (d) Some athletes will avoid careers in athletics, coaching, or sport psychology due to homophobia.
4. (a) Some people speculate as to others' sexual preferences based on body
build, mannerisms, ways of moving, style of clothes, hair length, and sport choice.
This can result in tremendous difficulty in self-concept and self-esteem development for both heterosexual and homosexual athletes. (b) Many coaches, sport
psychologists, and athletes are afraid to honestly and openly discuss homosexuality with others due to their own homophobic concern that talking about it somehow relates or questions their own sexual preference. High school coaches
frequently mention their own fears of addressing homophobia with their teams
because of the potential for negative responses from players' parents and schoolboard members.
5. (a) Due to homophobia, homosexual players may be ostracized in the
locker room, during practices and contests, and at team gatherings. Heterosexual
players may constantly feel that they are being stared at or "hit upon" by homosexual athletes or coaches. Many heterosexual athletes perceive any signs of friendship by homosexual athletes as "being hit on." @) There may be a general
difficulty on the part of heterosexuals and homosexuals with accepting each other
as teammates after overhearing locker room comments such as "homosexuals
deserve to get AIDS." (c) Heterosexuals may feel they don't belong on
predominantly homosexual teams, and vice versa. Athletes in either situation commonly feel they don't have the right to play because of their sexual preference.
This is often exactly what the other team members want them to feel, hoping
they will quit. (d) Many homosexuals feel like minorities and perceive the discrimination based on sexual preference to be stronger than that based on race
and gender.
6. Coaches who are homosexual commonly live in fear of being discovered. They fear that once an athletic director "knows," they will be fired. Even
if the outcome is not termination, there is concern that the coach will lose personal, financial, and promotional support from his or her institution. The general misperception is that differences in sexual preference will somehow interfere
with the mutual and shared mission for excellence.
7. (a) On male sport teams in particular, there is concern that if a homosexual
is discovered, he will be beaten up by team members who do not know how to
deal with their feelings about the issue. (b) Many female athletes avoid becoming
strong, assertive, and competitive because doing so might label them as homosexual. Many male athletes, on the other hand, avoid displaying emotional sensitivity because it might label them as homosexual. (c) Most homosexual athletes
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Rotella and Murray
find it hard to be themselves because they publicly live a lie by "faking straight."
This may be the result of perceptions that others will have difficulty in accepting
them or they may be unwilling to deal with all of the repercussions and ramifications of being "out." (d) Secrecy keeps many homosexual athletes from having
sport role models and causes many heterosexual athletes to be incorrectly labeled
as homosexual. (e) Homophobia commonly has a negative impact on the development of team cohesion.
The possible ramifications and effects of homophobia listed above are intended to help consultants increase their awareness and sensitivity to some of these
issues so as to improve their sport psychology consulting competencies. The story
that follows is a personal documentation by a collegiate basketball player; it shows
that the effects presented above are real.
A Player's Story
"My collegiate basketball team was labeled as gay. I heard stories about this
assumption before I decided to attend this college but never gave it much thought.
While attending the college, I practiced at a local gym filled with guys. I was
asked by one of these guys if I played basketball for this particular college. I
said yes and he responded with, 'And you like guys?' I said yes again and he
replied, 'I thought everyone there was gay.' 'Apparently not,' I said, as I resumed with my game.
"As a heterosexual female athlete, I had to deal with the label of being
a tomboy at a very young age. Later, when I did not change my attitudes, behaviors, or activities to fit society's standards, I was considered to be gay by those
who need to fit people into little boxes in order to make sense of their own lives.
From a very young age I had done what I thought to be right for me, not being
too concerned with what others thought. I have always felt a strong sense of who
I am. As a result, this has helped me to deal with labels.
"Being on a team with both straight and gay women has made me more
accepting of others. My collegiate team consisted of 50% gay and 50% straight
women. We were somewhat unique in that no cliques were formed, no fights
were started, and no animosity toward others was shown because of one's sexual
preference. We were a very successful (30-0) and a very accepting team. Maybe
if we were not as successful we may not have been as accepting. On the other
hand, our success may have been partially due to the high degree of acceptance
of each other.
