The
AUKANERS
of
Suriname and French Guyana
May 2002
People Profile: Looking At The Aukan Nation From The Outside
Deep in the interior of the rain forests of Suriname and French Guiana live a
group of people called the Aukaners. They are the descendants of African slaves brought
over from Central and West Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries by the Dutch to work the
many plantations in the coastal regions. Conditions on the plantations were often cruel
and inhumane resulting in escapes of slaves into the jungle interior of the country where
they would not be followed. The Aukaners set up their own societies, forming a unique
culture, language and lifestyle. For over 300 years the Aukaners have lived in relative
isolation from the outside world. This paper will attempt to explore and document who
the Aukaners are and provide at least an initial look into how they view the world.
Classification/Name
Slaves who escaped from their captivity to form independent people groups are
known as Maroons. There are two Maroon groups in Suriname: the Aukaners and the
Saramacans. Aukaners go by two different names depending largely on the location in
which they live. Those Aukaners who live along the Tapanahony River and make up the
ethnographic core of the people group refer to themselves as Ndjuka. Aukaners who live
in the city as well as the coastal Cottica River region refer to themselves simply as
Aukaners. While these two groups of individuals go by different names, they share the
same cultural, historical and family background and see themselves as the same people
group. There are two other related groups that speak a very similar dialect to Aukans: the
Aluku, and the Paramacca. These two groups today are considered distinct. Of these the
Aukan/ Ndjuka is the largest group, numbering approximately 33,000. In spite of the
their common kinship and language, the Aukaner sub-groups are not friendly with each
other and do not necessarily cooperate. Within the last few years, a large but
undetermined number of Aukaners have migrated to French Guiana.
A Brief History
Because the history of the Aukaner people plays a significant role even today in
their self-identity, it is important to briefly recount some of their history. As stated
earlier, the Aukaners were slaves who escaped from plantations on the coastal part of
Suriname in the 1600’s and 1700’s. After their escape, these freed slaves would form
clans, which are the building blocks of their society even today; villages were located in
the jungle interior. In an effort to free other slaves, the Maroons frequently raided Dutch
plantations resulting in loss of property and some loss of Dutch lives. A protracted
guerilla war ensued ending only with a peace treat with the Dutch in 1760. The Aukaners
were the first of the Maroon groups to be granted semi-independence as a result of this
treaty. The Aukaners were free to live in isolation and received annual payments from
the Dutch government to cease their raiding of Dutch plantations.
The Aukaner people remained relatively isolated until the 1950’s when the
government in Paramaribo began to employ Ndjuka’s. This pace of migration continued
in the 60’s and 70’s as tens of thousands of Surinamers moved to the Netherlands in the
wake of Suriname independence in 1975. (About 1/3 of the Suriname population –
200,000 people – migrated to the Netherlands.)
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In 1986 a Civil War began in Suriname between the Maroons and the Dutch
government. As a result many of those who had migrated to the capital returned home to
renew their cultural ties and re-establish their loyalties. The war lasted until 1990 when a
new peace treat was finally signed. It is important to note that the war was responsible
for a renewed commitment to their own way of life and culture for the Aukaner people.
Even though today up to 50% of the population at some time or another lives in the
capital (of these, 25% are permanent moves and 25% are temporary, employment
moves), they still consider themselves solidly Aukaner and are proud of their history and
heritage.
Family Structure
The primary family unit in Aukan society is the matriclan (“lo”). Matriclans
originated from a particular group of runaway slaves of a specific plantation from which
they derived their names. There are twelve matriclans; each matriclan contains kinsmen
who are matrilineally related. These are the strongest family ties; marriage is important
but does not produce as vital a family link. Each Aukan village contains three groups of
people:
1.) matrilineal descendants of common ancestress (“people of the belly”)
2.) descendants of the men of the matrlineage (“fathers made them
children”)
3.) those who moved to these villages as relatives by marriage; i.e. affines
(“those who have come to live”)
Aukaners practice polygamy (more than one wife for a man) but only if the man
can afford to maintain more than one household. About 1/3 of the marriages are
polygamous. Marriage in the Aukan sense consists of an official meeting held of the
woman’s matriclan resulting in a verbal contract. Basically, the woman agrees to bear
the man’s children; the man agrees to provide materially for his wife.
