UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
ARTS
ENG 115:
INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN
LITERATURE
UNIT:3
ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
Published
UNIT: 3
2005©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by
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University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic programme of the
Centre for Distance Learning, University of Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-34-7
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
UNIT: 3
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do most of the
study on their own. The structure of the study unit is different from that of
conventional textbook. The course writers have made efforts to make the study
material rich enough but learners need to do some extra reading for further
enrichment of the knowledge required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and where feasible,
use the Internet. References are provided to guide the selection of reading
materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers and editors
for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help in improving access to
University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
UNIT: 3
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to simplify your
study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction, objectives, in-text,
summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be available at
designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects you to plan your work
well. Should you wish to read further you could supplement the study with more
information from the list of references and suggested readings available in the
study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help you to
assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood the topic.
Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the study unit for you to
assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of examination
type questions for you to answer and send to the center. You are expected to work
on your own in responding to the assignments. The TMA forms part of your
continuous assessment (C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you.
In addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the different units
of your study.
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
The course description for English 115 is “Introduction to Modern African
Literature.” The course is a broad survey of the development of Modern
African Literature from its earliest origin to modem times. It is an
introductory course to African literature in European languages. The course
touches upon the major branches of literature: the novel, poetry and drama. The
focus of the course is on identification of the major themes and styles of Modern
African Literature and their relationship with African oral literature.
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
UNIT: 3
ENG 115: INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
UNITS: 3
T A B L E O F C O N T E N TS
PAGES
PREFACE
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC 1:
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MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
AND HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY
AND COLONIALISM 1 EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY
AND COLONIALISM 2 RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY
MODERN WRITERS 1 RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY
MODERN WRITERS 2 MODERN AFRICAN NOVELS: THE FIRST
AND SECOND GENERATIONS
THEMES AND STYLES OF SOUTH AND
EAST AFRICAN NOVELS
MODERN AFRICAN POETRY:
AN INTRODUCTION
THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN
AFRICAN POETRY: THE PIONEERS THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN
AFRICAN POETRY: THE MODERNSFEATURES OF TRADITIONAL AND
MODERN AFRICAN DRAMA THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN
AFRICAN DRAMA: A STUDY OF
SOYINKA’S DEATH AND THE
KINGS HORSEMEN
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SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
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T O P I C 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE AND HISTORICAL
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
1.0 TOPIC:
1.1
UNIT: 3
MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE AND
HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES
INTRODUCTION
You are welcome to this unit. In it you will learn that African literature
as a discipline and as an object of serious critical comment has come into
existence only in the last forty years or so (Nkosi 1981). The main themes of
Modern African Literature are slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism. We
will elaborate this in the rest of the unit.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Define Modern African literature
ii.
Identify the relationship between African literature and historical
experiences.
1.3
1.3.1
IN-TEXT
MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE AND HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES
Literature as an expression of people's consciousness in social situations
is as old as man himself. From this perspective, African literature too can be
described as old as the African people themselves. In the African context,
this consciousness expressed in language formerly existed in oral form. Some
of the oral texts now exist in written forms. These written forms and those
that still exist in unwritten forms constitute the oral literature of the African
people.
One of the distinctive characteristics of oral literature is that "it is a
collective experience of a people expressed collectively" (Ogude 1983:1). It is a
kind of literature the composition of which is inspired by situations and to
which no single person can claim authorship.
In the literature created for reading, there is always an author. This can
be a novelist or a poet who "works with a particular literary tradition” and
grapples with "the problems of his society from personal understanding of such
problems” (Ibid). Modern African literature, which belongs to this written
tradition of literature, is based in European literature. It is a kind of
literature based on book culture, basically literate audience. Although there
exist some works of African literature in vernacular, "much of Modern
African Literature is produced in European languages...because the
population of Africans literate in one of these languages in any African country
is by far greater than those of any one single language” (Ogude 1983:2).
There is a close connection between history of imaginative literature in
Africa and historical events. History of Africa from the 18th century to date
is history of slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism. It also follows that
history of Modern African literature is "the story against slavery, colonialism
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
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and neo-colonialism “Ogude 1983: 1). African responses to slavery and
colonialism can be divided into two groups: Early responses and
contemporary responses. Examples of early responses are the writings of exslaves in exile such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. The
contemporary response can be found in the works of Achebe, Ngugi and
Armah. The next lesson shall focus on the nature of these responses.
1.4
SUMMARY
The history of African literature goes back to oral tradition. But African
Literature is related to the history of slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism.
Therefore the themes of Modern African Literature are informed by the responses
to the historical realities of slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism. These
responses are categorized into modern and contemporary.
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. List two characteristics of oral literature.
2 List two characteristics of modern African literature.
1. 6
REFERENCE
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African Literature.
Longman.
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
Ogude, S.E. (1991) "African Literature and the Burden of history.” In E.N.
Emenyonu (ed.) African Literature and Historical Experiences. Ibadan:
Heinemann. P1-10.
Taiwo, Oladele (1986) Social Experience in African Literature. Enugu: Fourth
Dimension Publishing Company.
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T O P I C 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY
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TOPIC: EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND COLONIALISM (1)
2.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
The relationship between African literature and African historical
experiences is characterized by slavery and colonialism. The nature of
responses to the experiences as contained in black literary works can be
grouped into “early” and “contemporary.”
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Explain the early responses by writers of African origin to
slavery and colonialism.
ii.
Describe two writers who are chosen to illustrate points in this
topic.
2.3
2.3.1
IN-TEXT
EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND COLONIALISM (1)
Indeed, “the story of the development of black writing in modern
European languages is part of the history of black contact with the modern
European world” (Ogude 1983:3). In other words, earlier writings were of
slave origin and their writings were a response to the history of Slave Trade
and the brutalities that went with it. Although the style in which the blacks
wrote were largely imitations of the forms of literary genres of the
eighteenth century, they evolved a unique tradition which has been
regarded as “protest literature.” It was a kind of literature that was related
to anti-slavery movement, which is comparable to the modern protest
literature represented by anti-colonialist and anti-apartheid writings.
The early writings of slaves appeared in various forms. Some were
represented by “occasional verses”, some by “rhetorical addresses”, others
by “pure propaganda” pseudo-realistic voyage tales” and the chit-chat of
the epistolary form” (Ogude 1983:20).
Those writers wrote to their white audience who viewed them with
astonishment and sometimes even contempt. Although they cannot be said
to have influenced African writers of the contemporary period, their
writings have affinity to the contemporary writing in their “presentation of
themes that have definite African slant”, in their expression of “a concern
for African society, an African way of life” “for African man” (Ogude
1983:21). This shows that Modern African Literature is related to early
writings of the black people in exile in content and thought. Practical
example can be seen in the excerpts of works from Phillis Wheatley and
Francis Williams, as follows.
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2.3.1.1 PHILLIS WHEATLEY
She was the first creative talent that emerged among those of slave
origin. She lived most her lie in Boston. She was brought to America in
1761 and bought in a slave market by John Wheately and his wife. Mary,
the daughter of the Wheatley family became her teacher. She learnt Latin
and English literature of that period. Phillis was known and respected as a
poet. Her poems were modeled after poets like Milton, with religious
undertones. Some of her poems however reveal spirit of rebelliousness.
One of such is entitled “To the Right Honourable William, Earl of
Dartmouth.” As the following lines show, the poem suggests attack on the
British government of those days:
No more America, in mournful strain
Of wrongs, and grievance unredress’d complain,
No longer shall thou dread the iron chain
Which wanton Tyranny with lawless hand
Had made, and with it meant t’enslave the land.
In the following stanza Phillis casts her mind back to Africa and
reflects the pain of separation and the cruelty of slavery.
Should you, my lord, while you peruse my song,
Wonder from where my love of Freedom sprung,
Whence flow these wishes for the common good,
By feeling hearts alone best understood
I, young in life, by seeming cruel fate
Was snatched from Afrc’s fancy’d happy seat:
What pangs excruciating must molest,
What sorrows labour in my parent’s breast?
Steel’d was that soul and by no misery mov’d
That from a father seiz’d his babe belov’d:
Such, such my case. And can I then but pray
Others may never feel tyrannic sway?