"One of our rival teams prided themselves as not being gay. Whether they
were all straight or not, I don't know. The rough play that went on when both
teams played each other could be attributed to homophobia. I remember not liking the team because they played so dirty. However, I became friends with two
of the players from this team. They later told me that they 'hated' us because
they knew we were all gay. It is ironic that we wondered if some of them were
gay, based on their appearance"Teams have turned on each other because of homophobia. Players have
transferred from schools because they could not handle the label of being on a
'gay' team. I have wondered about teams that show such talent on paper but not
on the court or field. Did the issue of homophobia prevent them from playing
up to their potential?
Homophobia and Sport Psychology
359
"I have been stereotyped by both heterosexuals and homosexuals as being
gay, and have come to find out that there has been great speculation over my
sexual preference among the straight and gay communities back home. People
have asked my boyfriend if he was acting as a 'cover' for me and if I was bisexual. Others have told my friends that I am gay but that I just don't know it
yet. The fact that they can't come to me with their questions and assumptions
bothered me, yet I didn't carry it over to my athletic performance. I never played
any less aggressively, nor did I shy away from any athletic event because someone might think I was gay. The maturity of each individual and the team as a
whole concerning sexual preference of team members can greatly affect a team's
cohesion. If someone is thinking and feeling unaccepted by others on the team,
it has to take away from herlhis performance. By understanding each individual
and accepting them for who they are, athletes will be able to use each other for
a source of strength instead of a source of fear.
"Dealing with homophobia is as frustrating as dealing with racism and sexism because there are so many covert reactions to these issues. I hear athletes,
coaches, and administrators make judgments about others based on nothing more
than appearance, hearsay, and their own homophobia. "
Homophobia and Sport Psychology
Anyone claiming to care about athletic performance and the development of human
potential must be concerned about the impact of homophobia. This is particularly an issue for those of us involved in sport psychology. We must honestly
look at our prejudices, beliefs, values, and attitudes whether we are dealing with
coaches and athletes or educating future leaders in sport psychology. How we
think and behave will have tremendous ramifications. Ours is a position of influence and therefore we must work responsibly.
As children, when called names by our peers it was common to respond
by saying, "Sticks and stones may break my bones but names will never hurt
me." But as adults, mean and vulgar names used to describe homosexuals do
cause hurt feelings and have a negative impact upon happiness, sport performance,
and career aspirations. Unlike children who call out names to one's face, adults
will often do their talking behind one's back, where there is no chance to respond,
explain, or defend oneself.
In general, those desiring a life-style other than heterosexual can anticipate
difficulties in a culture in which heterosexism is the norm. It is not surprising
that such difficulties may be particularly troublesome within the sport environment where intense emotional involvements, closeness with team members, and
many hours spent together in a common experience are all inherent.
Heterosexuals who find it difficult to comprehend and accept differing sexual
preferences often escape their uncomfortable dilemma by suggesting that homosexuals (real or perceived) are not "real men" or "real women." The ultimate
impact is to devalue these individuals as human beings based on their sexual preference and not to value them as people or athletes. Homosexual athletes are left
with few options. They can work toward feeling good about themselves regardless of others' opinions. They can agree with others who devalue them, thus feeling
degraded and rejected (internalized homophobia). Or they can spend their lives
in silent hiding and live in constant fear of being found out.
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For homosexuals. the healthy choice of honest self-acceptance is made difficult because they must live with the constant insensitive and discriminatory stereotypes that abound in our society. The tyranny of the majority, h a t heterosexuality
is the only right and acceptable sexual preference, creates serious consequences
for those individuals who are homosexual. To support the heterosexual view and
discourage other views, serious consequences are presented to those who are
homosexual. The point is that males and females who live outside the tsaditionally accepted sexual preference are treated unfairly and inhumanely.
