THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK
IN NORTHERN IRELAND
C. J. W. EDWARDS
School of Biological and Environmental Studies
The New University of Ulster, Coleraine
ABSTRACT
Production and sale of livestock dominate the rural economy of Northern
Ireland. Spatial variations occur, however, both in the scale of production and in the importance of individual livestock types. T h e paper
investigates these variations by analysis of published data for administrative areas in Northern Ireland. Initial analysis of variations in total
stock densities suggests an increase in the scale of production towards
the east of the province. Subsequently, distributions of individual
livestock types are demonstrated and reasons for spatial variations
discussed.
Finally, livestock combinations are calculated to assess
the relative importance of individual livestock types within each administrative area. Complex combinations are found over much of the
province, although certain regional patterns can be observed. Beef
fattening forms the dominant enterprise over much of the province,
while distinct regions dominated by dairying in the north-east, and
beef breeding the south-west are observed. Sheep assume a dominant
role only in the hills of the north-east, while pigs and poultry, though
never the dominant types in combination, assume a more important
role in central lowland districts.
In Northern Ireland the production and sale of livestock and livestock
products forms the principal element in the rural economy. A measure of
the dominant role played by this sector can be demonstrated in a number of
ways. In terms of output, it has been estimated that in 1973, livestock and
livestock products accounted for 92.7% of total gross agricultural output1,
and 86.5% by value of total agricultural exports from Northern Ireland2.
This dominance is reflected in the orientation of production systems at the
farm level, some 82% of the 18,500 full-time farms being mainly concerned
with livestock production3.
Such production is, however, by no means evenly spread over the whole
area, variations in physical and economic factors of production being reflected
in regional changes in both the scale of production, and in the emphasis
placed upon particular livestock enterprises, which are in turn reflected in the
spatial distribution of different types of livestock in the province.
Data sources
Restrictions governing access by research workers to individual farm
returns submitted annually to the Ministry of Agriculture by farmers on 1
June, together with the absence of any available published data at a small
58
LIVESTOCK IN NORTHERN IRELAND
RURAL DISTRICTS :
6.LARNE
13 TANORAGEE
I ANTRIM
7 LIS8URN
15BANBRIDGE
2 BAILYCASUE
10 ARMAGH
16 CASUEREAGH
59
3 8AUYMENA
11 LURGAN
17 EAST 00WN
i. BAUYMONEY
12 NEWRY K0 2
18 HII.LSB0R0UGH
19 SOUTH DOWN
20M0IRA
21 NEWRY N01
22 NORTH DOWN
25 EKNISKILLEN
26 IRVINESTOWN
32 MAGHERAFELT
27USNASKEA
3I.CASTLE0ERG
29C0LERAINE
35CL0GHER
30 LIMAVADY
36 COOKSTOWN
3U0N00N0ERRY
37 0UNGANN0N
36 0MAGH
39STRABANE
Figure I. Northern Ireland, Rural Districts.
areal scale, restrict analysis of livestock distributions to an inevitably more
generalised breakdown at the rural district level, for which published data
are available.*
Within the province, some 40 rural and urban districts are delimited, but
for the purpose of this paper, analysis has been confined to the 31 rural
districts (Fig. 1).
Recent changes in recorded categories of livestock on farm returns made
possible a relatively precise breakdown of stock numbers into their separate
roles in the livestock industry. Previous authors have noted problems of
definition in this area, particularly in relation to cattle. Gillmor5, for example,
using data from the Republic of Ireland, notes the difficulty of separating
milk cattle kept for dairy production, from cows whose milk is used primarily
to suckle calves in beef production herds, where a division of cattle in published data is made only as between milk cows and dry cattle. Coppock8, on the
EDWARDS
6o
other hand, although able to distinguish between milk and beef production
herds, experienced difficulty in apportioning uncategorised young cattle to
dairy or beef enterprises. Such problems are not experienced to the same
extent in the data used for the present study, where cattle numbers are more
accurately categorised on the basis of the production enterprise to which
they belong. Accordingly a threefold division of cattle into dairy cattle, beef
breeding cattle, and cattle reared and fattened for beef, has been possible.
The subdivision of sheep, pigs and poultry totals, though possible, has not
been attempted, as it was felt that their further subdivision at this scale of
enquiry might lead to their small but significant total coniributions to livestock distributions being ignored at the final stage of calculation of livestock
combinations.