Once married couples must choose where they will live. Due to the fact that 1/3
of the men have more than one wife, care is taken in making that choice! In a recent
study the following was discovered:
25% couples chose to live in the village of the husband’s family
30% couples chose to live in the village of the wife’s family
28% couples chose to live in both places
15% chose to live in their own villages with only brief visits to each other
It is not unusual for a man to own a house in his wife’s village, his lineage village and his
father’s village. Divorce is relatively easy and frequent, some say as high as 40%. In
order to obtain a divorce, the man informs his wife’s matriclan’s leaders that he no longer
wants to be her husband. If the man has wronged the woman in some way, a fine is
levied by the matriclan to appease the ancestral spirits. It is said that if a woman
“overpowers” a man by her attitudes and actions that man should divorce his wife and go
back to his own village.
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The Role of the Woman
For a woman, bearing children is her most important task. Girls tend to marry
around the age of 15 and are immediately expected to bear many children. Women are
responsible for growing food (especially rice) for the family. Gardens are located away
from the villages. Therefore, often the women must travel to these gardens by canoe at
regularly. Women can hold two positions of authority in the village: a basia and a
medium/priestess. These positions will be discussed in detail in later sections.
The presence of polygamy adds many stresses to family life among the Aukaners.
Co-wives are notorious for their arguments and discord; in fact, a standard synonym for
the verb “to fight” (feti) literally means “to make (act like) a co-wife.” A wife is
completely dependent on her husband for her material possessions and is in competition
with all of her husband’s wives.
The Role of the Man
Men in Aukan society are the providers, the hunters. They are responsible for
providing their wife/wives with material possessions. It is their duty to clear the land for
their wife’s garden; provide her with meat and fish; build a hut and canoe for her; and
provide tools and presents (imported from the coastal regions of Suriname). The majority
of men spend at least part of the year working in Paramaribo or French Guiana, earning
money to take care of their families. Men are also responsible for taking care of
members of his matriclan even after he departs his own village. As a result, many men
go between living with his wife in her village and in his own village. As a man ages, he
frequently makes his primary residence that of his matrilineage where he exerts much
power and prestige.
Men are not primary care-givers to children. They may or may not be
emotionally bonded to their children. Often a man’s wife and children live in different
villages from him resulting in the child not seeing his father very often.
The Role of the Children
Children are an important part of Aukan society and are highly valued. From
birth gender roles are clearly defined and this is exhibited in children’s play. Little girls
play at being pregnant; nursing babies; tying babies to their backs; making formal visits
to their husband’s villages; and pretend to be possessed by snake gods. Little boys stalk
lizards and small birds; pack imaginary suitcases for trips to the coast; “drive” imaginary
motorboats; and pretend to be possessed by warrior gods. Girls are expected to help with
washing dishes and caring for younger children. Boys are told to go and catch fish for
the next meal. Boys sit in the rear of the canoe as soon as possible (around the age of
eight) since it is more appropriate for a man to steer a canoe in Aukan society. Boys are
often taken to the coast to see Paramaribo, but girls are not. If there is a school, it is seen
as beneficial for boys to go but not necessary for girls. Girls generally marry around the
age of 15; boys marry in their middle 20’s.
The discipline of children is the responsibility of the whole village and not just the
mother or father. An Aukan child’s motivation for behavior is to get by with as much as
possible, to push as far as possible until absolute limits are reached. These limits are not
known until disciplinary action is taken. Adults (even some teenagers) are all involved in
the training of a child. Disciplinary actions are usually dramatic affairs with adults
chasing after children with a switch held high in the air. The children generally scream
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as loudly as they can as they run from the adult. In Aukan society, it is expected that
some adult will intervene to prevent the whipping. This intermediary will not use
reasoning or attempt reconciliation; he/she just gives mercy to the child. The intention of
this discipline is to scare the child into submission rather than actually physically abusing
the child. Usually it is very effective; little juvenile delinquency is present in the Aukan
society.
Males are seldom involved in child-rearing. However, the most influential person
in a child’s life (especially a male child) is the brother of his mother (his uncle). The
uncle makes many decisions for the child especially if the father does not live in the
village. If a son grows up in his father’s village, the bond is very important. The son will
defend the honor of his father and frequently settles in the immediate vicinity of his
father’s village even after marriage.
Neighbor/Village Relationships
There are many family groups within each village in Aukan society. Families
relate to each other on a competitive basis. Limited resources, game, fish and planting
grounds lead to a competitive agenda. Most family to family meetings take place to settle
disputes between the families. Friendships are few outside of the family.