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2.3.1.2 FRANCIS WILLIAMS
He was well known in both England and the West Indies in 1750s.
He wrote a long ode, upon which his reputation rests till today. The ode
was dedicated to George Haldane, a leading political figure in the British
Imperial Authority. Williams’s poems constantly refer to the issue of colour
and contain emotionally charged words, which are signs of tension,
inferiority complex, the myth of racial superiority and protest. In the lines
below, quoted from the ode, although he confesses his blackness, he also
makes clear the black man’s claim to humanity.
Yet may you deign to accept this humble song
Tho’ wraps in gloom, and from a falt’ring tongue;
Tho’ dark the stream on which the tribute flows
Not from the skin, but from the heart it rose.
To all human kind, benignant heaven
(Science nought forbids) the one common soul has giv’n.
This rule was ‘stablished by th’ Eternal Mind;
Nor virtue self, nor prudence are confin’d
To colour; none imbrues the honest heart;
To science none belongs and none to art; (Ogude 1983:21).
2.4 SUMMARY
In this lesson you have learnt that the development of black writing in
modern European languages is part of the history of black contact with the
modern European world, and that the first responses to slavery and
colonialism came from ex-slaves living outside Africa. Furthermore,
although the works of these early writers were fashioned after the forms of
literary genres of the eighteenth century, they evolved a unique tradition
which has been regarded as “protest literature.” It was a kind of literature
that was related to anti-slavery movement, which is comparable to the
modern protest literature represented by anti-colonialist and antiapartheid writings. The nature of these responses has been illustrated with
excerpts from poems of Phillis Wheatley and Francis Williams. In the next
unit, you will study the nature of the responses to slavery colonialism by
contemporary African writers.
2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. Explain the connection between slavery and the literary works by
black writers in Europe and America.
2. What is the main feature of the style of literary works by black writers
in Europe and America.
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2.6 REFERENCE
Ogude, S.E. (1983) Genius in Bondage. A Study of the Origins of African
Literature in English. Ile-Ife. University of Ife Press.
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
Ogude, S.E. (1991) “African Literature and the Burden of History.” In
E.N.Emenyonu (ed.) African Literature and Historical Experiences.
Ibadan: Heinemann.1-10.
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T O P I C 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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TOPIC:
EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY
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INTRODUCTION -
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AND COLONIALISM 2 3.3.1.1
3.3.1.2
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GUSTAVUS VASSA
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IGNATIUS SANCHO
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3.4
SUMMARY -
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3.6
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UNIT: 3
TOPIC: EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND COLONIALISM (2)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The early responses to Slavery and Slave Trade in the writings of the
black are reflected in the stories they wrote about their lives and the letters
they had written in their times. Good examples of these are contained in
wrings of Olaudah Equiano and Ignatius Sancho
3.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i. Discuss more about the early responses by writers of African origin
to slavery and colonialism.
ii. Describe the two more writers chosen for further illustration. They
are Olaudah Equiano and Ignatius Sancho
3.3
IN-TEXT
3.3.1
EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND COLONIALISM (2)
3.3.1.1 OLAUDAH EQUIANO OR GUSTAVUS VASSA
Olaudah Equiano was kidnapped by slave raiders along with his
younger sister sometimes 1755/56, when he was about ten years old. He
was shipped to Britain in 1757 and died there around 1799. Before his
death he had traveled widely, journeys that took him to West Indies,
America, Turkey, Portugal and the Mediterranean.
The Ex-slaves in those days felt the ambiguity of their positions as
blacks in a strange world and “expressed this feeling even in the ambiguity
of their names” (Ogude 1987:120). Olaudah Equiano’s African name is
Gustavus Vassa which he mostly displayed alongside Olaudah Equiano. He
also added the phrase “The African” to his name.
In 1789 Equiano’s publication, which has been described as “one
long catalogue of the black man’s misfortune (Ogude 1991:4)” entitled: The
Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa
was published. The book appeared in the heat of the anti-slavery campaign
in Britain and it was found to be an interesting narrative that attacked
slavery and Slave Trade. In the popular nineteenth century literary form,
Equiano’s narrative can be categorized as a voyage literature.
Although many people in the eighteenth century considered the book
as anti-slavery propaganda, it also contains literary qualities. For example,
an African critic described it “as a historical fiction” (Ogude 1987:132). The
same critic also observed that Equiano’s “ romantic recollection of African
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society has its roots deep in the world of fiction”(ibid). The publication has
also fictional characteristics because one can identify Equiano as narrator
and commentator. As Ogude has observed “the narrator tends to be
fictional in his accounts while the commentator shows evidence of the
historical man” (1987: 133). Furthermore, Ogude observes that the story
about “his early life in Africa is an imaginative reorganization of a wide
variety of tales about Africa from equally wide range of sources” (1987:
133).
3.3.1.2 IGNATIUS SANCHO
He was born around 1729 on board a slave ship. He was presented to
two sisters at the age of two. He was baptized in South America, where he
was given the name Ignatius. The two sisters added Sancho to his name,
because they thought they saw some resemblance between him and Sancho
Panza, the servant of Don Quixote. In those days it was not uncommon to
give “names from classical literature and mythology to young blacks”
(Ogude 1987: 87).
Sancho became educated when he entered the service of Duke of
Montague. By 1751 Sancho was middle class man in London. In the 18th
century, letter writing was a popular literary activity and Sancho’s literary
qualities are in his letters, which he wrote between 1768 and 1780. In some
of the letters he showed, by his direct and indirect references to classics
that he was conversant with the English literature of the period.
He became “the most distinguished black literary figure in the
eighteenth century” (Ogude 1987).
3.4 SUMMARY
In this lesson you have learnt about the early responses by writers of
African origin to slavery and colonialism in the writings of Olaudah
Equiano and Ignatius Sancho You have also learnt that the responses were
contained in their written narratives and letters.
3.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. Explain the nature of Equiano’s story about his early life in Africa.
3.6 REFERENCE
Ogude, S.E. (1983) Genius in Bondage. A Study of the Origins of African
Literature in English. Ile-Ife. University of Ife Press.
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3.7 SUGGESTED READING
Ogude, S.E. (1991) “African Literature and the Burden of History.” In
E.N.Emenyonu (ed.) African Literature and Historical Experiences.
Ibadan: Heinemann.1-10.
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T O P I C 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TOPIC:
RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY
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RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY
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CHINUA ACHEBE’S THINGS FALL APART
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CHINUA ACHEBE’S NO LONGER AT EASE
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CHINUA ACHEBE’S A MAN OF THE PEOPLE- 17
MODERN WRITERS 1
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SUMMARY -
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TOPIC: RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY CONTEMPORARY
WRITERS (1)
4.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Generally a record of the history of African past and present has
characterized the response by contemporary writers to colonialism. This is
done by celebration of the glories of the African past, ancestor worship,
respect for the dead and dramatization of the consequences of colonialism
on the individual and the society. Good examples of the response can be
seen in the writings of Chinua Achebe of Nigeria and Ngugi Wa ‘Thiong’o of
Kenya. Chinua Achebe calls himself “ancestor worshipper” and some of his
novels pose the problem of “the man divided between past and present,
between Africa and Europe, who venerates the African past and attempts to
reconcile the conflicting forces in the present (Dothorne 1975: 67).
4.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i. Appreciate the nature of response to colonialism with reference to
some novels of Chinua Achebe.
4.3
IN-TEXT
4.3.1 RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY CONTEMPORARY WRITERS 1
4.3.1.1 CHINUA ACHEBE’S THINGS FALL APART (1958)
Chinua Achebe’s first novel that deals with the problem of conflict is
Things Fall Apart. In it, he takes the reader into typical Igbo society before
the arrival of the white man. The story centres on Okonkwo, a man
determined to be a successful farmer. But his greatness depends on his
physical strength, a virtue, which as Dothorne (1975: 67) has described as
belonging a “to dying age.”
In the novel, Okonkwo succeeds in his ambition to gain prominence.
But the driving force behind his success is fear of failure. He does not want
to be like his father, who was lazy and owed a lot of debt in cowries to
people. This fear also brings his downfall, because it sometimes makes
himself behave irrationally and callously. For example, against traditional
ethics, he beats one of his wives during the “Week of Peace.” Furthermore,
he one time fires a gun at his second wife, who narrowly escapes death.