Even for heterosexuals the choice of honest self-acceptance and the acceptance of others is a challenging enterprise. Acceptance is difficult enough for
adults, but for high school and college-age athletes who are still struggling with
their own sexual development and sexual identity, coming t o grips with others
of differing sexual preferences is even more challenging. This is particularly true
when well-intended albeit homophobic adults fuel the fire with half-truths and
misinfoi-mation. Fear and rejection of gay athlctes will not cause homosexuality
in sport to go away. Such responses will only continue to distract and hinder the
ability of heterosexual and hoinosexual athletes to develop as people and as athletes. In other words, homophobia hurts everyone; there is no gain from such
responses.
Like all fears, it is better to face homophobia than to ignore or avoid it
in the hope that it will disappear. There have always been homosexual male and
fernale athletes, champion athletes at that. Would homophobia subside if there
were more cultural awareness of this reality? Most experts agree that approxiniatcly 10%of our population is homosexual. Thcrc BI-ediverging opinio~lsabout
the percentage of homosexuals in the world of sport; in some cases the figurcs
are deflated. in others, inflated. Until we come to a comlhrtable acceptance of
people with differing sexual preferences, we may never know thc accurntc
numbers.
There seems to be a conspiratorial silence with scgarcl to superior gay ail?lete performance and the label of lesbianism used us the ri~lionalcor,ji~stification
for femalc athleticism. Are these self-scr-ving biases par-t ol'a conscious iittcn~pt
to keep sport a male domain and build a perception that superior fernale athletic
performance can only be explained by what some perceive as pcrvcrtecl? Perhaps
such responses are inadvertent and si117ply an ego protection. Regardless of the
reason, it is healthier and makes more sense to accept that homosexuals ai-c part
of sport, regardless of the exact percentages. ancl that honlophobi;t hurts both
honaosexuals and heterosexuals.
The Real Problem
Homosexuality is not a problem. It is simply a sexual preference. Disc!-imination
against homosexuals and fear of homosexuality is a problem, and we in sport
psychology must make certain we are helping to reduce rathcr than incr-case
homophobia and heterosexisnl. We rnust strive to develop an open iuind. support
differing sexual preferences, and be cotnfortabfe talking about homophobia with
students, athletes, and coaches. For some, this will take a great deal oi'cout-agc;
others will view doing so as a minimal act of human dece~lcy.Whatcvcr the case,
this must become a standard of professionalism in sport psychology. It can be
an important step in the evolution of sport psychology.
Homophobia and Sport Psychology
361
A Philosophy of Effective Consulting
Many years ago while studying as graduate students at the University of Connecticut, we chose to commit our lives to a philosophy that emphasized doing our
best in research and practice with the aim of enhancing the performance, health,
and well-being of athletes and coaches. While engaged in such efforts during the
past 16 years, it has become more evident that (a) individuals in sport have had
a very difficult time openly addressing the issue of homophobia, seemingly preferring to avoid it or pretend it does not exist (men like to pretend it is only in women's
sports, while women like to pretend it is only present on other women's teams);
(b) issues of heterosexism and homophobia must be addressed; and (c) specialists
in sport psychology must do their best to reduce their own homophobia before
they can begin to help others or improve conditions in sport.
The philosophy of service delivery suggested here is intended to help all
athletes and to make certain that individuals do not discriminate on any basis,
including sexual preference. We do not select athletes to work with based on sexual
preference any more than we would consider race, gender, age, or performance
level selection criteria. This seems logical, obvious, humane, and in the best interest of sports participants and the discipline of sport psychology. Would
specialists in sports medicine operate only on athletes who share their sexual preference, or for that matter even ask about sexual preference? Shouldn't it be the
same in sport psychology?
In our practice, we never attempt to find out an athlete's sexual preference,
although sometimes it is brought to our attention by the athlete. Yet it is important to note that unless an athlete raises issues concerning sexual preference, it
is not addressed. In our experience, most of the time the sexual preference of
an athlete or team member is not apparent or of concern when working on performance enhancement.