Aukan society is egalitarian; no social classes exist for the most part. There are
positions of respect, however. The hierarchy of respect for most Aukan villages is as
follows:
religious practitioner
gaanman
captains
basias
storeowners/teachers
matriclan leaders
There is also a hierarchy in terms of levels of trust for an Aukaner. The following shows
who an Aukaner would trust and in what order:
Fellow villagers
Fellow clan members
Whole Aukan linguistic/cultural group
Fellow Maroons
Fellow Surinamers
Foreigners (white people – bakaa)
As can be seen, any white person or non-Aukaner is looked at with a certain level of
distrust. Aukaners must always see themselves as being in the winning position when
dealing with foreigners. They are very hesitant to reveal their true thoughts to foreigners,
4
especially in the areas of religion and folk tales. This has obvious ramifications for the
missionary, and every effort must be made to gain trust and acceptance.
The Authority Structure
There are four groups of authority in Aukan society: elders (including the
paramount chieftain – the Gaanman); the captains (kabitens); kunu (avenging spirits of
ancestors); and the priests (shamans, herbalists, funeral foremen, etc.). The elders make
most of the decisions that are non-religious in nature in the society. Captains are local
leaders; the primary captain (like a mayor in some sense) is called the Ede Kabiten. Each
captain as two male and two female assistants called basias. Male basias act as village
criers, announcing the beginning of village functions as well as other news. Female
basias cook and serve food for large village functions and maintain mortuary and other
meeting places. In reality priests have the utmost authority in that they interpret the
wishes of ancestral spirits and kunu. More detail on this will be provided in the section
on religion.
The principal political offices (Gaanman and kabitens) are determined through
matrilineal lines. Successors of these offices are distant relatives (must belong to the next
generation) of the preceding officer.
Law and Order
Religious taboos form the framework of law and order in the Aukan society.
When a dispute arises among Aukaners, it is usually settled after an impasse is reached.
Typically, there is much yelling and gesticulating. A mediator (who is usually an affine;
i.e. one who has married into the family) is called in to keep grievance from escalating to
the point of angering the matriclan’s ancestors. In settling disputes, both sides must feel
that they have achieved a cumulative gain in the decision-making process. The fear of
kunu generally acts as a strong motivation to settle the dispute. If the kunu become
angry, there will be sickness and/or death in some member of the village (not necessarily
the disputing parties). As a result, it is in the best interest of the entire village to make
sure that disputes are settled before matters escalate.
Physical abuse is uncommon; striking each other is a very strong taboo. The
exception to this rule is a wife caught in adultery – in this instance the husband has the
right to beat the wife within certain parameters. (He must not use a stick or other weapon;
the fight cannot take place on river or in the fields.) Citizens in this case are expected to
intervene and stop punishment (much like the intervention of adults in the discipline of
children). Unfortunately, in recent times there have been higher levels of physical abuse,
perhaps resulting from the negative influence of gold miners in the area.
If a member of a village refuses to settle a dispute, the common punishment is
ostracism. It is important to realize, however, that the overarching theme of Aukan law is
a pursuit of mercy over justice. If, however, the ancestral spirits demand justice,
punishment is carried out swiftly out of fear.
Times of Celebration
The biggest annual holiday in Aukan society is held to mark the end of the one
year period of mourning (Bokode). Another holiday is celebrated in July to
commemorate the end of slavery (Masipasi). Other celebrations center around cyclical
5
family events. For example, women are required at each menstruation to be separated
from the rest of society. Special menstrual huts are available for women to use during
this time. When women return to their own homes following menstruation, there is a
time of happy celebration. Also, three months after a woman gives birth, a woman and
newborn are no longer believed to be ritually unclean and are released back into village
life. A time of celebration and presentation of the infant ensues.
Aukan Art
Aukaners enjoy producing art in a variety of ways, all of which are gender
specific. Men make elaborate wood carvings including boat oars, trays, canoes, and
houses. They frequently brightly paint the doors of their homes as well as their boat oars.
Men are considered to be the master artists of the Aukan people. Women, on the other
hand, downplay their own artistic abilities. Women carve out calabash bowls, ladles, and
containers. Women also sew and cross-stitch designs on their husbands’ camissa (a togatype of garment thrown over one shoulder and caught with a knot). The giving of artistic
gifts having carefully been made are important expressions of love between spouses.