Over and above all, “because of fear of being thought weak, he kills a small
boy who had entrusted to his care” (Dothorne 1975: ibid).
In the first few chapters of the novel the reader is introduced into a
well organized society in which decisions upon matters concerning it were
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the collective responsibility of the people. In the other parts of the novel,
the reader is shown a picture of the same society declining. The group
spirit which had kept the Igbo society has been undermined by colonial
intervention. Typical example of this decline in group spirit is the helpless
situation in which Okonkwo found himself when he opposed the white
man’s rule. At the end he commits suicide. The suicide has been described
by critics as symbolizing “the death of the traditional Ibo society” (Ogude
1991: 7).
Achebe however, also shows that the decline of the traditional
culture must not be attributed to the arrival of the white man alone. Even
before the white man came, he shows that there were elements of
disintegration in the society.
The novel is remarkable not only because of its documentation of
Igbo social background, but also for its incorporation of proverbs and
folktales which, as Dathorne has noted “help to give a flavor of authenticity
to the writing” (1975: 68).
4.3.1.2 CHINUA ACHEBE’S NO LONGER AT EASE (1961)
In this novel Achebe portrays the conflict between traditional and
African values. The conflict is revealed in the life of the main character, Obi
Okonkwo. Okonkwo represents the emergent educated individual who
found difficulty in observing “colonial moral code of service and integrity”
and “the traditional demands of group cohesion and responsibility” (Ogude
ibid). The failure of Okonkwo to obey the codes of conduct of colonial
service and integrity by taking bribes foreshadows the failure of the new
political group in sustaining democracy.
4.3.1.3 CHINUA ACHEBE’S A MAN OF THE PEOPLE (1966)
In this novel, Achebe continues the theme of corruption and failure
by creating characters such as the politician, ‘Chief the Honourable M.A
Nanga, M.P and Minister for Culture’ and Odili Samalu, a teacher. Achebe
shows that in a society where the likes of Chief Nanga are rulers, the
idealistic views and actions of Odili do not carry weight.
The novel ends with a change of government from civilian to military.
Some critics have described this as indicative of the fact that “the failure of
democratic governments in Africa may be due to its lack of indigenous
roots” (Ogude ibid).
On the whole, this novel has been described as a “satire of the new
democratic institution in Africa”, just as Achebe’s most recent novel
Anthills of Savanna has been described as “a satirical comment on the
military regimes that have become a feature of the African political
experience” (Ogude ibid).
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4.4
UNIT: 3
SUMMARY
In this lesson you have learnt the nature and extent of the response to
colonialism by contemporary writers with examples from some novels of
Chinua Achebe. In the next lesson, you shall get more examples on the
same topic in the novels of Ngugi.
4.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. Explain how fear of failure has affected Okonkwo’s life.
2. What does Okonkwo’s suicide symbolize?
4.6
REFERENCE
Ogude, S.E. (1983) Genius in Bondage. A Study of the Origins of
African Literature in English. Ile-Ife. University of Ife Press.
4.7
SUGGESTED READING
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
Ogude, S.E. (1991) “African Literature and the Burden of History.” In
E.N.Emenyonu (ed.) African Literature and Historical
Experiences. Ibadan: Heinemann.1-10.
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T O P I C 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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RESPONSES BY CONTEMPORARY WRITERS
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A GRAIN OF WHEAT
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5.3.1.1NGUGI’S NOVELS
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SUMMARY -
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5.1
UNIT: 3
RESPONSES BY CONTEMPORARY WRITERS TO
COLONIALISM (2)
INTRODUCTION
Ngugi’s is a Kenyan novelist and a playwright His literary works
represent imaginative recollection of the history of the coming of
Europeans to Kenya, the people’s struggle for independence through the
Mau Mau. They also reflect the neocolonialism experienced after
independence.
5.2 OBJECTIVE
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i. Understand the nature of response to colonialism with reference to
some novels of Ngugi wa Thiong’o.
5.3 IN-TEXT
5.3.1 RESPONSES BY CONTEMPORARY WRITERS OF AFRICAN ORIGIN TO COLONIALISM (2)
5.3.1.1 NGUGI’S NOVELS
The River Between (1965)
5.3.1.1.1
This is Ngugi’s first attempt to document the cultural history of Kenya.
Although Ngugi wrote the novel in 1964, it was not published until 1965.
The novel dramatizes the conflict between two factions of a clan. The
conflict is between African tradition and Western values. The root of the
rivalry is traced to promises made to the Gikuyu people in their Creation
Myth. Ngugi examines the influence the European over the traditional life
of the people and explores ways of reconciling the factions.
5.3.1.1.2 Weep Not Child (1964)
This novel, which appeared first, deals with a subject matter that
belongs to the period after the Second World War. That was when
nationalist feelings were high in Kenya. The nationalist sentiments led to
the birth of Mau Mau emergency.
The novel depicts the effect of the emergency on the three families:
those of Ngotho, Howlands (a white settler-farmer) and Jocob (a Kenyan
landowner). It tells a story of family separation, depravation, violence and
disillusionment during the Kenyan struggle for independence The story is
told by Njoroge, Ngotho’s youngest son. The major themes of the novel are
the appropriateness of a young Kenyan acquiring Western education, the
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influence of Christianity in Kenyan and the struggle for independence by
the people (Killam1980).
5.3.1.1.3
A Grain of Wheat (1967)
This is Ngugi’s most popular novel. It portrays, by the use of splash
backs, lives of different characters who have been influenced by the past.
Furthermore, the novel shows that even the present condition of the people
can be interpreted as representative of the past.
The major characters in the novel is Gikonyo and Mumbi, husband and
wife. The couple is symbolic of African tradition. They are viewed as
mythical characters. Their human counterparts are Karanja and Mugo who
use the Mau Mau struggle for independence as a means for power and
prestige. In the end, Mugo and Karanja are found be betrayers. Ngugi also
includes the post independence ministers as belonging to the same group
of betrayers.
In spite of all these, the novel that “suggests traditional order can be
restored by a recognition of ancient values” and that the future of Kenya is
not hopeless. This is “symbolically represented by a stool carved by
Gikonyo to Mumbi, with a figure of pregnant woman on it” (Darthorne
1975: 130).
5.4 SUMMARY
In this lesson you have learnt the nature and extent of the response to
colonialism by contemporary writers with examples from some novels of
Ngugi.
5.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
5.6
1.
What is the main cause of the conflict between the two clans in
The River Between?
2.
Mention three major themes of Weep Not Child..
REFERENCES
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century.
London: Heinemann.
Killam, G.D (1980) Introduction to the Writings of Ngugi. London:
Heinemann.
5.7
SUGGESTED READING
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
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T O P I C 6:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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TOPIC:
MODERN AFRICAN NOVELS: THE FIRST
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FIRST GENERATION NOVELS
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R E OBENG’S EIGHTEENPENCE
6.3.1.1.2
CASELY-HAYFORD’S ETHIOPIA
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SUMMARY -
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AMOS TUTUOLA’S THE PALMWINE DRINKARD
6.3.1.2.2
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T M ALUKO’S ONE MAN, ONE WIFE
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REFERENCES
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6.1
UNIT: 3
MODERN WEST AFRICAN NOVELS: THE FIRST AND THE SECOND GENERATIONS
INTRODUCTION
The novel as a literary form is not indigenous to Africa. What existed in
Africa were poetry and drama, which performed certain functions within
the oral tradition. The first novels were therefore anthropological in
nature. In other words, they were characterized by descriptions of cultural
scenes and events. There wasn’t much characterization, nor were there
many themes of protest. Even the few were stereotypes. Examples of first
generation novels are R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence and Casely-Hayford’s
Ethiopia Unbound. To the second generation belong works like those of
Chinua Achebe, T. M. Aluko, Cyprian Ekwensi, Gabriel Okara and Amos
Tutuola.
6.2 OBJECTIVE
At end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Understand the subject matter of the first and the second
generations of West African novels.
ii.
Appreciate the use of language by the authors of the novels.
iii.
Illustrate the topic through: R.E Obeng’s Eighteen pence, CaselyHayford’s Ethiopia Unbound, Amos Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine
Drinkard and T. M. Aluko’s One Man, One Wife.