Most problematic issues are brought to the surface by heterosexuals who
bad-mouth homosexuals in conversation with the sport psychology consultant,
assuming they will get support for their views. They are often taken aback when
discussion moves in the direction of acceptance, understanding, and efforts toward
reducing homophobia. Homosexuals usually take longer before trusting enough
to discuss their sexual preference. Complete, calm acceptance of this preference
can often facilitate a positive working relationship with a lesbian or gay athlete.
If athletes discuss their psychological or emotional difficulty in dealing with
the sexual preference of teammates, coaches, or competitors, the issues are openly
and honestly discussed. The intent of these discussions is to help enhance team
cohesion, confidence, concentration, composure, self-motivation, and/or healthy
adjustment in their competitive world. The expression of strong emotions indicating
fear, hatred, resentment, or disgust of homosexuais are typical signs of homophobia. These indicators should lead to an attempt at a frank discussion including attitudes and beliefs related to sexual preference, the need for understanding
differing lifestyles, accepting other people's choices, and the advantages of acceptance over hate and fear and its consequences to athletic development in a contemporary society. Some athletes need help in understanding that homosexual
athletes are not running around attacking and sexually molesting younger or more
vulnerable athletes, which they have been brought up to believe by their homophobic parents or friends.
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For many developing athletes, such discussions are necessary and most helpful. Yet these discussions cannot be forced upon individuals who are not ready.
A consultant must build a relationship with the athlete and wait patiently until
the athlete, coach, or team is ready for such conversation.
When such discussions occur with teenage athletes, it is suggested that their
parents be included. Sometimes the parents fear that such an accepting viewpoint
will leave their children vulnerable to being taken advantage of by a homosexual.
Parents are urged to understand that education about sexual improprieties makes
sense, but generally the same concerns exist with heterosexuals as well as homosexuals. Solutions to prevent untoward involvements may vary from teaching young
athletes how to say no as well as how to avoid potentially dangerous situations,
by traveling with companions, siblings, or parents.
Usually, helping athletes downplay the importance of one's sexual preference in determining the value or acceptability of a person is another crucial step.
Getting them to understand that some people are simply attracted to members
of the same sex may help. Such an attraction does not mean something is wrong;
sexual involvement, whether homosexual or heterosexual, is the issue of concern. Frank discussions that allow athletes to realize no one IS going to change
their sexual preference against their will is also key. If fearti and concerns are
abated, it is then possible for athletes to realize that acceptance is, if anything,
a sign of maturity and security with one's own sex~talpreference and that this
acceptance will make it much easier to develop self-confidence and to concentrate in competition.
As sport psychology consultants, we do not believe it is our job to help
athletes figure out their sexual preference. Our experience indicates that it is best
to send people who are unsure, uncertain, or confused about their sexual choices
to specialists who know more about such issues. Our concern as consultants t o
athletes is that these athletes can play well against and with people of differing
sexual preferences. Coming to terms with homophobia will hclp athletes keep
their minds and emotions focused appropriately on their athletic capabilities and
perforrnanccs.
Ethical Considerations
We believe it is important for individuals in the field of sport psychology to take
an ethical stand that is well thought out concerning homophobia, and that education concerning this topic should be included in every graduate training program.
While we do not wish or presume to describe such a statement, we do suggcst
that sport psychology consultants who cannot accept homosexuality or who perceive it as a sign of a serious underlying problem must (a) realize that this view
seriously limits their ability to help athletes develop self-confidence, and (b) indicate to athletes seeking their help that they hold such a position or identify beforehand that they offer services only to heterosexual athletes. It is the rcsponsible
thing to do as a sport psychology consultant.