Aukan Access to Media
Most Aukan villages have diesel powered generators. Often these generators are
in disrepair, but when they are working, electricity is available to up to 90% of the village
population. Radios are accessible to most people. There is no television reception in the
villages along the Tapanahoni, but some store owners and bar owners do have television
and VCR’s. Radio has been said to be an excellent medium for communication to the
Aukan people. There is no radio in the Aukan language reaching the interior.
Education and Literacy
In the 1960’s there was only one elementary school that existed in the Tapanahoni
region due to Ndjuka opposition to missionaries. However, demands of civil life and
opening of government schools made opposition disappear. Sadly, all schools closed
during the Civil War from 1986-1991. At present the national school system tries to
educate all children, but most children will only go through the third or fourth grade.
There are Moravian schools in one or two villages; government schools are located in
Manlobi, Stoehlman’s Island and other villages. Children are often pulled out of school
to plant and harvest crops. More boys attend school than girls as the Aukan people see
education more profitable for boys who will eventually work in the capital than girls who
will stay on the River.
It is not surprising, therefore, that Aukaners are oral communicators. About 3040% of the Aukaners who live in the capital can read some; they read in Dutch (which is
what is taught in schools). The Suriname government statistics estimate that the literacy
rate among all Aukaners is 66%. Literacy for the government is defined as the
recognition of some Dutch words. The Summer Institute of Linguistics whose
missionaries have lived among the Aukaners for many years and have done extensive
research estimate the literacy rate to realistically be about 15%. It is important to note
that this is literacy to Dutch which is obviously not the heart language of Aukaners. The
lifestyle of the Aukan people who live on the river is not conducive to literacy training as
they are frequently working in agricultural fields, etc.
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Language
The heart language of the Aukan people is Aukans. The majority of this language
is derived from West and Central African languages. The grammar in Aukans resembles
African models.The other influences on Aukans are as follows:
*30% derived from English (language of original colonists in Suriname)
*10% derived from Portuguese (language of many Suriname plantation owners)
*10% derived from Amerindian and Dutch
Among coastal residents there is considerable bilingualism (Aukans and Sranan
Tongo). Sranan Tongo is closely related to Aukans. Some coastal residents are trilingual
(with Aukans, Sranan Tongo and Dutch). The heart language of even these coastal
inhabitants, however, is Aukans.
Dress
The Aukan people have a very typical style of dress which distinguishes them
from Western society. Aukan women often go topless or wear a bra only. The upper
thigh, buttocks and pelvic area are always covered with a pangi – a one piece wrap
around cloth. Aukan men often go topless or wear the camissa (a toga-like cloth thrown
over one shoulder and caught with a knot). There are times when Aukan men wear a
mixture of traditional Aukan dress and Western dress (especially hats) to formal
occasions. There is a trend toward the wearing of more Westernized clothing especially
among the young.
Economy
Agriculture is the main focus of the Aukan economy. Items grown, however, are
for the personal use of those who grow them (as well as a small group of related family
members). There are no markets. The main crop is dry rice; other crops include cassava,
taro, okra, maize, plantains, bananas, sugar cane and peanuts. Hunting and fishing are
also significant contributors to the overall economy of the region. Again, game and fish
are shared with a small group of kinsmen; none are purchased in a market-style economy.
Also contributing to the Aukan economy today are items purchased in Paramaribo
by Aukan men employed there. These items are then brought into the interior and
include shotguns, tools, pots, cloth, hammocks, salt, soap, kerosene, rum, outboard
motors, transistor radios, and tape recorders. Aukaners are also emplyoyed in the areas
of forestry and gold mining. Gold mining is now employing many Aukaners , especially
in the are of Sella Creek (a tributary of the Tapanahoni).
Religious Structure
Religion plays an extremely important role in the life of the Aukaner. The
religious structure is one of animism and ancestral spirit veneration. There is a three
tiered hierarchy of gods (see p. 11) which plays a crucial role in every aspect of Aukan
life. Some of the most significant gods are now discussed. The creator, the god who is
most powerful, is called “masaa gadu.” One of the most powerful spirits is “father god”
(“papa gadu”) which is an incarnation of the boa constrictor. This is a god of mayhem
7
and evil and is invoked in witchcraft. Because Aukaners are polytheistic, they are often
willing to add Jesus to their pantheon of gods, probably in the second tier.