6.3
6.3.1
IN-TEXT
MODERN WEST AFRICAN NOVELS: THE FIRST AND THE SECOND GENERATIONS
6.3.1.1 FIRST GENERATION NOVELS
The beginning of the West African novel can be traced to Ghanaian
writers. Examples of their works are R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence and
C.Casely-Hayford’s Ethiopia Unbound.
6.3.1.1.1
R.E OBENG’S EIGHTEENPENCE
The book was published in 1943. It contains a story about a man
called Arofi. Arofi buys a cutlass on credit from someone for eighteen
pence and agrees to work on his creditor’s farm for free. He soon gets into
trouble because the man’s wife accuses him of attempting to rape her. The
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book continues detailing procedures of court. Arofi is portrayed as a
symbol of virtue, against whom the novel also features another character
called Konaduwa who is a symbol of opposition to authority.
6.3.1.1.2
CASELY-HAYFORD’S ETHIOPIA UNBOUND
This novel was written in 1911. The writer takes the reader to several
places including the underworld. The main character is called Kwamankra.
The novel is a documentation of uncertainties surrounding the author and
his generation. It has been described as “a literary expression of a wide
variety of ideas” such as Christianity, traditional belief, education, love and
death (Dathorne 1975:54).
6.3.1.2
SECOND GENERATION NOVELS
6.3.1.2.1
AMOS TUTUOLA’S THE PALM-WINE DRINKARD (1952)
The Palm-Wine Drinkard was the first published novel in Nigeria. It
is also the first novel to incorporate African mythology into modern art
form. Tutuola used imagination to modernize African folklore into written
literature.
The story is about a man addicted to palm wine drinking, whose
palm wine tapper has died. The man goes in search of the tapper in the
world of the dead. The setting of the novel is in the town and the bush.
The main character undergoes a number of adventures, including
capturing “Death”, overcoming “the Skull”, bringing back a woman held by
“the Skull” and marrying the woman. In the long run the man and his wife
came to the “Death’s Town” where they meet the tapper. However they are
not able to go with him. Instead he gave them a magic egg, which was later
used to save the people their town from famine.
The language of the novel is unique. This is because it is a mixture of
what can be called broken English (not pidgin) with Standard English. This
made it easy for readers in Europe to understand and appreciate the story.
In Africa, however, this style was vehemently attacked. The novel is also
unique in the sense that the characters, as Dathorne (1975) has observed,
are fully involved in the events of the story and are not on the brink of
cultural dilemma, as seen in other novels of the same generation.
6.3.1.2.2
T. M. ALUKO’S ONE MAN, ONE WIFE (1959)
The novel is a collection of amusing episodes. The subject matter is
struggle between Christianity and traditional religion. The setting is in a
village. The chief characters in the novel are Reverends David and Royasin,
through whom priests are satirized. Royasin gets dismissed from the
church because he is accused of being responsible for pregnancy of the wife
of a convert, Jocob. He changes his name to Royanson and attempts to
make himself a public letter writer.
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The novel is full of humour and satirizes not only the priests but also
the villagers are depicted as fond of assembling “to drink palm-wine no
matter what the occasion” (Dathorne 1975:77).
6.4 SUMMARY
R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence and Casely-Hayford’s Ethiopia Unbound
belong to the first generation of novels in West Africa. R.E Obeng’s
Eighteenpence was published in 1943. The book contains a story about a
man called Arofi. Arofi buys a cutlass on credit from someone for eighteen
pence and agrees to work on his creditor’s farm for free. Arofi is portrayed
as a symbol of virtue, against whom the novel also features another
character called Konaduwa who is a symbol of opposition to authority.
Casely-Hayford’s Ethiopia Unbound takes the reader to several
places including the underworld. The main character is called Kwamankra.
The novel is a documentation of uncertainties surrounding the author and
his generation.
Amos Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine Drinkard and T. M. Aluko’s One
Man, One Wife are examples of second generation novels. The Palm-Wine
Drink is also the first novel to incorporate African mythology into modern
art form. Tutuola used imagination to modernize African folklore into
written literature.
The story is about a man addicted to palm wine drinking, whose
palm wine tapper has died. The man goes in search of the tapper in the
world of the dead. The setting of the novel is in the town and the bush.
The language of the novel is unique. This is because it is a mixture of
what can be called broken English (not pidgin) with Standard English and
the characters do not exhibit cultural uncertainty, as seen in other novels of
the same generation.
M. Aluko’s One Man, One Wife is a collection of amusing episodes. The
subject matter of the book is struggle between Christianity and traditional
religion. The novel is full of humour, satirizing the priests and the villagers.
6.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
6.6
Explain the root of the conflict in R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence.
Summarize the content of any other West African novel of the
first generation.
Explain the root of the conflict in Amos Tutuola’s The PalmWine Drinkard.
REFERENCE
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century.
London: Heinemann
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6.7
UNIT: 3
SUGGESTED READING
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
Taiwo, Oladele, (1986) Social Experience in African Literature.
Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Company.
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T O P I C 7:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
7.0
TOPIC:
THEMES AND STYLES OF SOUTH AND
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OBJECTIVES
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TABAN LO LIYANG’S EATING CHIEFS
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PETER ABRAHAM’S MINE BOY
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7.0
7.1
UNIT: 3
TOPIC: THEMES AND STYLES OF SOUTH AND EAST AFRICAN NOVELS
INTRODUCTION
As in the West African novels, the novels of South, East and even
Central Africa have similar themes. For example, the earlier novels present
a record of the African past, characterized by description of landscapes and
cultural activities. The novels of latter generation are often concerned with
social and political issues. In South Africa, for example, the novelist
concerned themselves with freedom from the former apatheid regime.
7.2
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this topic you should be able to
i.
Understand the main themes and styles of the novels of South
and East Africa.
ii.
Appreciate the main themes and styles of the novels of South
and East Africa.
7.3
7.3.1
IN-TEXT
THEMES AND STYLES OF SOUTH AND EAST AFRICAN NOVELS
7.3.1.1 LEGSON KAYIRA’S THE LOOMING SHADOW (1968)
Legson Kayira was born in a village in the former Nyasaland (now
Malawi). In addition to the The Looming Shadow he has also published
another novel entitled Jingala (1970). The Looming Shadow is about
village life, which was described as “changing while the shadow of the past
lingers” (Zell and Silver 1972: 146). The novel, whose main theme is the
conflict between the new and the old, also contains descriptions of rural
cultural activities. The landscape of the village is also fully described.
7.3.1.2 TABAN LO LIYONG’S EATING CHIEFS (1970)
This writer is Ugandan. The Eating Chiefs is part of a cultural
research he undertook in the University College Nairobi. In writing the
book the writer used African cultural heritage. The writer believes in the
use of European language to describe African experience. He is not
therefore among the writers who show total rejection to the use of foreign
language.
7.3.1.3 PETER ABRAHAM’S MINE BOY (1946)
Peter Henri Abraham was born in Johannesburg to an Ethiopian
father and a ‘Coloured’ mother. His novel Mine Boy is a story of a boy
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called Xuma. Xuma comes to the city from a village and ends up a
vagabond. He finds a job as mine worker, where he and others worked
hard for little pay. At a point in time, he revolts, refusing to enter the mine
and persuading his colleagues to act the same way, and they did.
The novel depicts the suffering of the people, amidst moral and
physical scholar. Nevertheless, the writer shows that beneath the suffering
and squalor there is “a warm, thick, dark blanket of life” (Dathorne 1975:
146).
7.3.1.4 ALEX LAGUMA’S THE STONE COUNTRY (1967)
Alex Laguma’s father, Jimmy Laguma, was a politician. Alex also
became a politician with communist ideology. He was arrested several
times and The Stone Country describes prison experiences and the
apartheid life of violence and dehumanization. The prison is presented as a
microcosm of the larger apartheid society.
Part of the dehumanization is portrayed in the condition of the prison
inmates, some of whom were viewed as animals. For example, Butcherboy
Williams, one of the characters is variously addressed as Jackal, Hyena
and Ape.