Livestock units
In order to make meaningful comparisons between the importance of
different types of livestock, it must be recognised that various types of animal
have varying requirements necessary for their maintenance and production.
The comparison of simple numerical totals for each category must therefore
inevitably give a false impression of the relative importance of particular
types. Previous writers7 have recognised that the most satisfactory way to
avoid this problem is to convert livestock types into a system of livestock units
based upon their respective relative feed requirements. The livestock unit
conversion factors used in this paper are those calculated by Attwood and
Heavey8 to suit Irish conditions (Table 1), and used by Gillmor'1.
TABLE i
LIVESTOCK UNIT EQUIVALENTS
Type
L.U.
Equivalent
Bulls, cows, heifers in calf
1.00
Other cattle aged 2 years and over
1.00
Other cattle aged 1 to 2 years
0.67
Other cattle aged less than 1 year
O.33
Rams, ewes
0.20
Other sheep aged 1 year and over
0.16
Other sheep aged less dian 1 year
0.10
Boars
0.25
Sows, gilts in pig
0.50
Other pigs
0.14
Poultry aged over 6 months
0.02
Poultry aged under 6 months
O.OO5
LIVESTOCK IN NORTHERN IRELAND
61
Figure 2. Dislribution of lotal livestock units — 1974.
A preliminary calculation for the province as a whole, on the basis of such
conversion, records a total of 1,595,880 livestock units in June 1974. The
percentage of this total derived from each of the six livestock production
categories to be discussed further were as follows: dairy cattle, 17.4; beef
breeding cows, 23.2; beef rearing and fattening cattle, 32.8; sheep, 8.9;
pigs, 8.3; and poultry, 9.4.
Distribution of total livestock writs
Initial evidence of variations in the spatial distribution of livestock is
obtained from Figure 2. Stock densities are recorded on the basis of an
adjusted acreage (based on one acre of crops and grass or six acres of rough
grazing), similar to that used by Gillmor10, in order to take into account the
likelihood of lower stock densities occurring on areas of hill or other physically
marginal land.
Figure 2 shows that there is a general tendency for livestock densities to
increase from west to cast, reflecting both an improvement in physical conditions towards the east of the province, and also a reduction of economic
constraints away from the south and west, where limitations of farm size in
particular further reduce stock carrying capacity. The lowest densities are
recorded in Co. Fermanagh, where pasture improvement is limited by a
combination of high rainfall and poorly drained land of low quality", and
6.!
EDWARDS
where more than 60% of farms can be classed as 'marginal' or 'non-viable'
because of their small acreage12.
Certain anomalies occur to vary this general trend, however, the high
density in Castlederg R.D. in the west, and the low density in Castlereagh
R.D. in the east being the most noticeable. In the former case, the presence
of an area of rich, well-drained, light to medium loams, and a long tradition
of tillage and pasture improvement in the Derg valley, probably account for
the higher figure; in the latter area, the close proximity of this small district
to Belfast, which offers alternative employment, encourages a high incidence
of part-time farming, which undoubtedly accounts for a lowering of stock
densities.
DAIRY CATTLE AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LIVESTOCK UNITS
>35
°
300-31.9
EEB
E5)
EZ3
HZ]
CD
□
25 0-29 9
20 0- 21.9
150-199
100-H9
5 0-99
<<-9
^-V,
" ^
^
L--
lOMls.
0
lOKms
Figure 3. Spatial distribution of dairy cattle — 1974.
The distribution of livestock types
I. DAIRY CATTLE. Although only accounting for 17.4% of the total
livestock units, dairy cattle account, through milk sales alone, for some 20%
of total receipts from agriculture, providing in addition, through surplus
young stock and culled cows, a considerable quantity of total beef. Average
herd size is 19 milking cows, although in recent years a continued trend
towards larger production units has taken place; by 1974, 68.6% of cows
were kept in herds of more than 20 animals. At the same time greater
LIVESTOCK IN NORTHERN IRELAND
63
Figure 4. Spatial distribution of beef breeding cows — 1974.
emphasis has been placed upon production from high yielding breeds,
Friesians accounting for 87 per cent of all dairy cows by 197413.