Superstition plays a major role in the life of an Aukaner. Individuals live in fear
that they will commit some sin that will upset their ancestral spirits. Avenging, ancestral
spirits are called “kunu” and must be appeased (through libations and sacrifices) when a
wrong is committed. All sickness (especially serious illness) is seen to be the result of
kunu action. In sickness or death, the ritual of divining is undertaken to determine the
cause of the illness (i.e., who is to blame for the sickness by their sin). This is
accomplished through the use of oracles (often hair of the deceased) tied in a bundle and
attached to a long plank. Two men hold the plank on their heads and then questions are
put to the oracle. The way the plank moves, answers the questions. Aukaners also use
charms, amulets, and fetishes to protect them from evil. Witchcraft is a reality in the
Aukan society and is to be feared. Priests make decisions on whether someone is a witch.
Frequently, when someone dies of unknown reason, the priest will mark them as a witch.
There is a definite sense of good and evil in the Aukan mind set. Evil is
associated with great danger, so it is to be avoided as much as possible. When a sin is
committed, atonement is made quickly as directed by religious practitioners (priests and
mediums). The concept of salvation by faith is foreign to Aukan thinking. There is the
concept of mercy in their system of justice, but atonement must always be made to cover
sin. Aukan mindset would be equivalent to a salvation by works. Converts to any
religion (including Christianity) are seen as a definite threat to the Aukan way of life.
Often, new converts move out of their houses into new homes away from the traditional
village. Aukaners will intially listen to converts and try to add this new belief into their
own religious world view. Syncretism is a real possibility and steps must be taken to
ensure that true Christianity is presented.
The Aukaner sees God as stern, far-removed and a deity to be feared. The belief
is that God became disgusted with mankind (especially the Aukan people) and removed
himself from their presence. Prayers center around pleas for mercy for any accidental
sins they may have committed.
Religious leaders hold an important place in society and have a great amount of
power. Often the spiritual leaders are chosen by the ghost of a deceased ancestor or one
of the gods to be used as a medium. The individual will then become possessed to give a
message to the matriclan. The more this individual is possessed, the more of a spiritual
leader he becomes. Eventually, after years of serving his clan as a medium, the person
will be elevated to the position of priest. It is significant to note here that men alone can
be possessed by the most important spirits. Women do act as mediums of the snake gods.
Ancestral shrines are important to Aukan ritual life, and, in fact, must be present
for a settlement to be a true Aukan village. The two ancestral shrines of most
significance are the mortuary (“Kee Osu”) and the ancestor pole/flagpole (“Faakatiki”).
As stated earlier, Aukaners are mistrustful of foreigners and resistant to true
Christianity. They are a strong-willed people who are very proud of their heritage. They
are especially proud to be the descendants of runaway slaves whom they see as their
brave and defiant ancestors. Acceptance of Christianity, in the Aukan mind, would
involve turning away from their ancestors and rejecting their way of life. Pentecostal
churches have made some breakthroughs in Aukan society. It is estimated that there are
about 3000 Aukan Christians, the majority of whom live in Paramaribo or the Cottica
region. Worship is led in Sranan Tongo. There are very few Christians in the interior.
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Ndjuka God Pantheon
Three Tiers
I
MASAA GADU - The Lord God
-The fountainhead of all Creation
FOR ALL HUMANKIND
II GAAN Gadu-Great God or
OGII-Danger
GEDEONSU-Protector
GAAN Tata-Great Father
-Defender against Ndjuka enemies
-King of forest Sprits
-Shielding,comforting deity
such as witches “Wisimen”
-Ambivalent toward humans
-Offers solace
-Led Ndjukas out of slavery
-Very Destructive unless appeased
-Medicine Men “Obiaman”
-Defends traditional values/culture
assoc. with this deity
(taboos & persecutes thieves, immoral)
THESE ARE TRIBAL / NATIONAL GODS OF AUKANERS
III
Yooka
Ancestor Spirits
Papa Gadu or Vadu
Reptile Spirits
Kumanti
Celestial Spirits
Birds, thunder/lightning
Bakuu – Demon Spirits
Helpful then turn destructive
-Depicted as humans with special powers
-Control particular domains and have particular interests and frailties
-Are able to procreate
-Except for Kumanti, all can turn into Avenging Spirits (Kunu)
THESE ARE MINOR DEITIES OR INVADING SPIRITS
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Ampuka
Bush Spirits
Religious Bridges
There are many bridges to the gospel in the Aukan religion. Bridges identified
thus far include the following:
Belief in mercy and merciful intervention
Belief that God is the creator
Belief in sin
Belief in sacrifice to make atonement
Concept of “You reap what you sow.”