7.4 SUMMARY
The main themes of the novels of South and East Africa were those of
cultural heritage and conflict between the new and the old societal values,
or between traditional African values and imported Western values. In
South African novels, however, the predominant theme is that of freedom
from the former apartheid system of government.
7.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. Summarize in one sentence, the main themes of the South
or East African novel studied in this unit.
7.6
REFERENCES
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century.
London: Heinemann
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
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7.7
UNIT: 3
SUGGESTED READING
Laguma, Alex (1967) The Stone Country. Berlin: Seven Seas
Publishers.
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T O P I C 8:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
8.0
TOPIC:
MODERN AFRICAN POETRY:
AN INTRODUCTION
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MODERN AFRICAN POETRY:
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SUMMARY -
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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REFERENCES
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TOPIC: MODERN AFRICAN POETRY: INTRODUCTION
8.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Modern African poetry refers to the poems composed in European
languages. The poems varied in their content, theme and style. The
variation was dictated by the social and historical circumstances of the
artists and the societies in which they lived.
8.2
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Get some ideas about the development, themes and styles of
modern African poetry.
8.3
8.3.1
IN-TEXT
MODERN AFRICAN POETRY: INTRODUCTION
Unlike the tradition of novel writing, which was largely imported to
Africa from outside, the tradition of poetic composition has been existing
in Africa since time immemorial. In other words, many forms of poetry had
existed and still exist in oral or unwritten forms in Africa. Nevertheless,
like the African novel, the development of African modern poetry can be
traced to Africans who lived in exile in Europe and ex-slaves in the New
World.
The content, themes and styles of modern African poetry varied. The
first forms of poetry, like the novels, were largely imitations of European
tradition. Their subject matter and tone varied from those who accepted
European values and those who showed some form of protest.
The development of modern African poetry in African was
encouraged by the introduction of western education and the written
script. The introduction of the printing press was also a major factor. In
other words, when some Africans acquired western education and learnt
the history of slavery and colonialism, they started to compose poems
about their experiences and those of their ancestors. The introduction of
the printing press also encouraged the practice of composing poems.
Most of the earlier poets became interested in expressing African
identity and dignity. Generally, they used imageries of unity and
homecoming to express social and political solidarity among Africans. In
some cases, even European images were used to express African
experience. Examples of this kind of technique can found in Wole
Soyinka’s poems.
Modern African poetry is simple in style. It avoids the use of difficult
language and metrical composition. It does also focus much on
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UNIT: 3
international models. It largely focuses on local, national and Pan-African
models. Furthermore, the simplicity of style and richness of content of
modern African poetry make it similar to the indigenous poems of oral
tradition.
8.4 SUMMARY
Modern African poetry, like the novel, originated outside. But tradition
of poetic composition has existed in Africa since time immemorial. The
content, themes and styles of modern African poetry varied. The first
forms of poetry, like the novels, were largely imitations of European
tradition. Their subject matter and tone however varied from those who
accepted European values and those who showed some form of protest.
Western education and the printing press encouraged
the
development of modern African poetry.. Most of the earlier poets
expressed African identity and dignity. Later the poets also used imageries
of unity and homecoming to express social, economic and issues.
In terms of style, modern African poetry is simple, rich in content and
similar to the indigenous poems of oral tradition.
8.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
8.6
Mention two factors that encouraged the development
of Modern African poetry.
REFERENCE
Goodwin, Ken (1982) Understanding African Poetry. A Study of
Ten Poets. London: Heinemann.
8.7
SUGGESTED READING
Irele, Abiola (1982) The African Experience in Literature and
Ideology. London: Heinemann.
T O P I C 9:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
9.0
TOPIC:
THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN
AFRICAN POETRY: THE PIONEERS -
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9.1
INTRODUCTION -
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9.2
OBJECTIVES
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9.3
IN-TEXT
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9.3.1
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THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN
POETRY: THE PIONEERS
- 36
9.3.1.1
THE PIONEERS
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9.3.1.1.1
JUAN LATINO
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9.3.1.1.2
PHILIS WHEATELEY
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9.3.1.1.3
B W VILAKAZI
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9.4
SUMMARY -
9.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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9.6
REFERENCES
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9.7
SUGGESTED READING -
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9.0
TOPIC: THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN
POETRY: THE PIONEERS
9.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Modern African poetry is a broad field covering poems written in
English, French and Portuguese. Different social, cultural and political
pressures influenced the poetry. The themes and styles reveal the diversity
and unity of the African condition.
The study of Modern African Poetry can be divided into two: The
Pioneers and the Moderns. The themes and styles of poets of the two
groups vary. Some imitated European styles while others portray
originality of style and relevance of theme to their background and
experience.
The prominent features of the pioneer poets are: imitation of
European styles of composition, lack of regard for their African
background and glorification of Western values.
9.2
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Understand the major themes and styles of Modern African
Poetry of the first generation.
9.3
9.3.1
IN-TEXT
THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN POETRY: THE PIONEERS
9.3.1.1 THE PIONEERS
The beginning can be traced to “African exiles in Europe and slaves
and ex-slaves in the New World” (Nkosi 1981: 108). Slavery initiated a new
consciousness among Africans. Slaves became educated and tried their
hands in the arts of their masters. Some of these were Juan Latino, Philis
Wheateley, Olaudah Equianao, Ignatius Sancho and Ottalah Cuguanao.
Some Africans also produced poems, notable examples are B.W. Vilakazi
and H.I.E. Dhlomo of South Africa and Dennis Chukude Osadebay of
Nigeria.
9.3.1.1.1
JUAN LATINO
Juan Latino was brought with his mother to Spain in the 16th century
at the age of twelve. He studied poetry, music and medicine. Married to a
daughter of Spanish noble man, he wrote poems in standard Latin praising
important personalities, including clergy men and aristocrats. His praise
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UNIT: 3
poetry reveals a connection with African style of panegyrics. But it can also
be connected to the widespread practice in those days of writing laudatory
poems on powerful personalities. Although he seemed to have integrated
into the Spanish society, his poems portray his sense of identity as African.
In a poem addressed to the Pope, Latino portrays awareness of racial
identity as follows:
For if the Blackness of our king offends your official ministers
Your whiteness does not delight the men of Ethiopia
There, whoever in his whiteness visits the East is scorned,
And there are Back leaders; the king too is black
Queen Candace and her race of black ministers
Had sent her son in a chariot to Christ (Nkosi 1981: 109).
His works reveal unconditional acceptance of Christianity and
Spanish patriotism. For example, in one of his poems he said: “Famous
Philip, you are my protector against the Turks/ Reigning as a catholic, you
have been accustomed to defend our countries, and in a more holy way to
cherish the Faith” (Nkosi 1981: 110).
9.3.1.1.2
PHILIS WHEATELEY
She was brought to Boston from Senegal in 1761. She became well
educated through her master, John Wheately and excelled as one of the
best known poets of African origin. She wrote in Latin and admired the
great European classical writers
Most of her poems were addressed to eminent people and contain
little about his African background. Her works often reveal her hostility to
Africa and an anxious desire to serve and flatter her masters. They also
reveal her unquestioning acceptance of Christianity. The following lines
from one her poems testify to this observation:
It was mercy brought me from pagan land
Taught my benighted soul to understand
That there’s God and there’s Saviour;
Once I redemption neither sought nor knew (Nkosi 1981: 110).
With the coming of missionaries into Africa and the subsequent
attainment of some appreciable levels of education by some Africans,
translations of European narratives and religious texts began to appear.
For example, in the 1820s the Scottish Missionary had settled in some
parts of South Africa. This laid the foundation for literary activities in the
area. These activities gave rise to protest literature, notable among which
were works of B.W. Vilakazi and H.I.E. Dhlomo. Vilakazi is chosen to
illustrate some points in this lecture.
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9.3.1.1.3
UNIT: 3
B.W. VILAKAZI
One of B.W. Vilakazi’s poems entitled ‘Because’ focused on the
theme of exploitation of workers in cities. The poem represents the voice of
a protesting commoner. His style of composition varies. In most cases he
observed the rules of English prosody, although he did not apply exact
imagery and terminology of the West. Part of Vilakazi’s ‘Because’ goes as
follows:
Because when night approaches,
You see me loosening the chains
Of daily drudgery,
And, meeting people black like me,
Dance with new-born energy
While chanting tribal songs
That roused our stifled zest
And banish weariness:
You think me but an animal
Who, should it die, is soon replaced. (Nkosi 1981: 112).