The proportion of total livestock units accounted for by dairy cattle is by
no means evenly spread, and as can be seen from Figure 3, two main areas
carry large proportions of dairy cattle. In Co. Fermanagh, dairy farming
tends to be based on small production units, largely producing summer
milk from permanent pastures, which are limited in their grazing capacity
at other seasons due to problems of soil drainage. The absence of a major
liquid market in this area, accentuates a summer milk surplus, much of which
must be manufactured into creamery products. The major orientation of
milk production, however, is towards the north-east of the province. This
second area, comprising much of Co. Antrim and northern districts of Co.
Down, contributes a great deal more towards total dairy production, herd
sizes being generally larger. Overall production is less seasonal (a proportion
of producers concentrate on winter milk production based on the feeding of
grass silage or home grown barley) and geared to supply a larger liquid market
in Belfast and other urban areas in the east. Dairy cattle are least important
in the south and west and, as might be expected, in the upland areas of the
Antrim plateau and the Mourne Mountains in the east.
II. BEEF BREEDING. Beef cattle have been separated into two groups
in order to note any spatial variations which may occur as between areas
64
EDWARDS
Figure 5. Spatial distribution of beef rearing and fattening — 1974-
principally concentrating on breeding young stock, and those orientated to a
greater extent towards fattening beef cattle for slaughter.
A breeding herd of 339,000 beef cows was ennumerated in 1974, with
herds averaging 12.5 cows per holding. This latter figure is largely a product
of a large number of small beef units suppressing the mean figure, and many
large herds do occur, 27.3% of farms with above average herd sizes carrying
66.2% of total beef cows14.
Expressed as a percentage of total livestock units, beef cows again exhibit
marked regional variations (Fig. 4). The most prominent breeding area
lies in the west of the province, densities being highest in the lowlands of
Co. Fermanagh and south Co. Tyrone, where in all districts beef cows
account for more than 25% of total stock units. In addition to this major
area, isolated districts with high proportions in this category can be observed
in the east, particularly associated with hill areas such as the Mourne Mountains and the Antrim plateau, where increasing numbers of hill cattle have been
introduced into areas once dominated by sheep. Low percentages are recorded in the principal dairying districts of Antrim and Down, and also extend
into north Armagh and east Tyrone.
III. BEEF REARING AND FATTENING. Cattle being reared and
fattened for beef production form the largest single group of livestock, and
LIVESTOCK IN NORTHERN IRELAND
65
contribute the greatest proportion to total agricultural receipts (25.8%)15.
Livestock in this group originate mainly from beef breeding herds, but arc
augmented by a considerable addition of young stock from dairy farms, in
the form of unwanted bull calves, and surplus heifers. The increased use of
Friesian cows, coupled with the common practice of crossing at least a proportion of die dairy herd on to beef-type bulls, has led to these animals being
of a higher beef fattening potential than former surplus products of the dairy
herd.
Figure 5 demonstrates the high proportion of total livestock units in this
category over most of the province, with some concentration in the south.
Only four districts have less than 25% of total stock units in beef rearing and
fattening, three of these being major dairying districts from which surplus
stock tends to be transported to other districts, rather than being reared on
as a subsidiary enterprise on dairy farms. It is also of interest to note that
several districts which have high proportions of beef breeding cows, (e.g. in
Co. Fermanagh and in the hill districts of north Antrim and the Mournes)
contain lower proportions of fattening animals, and tend to export young
store cattle to other districts for final fattening. In the former case, the shortness of the grazing season limits the area's potential as a fattening region,
while in the hill areas, pasture quality is often too poor to fatten beef stock
profitably. The principal fattening area is in the southern districts of Co.
Figure 6. Spatial distribution of sheep — 1974.
66
EDWARDS
Figure 7- Spatial distribution of pigs — 1974.
Down and Co. Armagh, where locally produced calves are augmented by
bought-in stores from Fermanagh and the Mournes, and fattened in areas
where a high proportion of tillage and good quality pasture often allows the
fattening of at least two batches of stores each year.
IV. SHEEP. Sheep play a relatively minor role in overall livestock output,
meat and wool production only accounting for 2.5% of total receipts in 197416.
Production tends to be concentrated in hill and mountain areas where in
recent years sheep numbers have been declining, principally due to the increased introduction of beef suckler herds into hill environments. As may
be expected, therefore, a map of relative sheep densities (Fig. 6) reflects this
situation, sheep numbers being greatest in those districts with appreciable
hill areas (the Sperrin mountains, the Mournes, and the Antrim plateau)
where the main breeding flocks are kept, and in those lowland districts
immediately surrounding these breeding areas, where lambs from the hills
are subsequently fattened, or where cross-bred ewes, drafted from the hills,
are crossed on to a Downsbred ram to produce heavier lambs17 in lowland
flocks.