Concept of ancestors – presenting Old Testament characters as ancestors
of faith (one specific story – Joseph)
Belief in the after life
No trouble believing Jesus did miracles and was son of God
Belief in the spiritual world
These bridges can be used as points of agreement in sharing the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
Recommended Approaches for Gospel
On the basis of our initial research, we feel that the best approach for evangelism
to the Aukan people to be multi-faceted. Human needs ministries will be conducted first
for two reasons: (1) to follow Christ’s incarnational model of meeting physical as well as
spiritual needs, and (2) to gain the trust of the Aukan people and their leaders.
Volunteers will be used extensively. Chronological storying should be employed both to
present the Gospel as well as to provide the Old Testament foundational principles
necessary to fully understand the Gospel. Team members should be taken from the
Aukan Christian population and the Great Commission Christians already working in
Suriname (and others to come). Initial evangelism should take place in three or four key
villages in the ethnographic core of the Tapanahoni region.
Items for Prayer
A prayer network for the Aukan people has been established and is continually
adding new participants. The main items of prayer at this time in the Aukan ministry are
as follows:
That God will continue his work among the Aukaners
That the Holy Spirit will soften the hearts of the key Aukan leaders who
greatly influence their villages and clans.
That our hearts and minds be protected from Satan as we engage in spiritual
warfare for the souls of of Aukaners.
That we will quickly learn Aukans to equip us to evangelize.
That we will know God’s will in the choosing of stories to chronologically
relate for the purpose of salvation.
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Danger: Religious Cults, Material Forces, and Collective Fantasies in the World of the
Surinamese Maroons. Dordrecht: Foris.
Unknown. Notes on Ndjuka Family Discipline. Parmaribo: Summer Institute of
Linguistics.
*Vernon, Diane (1980). Bakuu: Possessing Spirits of Witchcraft on the Tapanahony.
Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 54 (1): 1-38.
*Van Wetering, Wilhelmina (1992). A Demon in Every Transistor. Etnofoor 5 (21):
109-127.
*denotes bibliographical ittems from the following web site:
ehraf.hti.umich.edu/bin/her…e=html&rgn=FILEGUID&byte=102730795.
12
Supplemental Bibliography
Note: These items are further study articles which need to be investigated but were not
used in the writing of this People Profile.
Dunning, Jennifer (1982). Forest Tribes of Suriname “Settle In” at Museum. The New
York Times. January 8, 1982. Section C; p. 20.
Evans, Anna Marie (1995). A Journey of Cultural Discovery: Visiting Suriname’s Bush
Negroes. The Miami Times, vol. 73; no. 8; p. 8a. Miami, FL.
Franszoon, Adiante (?). The Suriname Maroon Crisis. Cultural Survival Q 12(4): 32-35
Hayward, Susana (1989). War Uproots Isolated Bush Negroes in South America. The
Associated Press. July 10, 1989, pm cycle.
Kidron, Pamela (1992). The Dance of the Maroons: Historic Tradition Comes to Folklife.
The Washington Post. June 28, 1992: G2.
Lagace, Robert O. (1999). Obia Oso: An Ndjuka Maroon Shrine from Suriname.
web site: http://www.peabody.yale.edu/exhibits/maroons/
Leymarie, Isabelle (1994). The Maroons, Musicians of Freedom.
September, 1994. p. 46.
Unesco Courier,
Palmie, Stephen (1995). Slave Cultures and the Culture of Slaves. Knoxville: University
of Tennessee. “Dangerous Ancestors: Ambivalent Visions of Eighteenth and NineteenthCentury Leaders of the Eastern Maroons of Suriname.” by H.U.E. Thoden van Velzen
Price, Sally (1994). The Curse’s Blessing. Frontlines 14(2): 123-?
Thoden van Velzen, H.U.E. (1984). The Djuka Civilization. Sociologia Neerlandica 20
(2): 85-97.
Thoden van Velzen, H.U.E. (unknown). On the Political Impact of a Prophetic
Movement in Surinam.
Pye, Michael (1990). Travel: A Lament for a Lost South American Love. The
Independent (London): 40.
Rubin, Eric (1982). A Tribal King Visits Yale. The New York Times. October 24, 1982:
Section 11; p. 3.
13