9.4 SUMMARY
The beginning of Modern African poetry can be traced to “African exiles
in Europe and slaves and ex-slaves in the New World” (Nkosi 1981: 108).
Slavery initiated a new consciousness among Africans. Slaves became
educated and tried their hands in the arts of their masters. With the
coming of Christianity in Africa, some Africans acquired education and
started writing poems. Poems of people like Juan Latino, Philis Wheateley
and B.W. Vilakazi are good examples of the first generation of Modern
African Poetry. The poems of the ex-salves were largely imitations of the
West. Some revealed their African identity and contain some form of
protest. Others revealed acceptance of Christianity and glorified their
white masters. Some of the poems from Africa also reveal some elements of
imitation. The poems also contain some protest against colonialism and
exploitation of the people.
9.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. List the main features of African poetry of the pioneers.
9.6 REFERENCE
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century.
London: Heinemann.
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UNIT: 3
9.7 SUGGESTED READING
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
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UNIT: 3
T O P I C 10:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
10.0 TOPIC:
THEMES AND STYLES OF AFRICAN
POETRY: THE MODERNS
10.1
INTRODUCTION -
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10.2 OBJECTIVES
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10.3 IN-TEXT
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10.3.1
THEMES AND STYLES OF AFRICAN POETRY:
THE MODERNS -
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10.3.1.1
LEOPART SEDAR SENGHOR -
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10.3.1.2
GABRIEL OKARA -
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10.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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10.6 REFERENCES
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10.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 3
THEMES AND STYLES OF AFRICAN POETRY: THE
MODERNS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
African poets of the second generation were more aware of the poetic
techniques of the modern European literature. However, unlike the pioneers
who were largely imitators of techniques, dealing largely with social themes, the
contemporary poet, as Dothorne has observed, "is the hero and it is his
tensions, his world, his solutions that are emphasized” (1975: 172-175).
Furthermore, as Goodwin has noted, the poetry of this generation, which
began to flourish in the 1950s, was characterized by "application of individual
sensibility to African material and experimentation with, rather than imitation
of style" (1982: 142). The poets belong to two camps. In one group are poets from
former British colonies. In the second are poets from former French and
Portuguese colonies. The earlier poets of the second group are often called
Negritude poets.
10.2
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Understand the major themes and styles of contemporary
African poetry, with examples from poems of Gabriel Okara of
Nigeria and Leopard Sedar Senghor of Senegal.
10.3
10.3.1
IN-TEXT
THEMES AND STYLES OF AFRICAN POETRY: THE MODERNS
Contemporary poets are concerned with social, economic and political
developments of modern Africa. Poets from the French Speaking countries
wrote in the tradition Negritude, which was based on the assertion of black
identity. On the other hand, poets from the English Speaking countries
advocated Pan-Africanism. Nevertheless, both groups displayed the ability to
invent myth, using popular beliefs. And as Dathorne has pointed out, they
were not content with the “mere deployment of Biblical injunctions but distort
them into new unlikely contexts" (1975: 173).
10.3.1.1
LEOPARD SEDAR SENGHOR
Senghor was born in 1906 at Joal in Senegal. He was the President of
Senegal for many years. He was described as "the greatest of the African
poets to write in a European language" (Zell and Silver 1972:184). Senghor met
in Paris poets of African origin like Aime Cesaire and Leon Damus of the
Negritude movement. Negritude was a movement that arose among French West
Indian colonials as a result of their desire to create their past imaginatively. The
pioneers of the movement were born and bred in alien lands and had
experienced no indigenous culture. The movement attempted to express "the
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UNIT: 3
sum total of the cultural values of the Negro world" (Dathorne 1975: 218). The
movement "expressed concern for the predicament of their race and the legacy
of a colonial bondage." The uniqueness of the movement was that it was not
concerned with individual tribal themes, but expresses "a conscious effort to
look back at wide array of traditional values" with a new "approach to
semantics, rhythm and subject-matter" (Dathorne 1975: 218-219).
Senghor’s poetry is dominated by ancestor image. By this his poems are
similar to other African poems. However, the style of some of this poems are
also like European poetry. In his poem entitled "Woman" he uses the word
'woman' to refer to both his country as much as to a real woman. The imagery of
"nakedness, blackness" are used in positive terms. Senghor’s images describe the
objects and evoke "emotions and spiritual realities about the object of praise"
(Nwoga 1983:223).
10.3.1.2 GABRIEL OKARA
He was born in 1921. His poetic ideas were similar to those of negritude
poets. He used African ideas, philosophy, folklore and imagery. He
translated these from his native language almost literarily into English. This
technique, as one critic has observed, coincides with a definition of negritude as
"an assertion of the good things in Negro culture" (Dathorne 1975: 173).
Some of his poems castigate the Europeans, while showing respect to the
past and the unspoilt nature of things native to Africa. It has been observed that
at the centre of every poem he wrote there "is a protagonist and the poem charts
the history of his attitudes by subtly juxtaposing dissimilar images that help to
emphasize his quandary" (Dathorne 19975: 174).
Okara achieved fame with publication of his poem "The Call of the River
Nun." With this poem, he won the best prize in 1953 at the Nigerian National
Festival of Arts. The poem, as pointed out by a critic "expresses Romantic sense
of religious interaction between the human soul and the soul of nature"
(Goodwin 1982: 143). The first part of the poem which begins with the line "I
hear your call!" depicts "the poet in nature." The second part, which begins with
"My river's calling too!" applies "the experience to his sense of himself in
relation to the eternal" (ibid). The poem contains imagery of life as a river
flowing to the sea. Although this imagery is not new, the imagery of his canoe
"found'ring" and "eventually upturned and splitting to release the poet's soul"
has been described as "both original and memorable" and provides "an
identification with the Delta country" " (ibid).
His poem "Piano and Drums" depict contrasting images of Africa and
Europe. The piano represents Western culture, while the drum represents
African culture. The drum is a symbol of simple life without worries and in
sympathy with nature, with human warmth and purpose. The sound of the
drum rejuvenates and the poem contains symbolism of the primal youth of
Africa before its invasion by Europeans. The sound of the piano is "ambiguous,
complex.. .menacing.” In this poem, as observed by Dathorne, Okara:
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
UNIT: 3
introduces technical terms at appropriate points to
emphasize the cerebral nature of western culture, and it is a
measure of stylistic exactitude that the harsh images
associated with piano culture in the word "counterpoint" which
later on the poet associates with daggerpoint" (1975:174).
As noted by Goodwin, in this poem, Okara appreciates both the speaking
drums and the wailing piano, though he writes more passionately and at greater
length about the drums than about the ....piano" (1982:145).
10.4
SUMMARY
Contemporary poets are concerned with social, economic and political
developments of modern Africa. Poets from the French Speaking countries
wrote in the tradition of Negritude, which was based on the assertion of black
identity. On the other hand, poets from the English Speaking countries
advocated Pan-Africanism. Nevertheless, both groups displayed the ability to
invent myth, using popular beliefs and as Dathorne has pointed out they
"were not content with the mere deployment of Biblical injunctions but
distort them into new unlikely contexts" (1975: 173).
Gabriel Okara's poems castigate the Europeans, while showing respect
to the past and the unspoilt nature of things native to Africa. It has been
observed that at the center of every poem he wrote there "is a protagonist
and the poem charts the history of his attitudes by subtly juxtaposing
dissimilar images that help to emphasize his quandary" (Dathorne 19975: 174).
Okara achieved fame with publication of his poem "The Call of the River
Nun." With this poem, he won the best prize in 1953 at the Nigerian National
Festival of Arts. The poem, as pointed out by a critic "expresses Romantic sense of
religious interaction between the human soul and the soul of nature" (Goodwin
1982: 143). The first part of the poem which begins with the line "I hear your call!",
depicts "the poet in nature." The second part, which begins with "My river's
calling too!" applies "the experience to his sense of himself in relation to the
eternal" (ibid). The poem contains imagery of life as a river flowing to the sea.
Although this imagery is not new, the imagery of his canoe "found'ring" and
"eventually upturned and splitting to release the poet's soul" has been described
as "both original and memorable" and provides "an identification with the Delta
country" " (ibid).