V. PIGS. The distribution of pigs in 1974 must firstly be viewed in the light
LIVESTOCK IN NORTHERN IRELAND
67
18
of considerable declines in pig numbers , which marks a low point in a
recurring 'hog cycle' in the province. Nevertheless pig production still
accounts for 21.8% of total receipts from agriculture, making them the
second most important element in livestock production. Low average breeding sow numbers (7 per farm engaged in pig production) and average herd
size (65 per farm) are again attributable to the large number of small scale
pig production units. Taking all producers, 66% have herds below these
average figures, but collectively they account for only 25'/ 0 of the total pig
herd1'-1. Small units are declining in number, however, particularly those
which traditionally kept pigs as a secondary enterprise on dairy farms, feeding skimmed milk, a by-product of butter manufacture, which latterly has
become increasingly costly to buy back from local creameries.
Figure 7 to an extent reflects this trend, with districts around Lough Neagh
achieving relatively high proportions of total stock units in pigs, largely as a
result of the establishment of small numbers of large scale production units
in these areas, while other lowland districts have smaller total pig populations, but large numbers of small scale producers.
VI. POULTRY. Poultry production accounts for 19.3% of receipts, 80%
of this total being derived from egg production. This seaor of the livestock
industry, to an even greater extent than pigs, has become concentrated in the
POULTRY AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LIVESTOCK UNITS
Figure 8. Spatial distribution of poultry — 1974.
6S
EDWARDS
hands of a relatively small number of large scale producers, though most
farms may run a small flock for purely domestic use. In the important egg
production sector, for example, though average flock size is only 450 birds
per producer, 94% of production is concentrated on units with larger than
average sized flocks, 43.8% of total egg production deriving from a mere 121
production units (0.8",, of all egg producers)2". Distribution of poultry
(Fig. 8) tends therefore to reflect the location of these few larger producers
in the lowlands of Co. Antrim, in north Down, and in areas to the south and
west of Lough Neagh.
Livestock combinations
Despite the fact that a number of spatial variations in the importance of
individual livestock types can be observed, no area of the province is dominated by one type alone, many individual farms combining production in more
than one type of livestock21. For this reason no true picture of livestock
distributions can be seen by looking at each livestock category separately;
rather must they be combined in some way in order to assess their relative
importance in any area. One technique available to enable such comparison
is to calculate livestock combinations for each area. This method, originally
developed by Weaver22, has been shown to contain certain defects23, but has
been modified by others 2 ' to form a useful method of analysis for studies of
this type. Accordingly, for each rural district, livestock units in each of the
six categories were expressed as percentages of total livestock units in the
district, ranked in descending order, and by the method of least-squares, as
modified by Thomas 2 ', livestock combinations were derived for each district.
As can be seen in Figure 9, there is a marked tendency towards complex
combinations, 25 of the 31 districts displaying combinations of 4 or more
livestock types. Further complexity is evident in that few combinations recur
in more than one district. A ranking of livestock categories, according to the
positions they occupy in combinations can to an extent resolve this complexity. Table 2 indicates the frequency of occurrence of each livestock type in
each rank of the combinations. As can be seen, beef fattening cattle form a
significant type in combinations in all districts, and occur most frequently as
the first ranked category, never falling below third place in combination.
Beef breeding cattle, on the other hand, although again being recognised in
all districts, occur most frequently as second or third ranked category. Dairy
cattle occur less often in combination, generally occupying third rank, although in a number of districts they occur as first ranked category. Of less
importance are pigs, poultry and sheep, all occurring less frequently overall,
pigs and poultry generally occupying fourth or fifth place in combinations,
while sheep appear to occupy no preferred position.
Despite the apparent complexity of combinations, certain regional patterns
can be observed. If areas are mapped according to their leading livestock
type, as in Figure 9, the dominance of beef fattening cattle over much of the
province can be confirmed, while distinct regions dominated by beef breeding
in the south-west and by dairy cows in the north-east can be observed.
Sheep achieve a dominant position only in the extreme north-cast, on the
Antrim plateau, while pigs and poultry, although tending to become increasingly important in combnations in central lowland areas surrounding
Lough Neagh, never attain a dominant position.