Developing w Repadtatisla
Like it or nor, a sport psychology consultant develops a reputation in the world
of sport. Some consultants develop a reputation for helping homosexual athletes,
Homophobia and Sport Psychology
363
some for helping heterosexual athletes; hopefully, most will develop a reputation
for helping athletes. Unfortunately, some sport psychology consultants are afraid
that helping homosexual athletes or dealing with the issue of homophobia will
hurt their career. How ethical is this attitude?
We feel that if you take care of athletes, your career will take care of itself.
Not having had specific courses addressing homophobia does not give us the right
to avoid addressing these issues, regardless of how difficult they might be to talk
about. Not being specifically educated in or about homophobia does not preclude
one from caring, accepting, and dealing with all individuals with respect and understanding. We do not presume to be experts on homophobia, but we are willing
to write candidly about our experiences with homophobia in sport. We hope we
can encourage others to talk about homophobia, feel more at ease discussing it,
and in general help others address a problem that for too long has hurt many
people in sport, physical education, and sport psychology. We can either continue to close our eyes and hold on to old views, or open our eyes and minds
and move forward in our mutual effort to help athletes enhance their performance.
Our Views of Changing Perceptions
When we look back at our personal experiences and attempts at eliminating
homophobia, we see success and failure. Some people start out closed-minded
and open their mind. Some people start out open-minded and end up closedminded. Many are in between, trying to decide what they feel and believe about
this issue.
For many who have been socialized with a perspective quite different from
the view presented here, the mere thought of changing their thinking is scary.
There are many people filled with fear and uncertainty who don't know what
to think, so it is easier and safer to hold on to what they have been told since
childhood. It is clear that avoiding and running from a fear will not solve anything.
Sport psychology consultants must be healthy role models. They must take
the time to sort out their own beliefs and then be committed enough to address
homophobia with energy and dedication because it is necessary if helping athletes is to be their mission. Setbacks, disappointments, and words of discouragement cannot become insurmountable obstacles. Realize that it is easier to write
or read about it than to change a strongly held belief system associated with
homophobia.
The following wish list is a set of principles that we would like to see adopted
by individuals in sport psychology consulting roles. It is our belief that the adoption of some or all of these principles would go a long way toward eliminating
the negative effects of homophobia from the world of sport.
A Wish List for the Future
1. Athletes are entitled to their own sexual preference, and this preference
would be accepted with respect by teammates and competitors whose own
. preferences may differ.
2. Athletic departments would hold workshops for all coaches and/or parents
to address the issue of homophobia.
3. Athletic department guidelines and rules would be similar for coach/athleie
sexual relationships regardless of whether the relationship is heterosexual
or homosexual.
4. Specialists in sport psychology would address homophobia in courses they
teach at universities and colleges and take the lead in reducing homophobia
in sport.
5. Overcoming homophobia would be ac~eptedand presented simply as another
issue of discrimination (e.g., racism, sexism, ageism) that must be overcome in the pursuit of maximizing sport performance.
6. More accurate information would be made available to people in sport concerning homophobia and homosexuality, resulting in tolerance and acceptance.
7. Realize that homosexuals may be far more accepting of heterosexuals than
heterosexuals are of homosexuals.
8. People involved with sport would rehse to laugh at or tell homophobic joltcs.
9. People involved with the sport would refuse to pretend they know someone's sexual preference based on stereotypes and myths.
10. Coaches would not give scholarships or playing time based on an athlete's
sexual preference.
11. Coaches would not be hired or fired based 011 their own sexual prefercncc.
12. Parents and high school coaches could talk to high school athletes in a way
that would reduce rather than increase homophobia, realizing that doing
so would be positive for all.
13. Sport psychology consultants would remember that sexual pl-efercncc i s not
a predictor of athletic performance.
14. Coaches, sport psychology consultants, and teammates would realizc that
not all homosexuals need nor want to "come out" and that we need to support the athlete's choice. Relatedly, an athlete's confidentiality would ;I!ways be protected.
15. Everyone would view athletes as individuals and then as athlctcs, n o more
and no less.