Senghor’s poetry is dominated by ancestor image. By this his poems are
similar to other African poems. However, some of his poems are like European
poetry. In his poem entitled "Woman" he uses the word 'woman' to refer to both
his country as much as to a real woman. The imagery "nakedness, blackness" are
used in positive terms. Senghor’s images describe the objects and evoke
"emotions and spiritual realities about the object of praise" (Nwoga 1983:223).
10.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. Explain Negritude.
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10.6
UNIT: 3
REFERENCES
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century.
London: Heinemann
Zell, Hans and Helene Silver (eds.) A Reader's Guide to African Literature.
London: Heinemann.
10.7
SUGGESTED READING
Laguma, Alex (1967) The Stone Country. Berlin: Seven Seas Publishers.
Taiwo, Oladele, (1986) Social Experience in African Literature.
Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Company.
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UNIT: 3
T O P I C 11:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
11.0
TOPIC:
FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL AND
MODERN AFRICAN DRAMA -
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11.1
INTRODUCTION -
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11.2
OBJECTIVES
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11.3
IN-TEXT
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11.3.1
FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN
AFRICAN DRAMA
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11.4
SUMMARY -
11.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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11.6
REFERENCES
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11.7
SUGGESTED READING -
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
11.0
TOPIC: FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN
AFRICAN DRAMA
11.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
To understand Modern African drama one should begin by
identifying its main features. And to understand its main features, one
should also know the main features of the traditional forms of African
drama and its relationship to the modern forms.
11.2
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this topic you should be able to
i.
Know the main features of modern African drama and
traditional African drama.
ii.
Determine the major influences at work between the
traditional and modern art forms.
11.3
11.3.1
IN-TEXT
FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN AFRICAN DRAMA
What is Modern African drama? Answering this question presents
problems. It raises other questions such as ‘Where does it begin?’ ‘At which
historical point in time does it begin?’ and “ what are its perimeters?’ These
questions arise because of the academic tradition that requires scholars to
discover the outlines of art forms such as myth, legend, poetry etc and their
rules of operation (Nkosi: 1981).
One way of defining this Western-oriented literary form is
identifying its relationship to the traditional dramatic forms. To do that,
one can start by listing the main features of the two art forms as follows:
Traditional African drama has the following features:
1.
It is a communal use of symbolic language to express fears,
hopes and wishes of organic society; it speaks for the
community, expressing its shared beliefs.
2.
It functions within the framework of rituals, festivals, harvests,
births, initiation ceremonies etc.
3.
It has no single author.
2.
It is characterized by lack prepared script.
4.
The audience is fluid. In other words it can merge with the
performers.
On the other hand, Modern African drama has the following
features:
1.
The script is the initial aspect of its creation.
2.
It uses theatre buildings.
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UNIT: 3
3.
It has a network of relations between the author, producer and
director.
4.
The audience is viewed as the ‘Other.’ This means there is a
division between the audience and the performers, which is
often linked to class formations and group conflict.
Drama can then be projections, in ideological forms, of the social
frustrations of the new middle class to which the playwrights belong.
Having identified the differences between the forms of drama, another
question that arises is: is modern African drama an extension of the
traditional forms? Or does it represent a break with the traditional forms?
The answer is that the traditional drama, which are not absolute, exist
side by side with the new drama. The fact that the two exist side by side is
not accidental. Rather, this simultaneity of existence is a reflection of the
conditions of the contemporary African society in its transitional stage of
development. Furthermore, this coexistence of the art forms makes the
field richer of African drama richer.
However, this richness has its problem. It breeds confusion and bias
manifested by ideological factors. For instance, some scholars maintain
antipathy for and hatred of political drama, while some favour o writings
characterized by fetish priests and tribal gods.
11.4 SUMMARY
Traditional African drama has the following features:
1.
It is a communal use of symbolic language to express fears,
hopes and wishes of organic society; it speaks for the
community, expressing its shared beliefs.
2.
It functions within the framework of rituals, festivals, harvests,
births, initiation ceremonies etc.
3.
It has no single author.
2.
It is characterized by lack prepared script.
4.
The audience is fluid. In other words it can merge with the
performers.
Modern African drama has the following features:
1.
The script is the initial aspect of its creation.
2.
It uses theatre buildings.
3.
It has a network of relations between the author, producer and
director.
4.
The audience is viewed as the ‘Other.’ This means there is a
division between the audience and the performers, which is
often linked to class formations and group conflict.
Drama can then be projections, in ideological forms, of the social
frustrations of the new middle class to which the playwrights belong.
11.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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ENG 115 – INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE
1.
List three main features of traditional African drama.
2.
List three main features of Modern African drama.
UNIT: 3
11.6 REFERENCE
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
11.7
SUGGESTED READING
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century.
London: Heinemann
Brown, John Russel (1971) (ed.) Drama and Theatre: with Radio,
Film and Television. An Outline for the Student. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul.
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UNIT: 3
T O P I C 12:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
12.0 TOPIC:
THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN
DRAMA: A STUDY OF SOYINKA’S DEATH AND THE
KING’S HORSEMAN
12.1
INTRODUCTION -
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12.2 OBJECTIVES
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12.3 IN-TEXT
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12.3.1 THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN
DRAMA: A STUDY OF SOYINKA’S DEATH AND THE
KING’S HORSEMAN
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12.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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12.6 REFERENCES
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12.4 SUMMARY -
12.7
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SUGGESTED READING -
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12.0
TOPIC: THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN
DRAMA: A STUDY OF SOYINKA’S DEATH AND THE KING’S HORSEMAN
12.1
INTRODUCTION
African drama, like the African novel and poetry has diverse themes
and styles, although some general uniformity in both can be noted. As in
the novel and poetry, a comprehensive study of African drama should cut
across plays from different parts of Africa. Since this course is a general
introduction to Modern African Literature, only one play is used as an
example. The play is Wole Soyinka Death and the King’s Horseman.
12.2
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this topic you will be able to:
i.
Identify the major themes and styles of African drama, with
example from Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King’s
Horseman.
12.3
12.3.1
IN-TEXT
THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN DRAMA: A STUDY OF SOYINKA’S DEATH
AND THE KING’S HORSEMAN
Soyinka was born in Abeokuta in 1934. He was educated at Ibadan. In
1954 went to the University of Leeds, England. After graduating in 1957, he
moved to London and was affiliated with the Royal Court Theatre. His first
plays were produced there. Soyinka produces and acts in his own plays. He is
also novelist and a poet.
His play Death and the King's Horseman is set in Oyo, which had been
a center of Yoruba civilization from 15th to 18th century. Oyo was a
constitutional monarchy with the king (alafin) elected from several
candidates within the ruling dynasty. The hierarchical structure of Yoruba
life allowed various occupations to be inherited within a social class or family
- thus the son of the king's horseman becomes the next king's horseman.
The conflict in the play is largely metaphysical, contained in the
human vehicle which is Elesin and the cosmos of the Yoruba mind - the
world of the living, the dead, and the unborn, and the passage which links all
transition.
The play is divided into five structures as follows:
SCENE 1
The scene begins in the marketplace. It is firmly anchored in
traditional Yoruba culture, with no mention of whites at all. In this scene
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Soyinka has employed more traditional forms of knowledge and
symbolic expressions than in any of the other scenes.
The scene also shows the status of Elesin in the society. The scene
through the story of the Not-I bird, conveys the spirit with which Elesin
contemplates his own death. The story of the Not-I bird becomes Elesin's
story later in the play Like him, the various "Not-! Birds make use of perfectly
acceptable excuses to absent themselves from confrontation with death.
SCENE 2
This scene establishes the British district officer's unconsciousness to
Elesin's position. The British sees the masks of the dead cult as simply fancy
costumes for a ball. Even the Moslem Amusa is horrified by the sacrilege, but
Pilkings does not care. Pilkings is even lacking in Western spiritual character,
as can be noted in his calling the baptism "nonsense." He treats the Yoruba
tradition as unimportant, but both he and wife are anxious about the prospect
of the British prince visiting their ball.