LIVESTOCK IN NORTHERN IRELAND
69
Figure 9. Livestock combinations — 1974.
TABLE 2
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE IN COMBINATION
First
rank
Dairy Cows
5
Second
rank
Third
rank
7
14
Fourth
rank
Fifth
rank
Sixth
rank
Total
occurrence
4
-
-
25
3
2
-
31
-
-
-
31
2
12
Beef breeding
3
13
10
Beef fattening
22
8
I
Sheep
I
1
3
4
1
Pigs
-
2
-
3
4
1
10
Poultry
-
-
3
11
4
-
18
70
EDWARDS
Conclusion
Contrasts in the spatial distribution of livestock at the rural district level
have been demonstrated, and in the case of individual types of livestock some
distinct patterns are seen to emerge. The calculation of livestock combinations, however, makes it possible to discern certain regional patterns of livestock preference, demonstrating the numerical dominance of fattening cattle
over much of the province, with dairy cows, beef breeding cows and sheep
dominating in certain more restricted areas. These combinations indicate a
complex inter-relationship between all types of livestock in most areas,
suggesting that on a district basis, at least, mixed livestock farming is most
commonly encountered. This should not be taken to mean that specialisation
at the individual farm level does not exist. As has been noted, large proportions of the pig herd and poultry flock of the province are increasingly being
produced by a small number of specialist producers, and as has been demonstrated elsewhere in more detailed local studies20, similar specialisation may
well be more common at the individual farm level in other sectors of the
livestock industry.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
' Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Statistical review of Northern
Ireland agriculture, 1973-74, H.M.S.O., 1975, 16-17.
»Ibid., 34:
' The Ulster yearbook—1974, H.M.S.O. Belfast, 1973, 149.
' This data is published annually, and is available on request from the Ministry
of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Economics and Statistics Division.
5
D . A. Gillmor, 'Spatial distribution of livestock in the Republic of Ireland', Econ.
Geogr., 46, 1970, 587-597* J. T . Coppock, An agricultural atlas of England and Wales, London, 1964, 198.
' Ibid.; J. T . Coppock, 'Crop, livestock and enterprise combinations in England
and Wales', Econ. Geogr., 40, 1964, 65-81; Gillmor, op. cit.
8
E. A. Attwood and J. F . Heavey, 'Determination of grazing livestock units',
Ir. J. agric. Res., 3, 1964, 249-251.
" Gillmor, op. cit.
'" Ibid.
11
L . Symons, Land use in Northern Ireland, London, 1963, 234.
18
L. Symons, 'Rural land utilisation in Ireland', 259-273 in N . Stephens and
R. E. Glasscock (eds.), Irish geographical studies in honour of E. Estyn Evans, Belfast,
1970.
13
Department of Agriculture, op. cit., 39, 57.
1
1 Ibid., 58.
"■ Ibid., 18.
10
Ibid., 18.
" Cross-bred ewes, usually Scottish Blackface X Border Leicester, are drafted
from the hills after 5 to 6 years of hill production, and crossed, usually with a Suffolk
ram, to produce 2 or 3 further crops of lambs on lowland farms.
18
Total pig numbers fell by 17% between June 1973 and June 1974, and breeding
sow numbers by 37% over the same period. Department of Agriculture, op. cit., 64.
"Ibid., 66.
80
Ibid., 67.
LIVESTOCK
IN N O R T H E R N
IRELAND
71
" C. J. W. Edwards, 'Farm enterprise systems in east Co. Londonderry', Ir. Geogr.
7, 1974. z9-5«21
J. C. Weaver, 'Crop-combination regions in the Middle West', Geogrl Rev.,
44. i954> 175-200.
*" M. Chisholm, 'Problems in the classification and use of farming-type regions',
Trans, /art. Br. Geogr., 35, 1964, 91-103; E. Dayal, 'Crop combinations regions, a
case study of the Punjab plains', Tijdschr. earn. soc. Geogr., 58, 1967, 439-47; J. D .
Henshall, 'Models of agricultural activity', 425-458 in R. J. Chorley and P. Haggett,
Models in geography, London, 1967.
24
Coppock, op. cit., 'Crop, livestock and enterprise combinations'; Gillmor, op. cit.
25
D . Thomas, Agriculture in Wales during the Napoleonic Wars, Cardiff, 1963.
" Edwards, op. cit.