SCENE 3
It is in the marketplace. In Yoruba cosmology, "The world is a market,
heaven is home." In other words, the marketplace here stands as a symbol for
the world at large. In the marketplace, Amusa behaves like a stranger who
does not understand the sexual act of Elesin Oba. His participation in the
white man's government has made him so - as it saps the will of Elesin
himself. Amusa consistently speaks pidgin. The girls are more proficient in
language, because they are at home with their culture and are more equipped
for the English world.
In this scene, we see the beginning of Elesin's transformation, following
consummation of the sexual act. Consider the significance of his union with
the bride. Despite this, talking of the marketplace (the world) reminds him
of all the pleasures he has had: "This is where I have known love and
laughter --in the .market, nothing ever cloys" he says.
SCENE 4
It is at the Residency. The Pilkings' costume has reduced a sacred ritual
to the level of party entertainment. A very important passage is the exchange
between Jane Pilkings and Olunde, which emphasizes the Pilkings'
insensitivity to the sacrilege they have committed. The episode of the English
captain who destroyed himself to save others demonstrates that the problem
is different individual viewpoints on life and death, not a cultural distinction
- both English and Yoruba are capable of sacrificing themselves for others,
and both are capable of losing their nerve for the sacrifice. Jane Pilkings says,
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"Life should never be thrown deliberately away," but Olunde disputes the
point. From where does Olunde derive his beliefs?
SCENE 5
It is in Elesin's cell. Elesin begins by trying to blame Pilkings: "The
night is not at peace ghostly one. The world is not at peace. You have
shattered the peace of the world for ever." He describes the process that
was happening; the moment is already past when he should have died.
Pilkings' response to his charge is lame: "You don't really believe that."
Next Elesin has a "metaphysical" confrontation with his bride, whom he
blames for sapping his will - she has contributed "a weight of longing on my
earth-held limbs" that made him susceptible to the white man's
intervention.
Iyaloja castigates him for being an eater of leftovers - he could have had
the best of everything, if only he had remained true to his culture; but he
betrayed them by accepting a secondary position vis-a-vis the colonial
governors. He submitted himself to colonial power when he allowed himself
to be taken - his will was polluted by the aliens, so that he committed the
"blasphemy of thought - that there might be the hand of the gods in a
stranger's intervention."
When he finally does die, it is too late, and the passage that he should
have gone through first has been blocked, so he remains an eater of leftovers.
His being so completely in the power of the foreigners that he cannot even
perform the secondary task of sending a message through his son, the
courier, shows this also.
The Praise-Singer tells him, just before his death, "our world is tumbling
in the void of strangers!, Elesin' The damage is irreparable, because Olunde
has no children, and Elesin and Olunde carry the secrets of their hereditary
task with them into death.
The play can be interpreted at several levels. First there is the theme of
conflict between political activity and religious one. There is also the theme
of greedy leadership shown by Elesin. At the stylistic level, Soyinka uses
Yoruba mythology and cultural elements such as dances and songs in this
and other plays of his. He also uses oral narratives, proverbs and symbols.
He does all these by using English, which is universal and able to able to
convey African experiences.
12.4 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to themes and styles of
Modern African drama, with examples from Wole Soyinka’s Death and the
King's Horseman. The play is set in Oyo, which had been a center of Yoruba
civilization from 15th to 18th century.
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The conflict in the play is largely metaphysical, contained in the
human vehicle which is Elesin and the cosmos of the Yoruba mind - the
world of the living, the dead, and the unborn, and the passage which links all
transition.
The play is divided into five scenes. The first scene begins in the
marketplace. It is firmly anchored in traditional Yoruba culture, with no
mention of whites at all.
Scene two establishes the British district officer's unconsciousness to
Elesin's position. The British sees the masks of the dead cult as simply fancy
costumes for a ball.
Scene three is also in the marketplace. In Yoruba cosmology, "The
world is a market, heaven is home." In other words, the marketplace here
stands as a symbol for the world at large. In this scene, we see the beginning
of Elesin's transformation, following consummation of the sexual act.
Scene four is at the Residency. A very important passage is the
exchange between Jane Pilkings and Olunde, which emphasizes the
Pilkings' insensitivity to the sacrilege they have committed.
Scene five is in Elesin's cell. Elesin begins by trying to blame
Pilkings: Iyaloja castigates him for being an eater of leftovers - he could have
had the best of everything, if only he had remained true to his culture; but he
betrayed them by accepting a secondary position vis-a-vis the colonial
governors. He submitted himself to colonial power when he allowed himself
to be taken - his will was polluted by the aliens, so that he committed the
"blasphemy of thought - that there might be the hand of the gods in a
stranger's intervention."
The play can be interpreted at several levels. First there is the theme of
conflict between political activity and religious one. There is also the theme
of greedy leadership shown by Elesin. At the stylistic level, Soyinka uses
Yoruba mythology and cultural elements such as dances and songs in this
and other plays of his. He also uses oral narratives, proverbs and symbols.
He does all these by using English, which is universal and able to able to
convey African experiences.
12.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.
Mention two themes in the Death and the King’s Horseman.
Mention three stylistic features in the Death and the King’s
Horseman.
12.6 REFERENCE
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African
Literature. London: Longman.
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12.7
UNIT: 3
SUGGESTED READING
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century.
London: Heinemann
Brown, John Russel (1971) (ed.) Drama and Theatre: with Radio,
Film and Television. An Outline for the Student. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul.
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1
1.
2.
Two characteristics of oral literature are (1) It is a collective
experience of a people expressed collectively. (2) It has no single
author.
Two characteristics of modern African literature are (1) It is
largely based on written European literature. (2) It is mostly
produced in European languages.
TOPIC 2
1.
Black writing in modern European languages originated from
slave trade and the brutalities that went with it.
2.
The main feature of the style of black writers was their
imitation of European form.
1.
Equiano’s story about his early life in Africa is an imaginative
reorganization of a wide variety of tales about Africa from wide
range of sources.
1.
Fear of failure makes him work hard and become prosperous
because he does not like to be like his father who was lazy and
always in debt. It also brings his downfall because it
sometimes makes him behave irrationally and casually. For
example, he beats his wife during the “Week of Peace” and
fires a gun at his wife who narrowly escapes death.
It symbolizes death of the traditional Igbo society.
TOPIC 3
TOPIC 4
2.
TOPIC 5
1.
The root of the rivalry exists in the promises made the Gikuyu
people in their Creation Myth.
2.
The themes are: (1) Education of young Kenyans. (2) The
influence of Christianity in the Kenyan context. (3)
Independence struggle.
1.
2.
The accusation labeled on Arofi by his creditor.
The death of the palm wine tapper.
TOPIC 6
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TOPIC 7
1.
Themes of cultural conflict, suffering and violence.
TOPIC 8
Factors that encouraged the development of Modern African Poetry were (1)
Western education (2) Introduction of printing press.
TOPIC 9
The prominent features of the pioneer poets are: imitation of
European styles of composition, lack of regard for their African
background and glorification of Western values.
TOPIC 10
1.
2.
Negritude was a movement among black French Speaking Writers
who asserted black identity.
Pan-Africanism was a similar movement among English Speaking
African intellectuals who emphasized unity among Africans.
TOPIC 11
Three main features of traditional African drama are:
1.
It is a communal use of symbolic language to express fears,
hopes and wishes of organic society; it speaks for the
community, expressing its shared beliefs.
2.
It functions within the framework of rituals, festivals, harvests,
births, initiation ceremonies etc.
3.
It has no single author.
Three main features of Modern African drama are:
1.
The script is the initial aspect of its creation.
2.
It uses theatre buildings.
3.
It has a network of relations between the author, producer and
director.
TOPIC 12
Two themes are (1) Theme of conflict between political activity and
religious one. (2.) Theme of greedy leadership.
Three stylistic features are (1) Use Yoruba mythology. (2) the use of
dances and songs. (3) Use of narratives, proverbs and symbols.
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TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Explain the connection between historical events and imaginative
writing in Africa.
Identify the nature of the responses by black writers to historical
events.
Taking examples from Things Fall Apart, explain how Chinua
Achebe has succeeded in using the novel to educate his readers.
Compare and contrast the major themes of the poetry of Okara
Senghor.
With examples from any African tradition, explain the frameworks in
which at least three forms of African drama operate and comment on
their functions within the frameworks.
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