DO P80VERBS CONTRAD I CT?
K w e s i Yankah
T h i s p a p e r looks a t p r o v e r b s t h a t a r e
often labelled as contradictory b y p r o v e r b
s c h o l a r s a n d proposes a n . a l t e r n a t i v e p e r spective from
w h i c h they may b e v i e w e d .
I e x a m i n e t h e i l l u s i o n of conTo t h i s end,
tradiction
in proverbs a n d a r g u e t h a t the
impression of a n t i t h e s i s i s i n p a r t based on
a s u p e r f i c i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e d y n a m i c s
o f p r o v e r b use.
The
issue
of
contradiction
proverb
however,
needs t o
s c h o l a r s h a v e in m i n d ,
be defined.
We a r e n o t r e f e r r i n g h e r e to
t h e i m p r e s s i o n of c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n a s i n g l e
proverb;
t h i s w o u l d h a v e been r e l e v a n t i f
o u r i n t e n t i o n was to a p p r a i s e t h e a r t i s t i c
u s e of t h e d e v i c e s of p a r a d o x , o r oxymoron,
t o c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n of s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,
o r a b s u r d i t y i n proverbs.
R a t h e r , we a r e
concerned here w i t h p r o v e r b p a i r s t h a t a r e
argued b y scholars as advocating opposing
p r i n c i p l e s , such as i n the E n g l i s h proverbs,
"Haste makes waste,"
on t h e one h a n d , a n d
"He
who
hesitates i s
lost" on the other.
C o n t r a d i c t i o n h e r e need n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d
a s mere d i v e r s i t y o r i n c o n s i s t e n c y , s u c h a s
c a n be traced i n a l l moral laws, p r i n c i p l e s
o r charters.
By c o n t r a d i c t i o n between p r o v e r b s , we r e f e r t o a j u x t a p o s i t i o n of a n t o n y mous elements, o r p r i n c i p l e s ( K a t z 1964).
I n d e e d , a s e a r l y a s t h e b e g i n n i n g of
the
17th
century,
attention
to c o n f l i c t i n g
proverbs,
or
proverbs advocating opposing
philosophies,
was d r a w n b y N i c h o l a s Brenton (1618).
Since then, most s c h o l a r l y d i s cussions
of
proverb
col I e c t i o n s
a l l ude
to
this.
F i r t h (1926) r e f e r s to t h e ! ' d i v e r s e n a t u r e , t h e s q u a r e - f a c e d opposi t i o n s " of M a o r i
proverbs.
A n d r z e j e w s k i (1968) i n h i s s t u d y
o f Somali p r o v e r b s makes a s i m i l a r o b s e r v a tion.
T h i s i s a l s o s a i d of Jabo p r o v e r b s
(Herzog
1936),
Engl i s h
proverbs
(Taylor
1950), p r o v e r b s i n Chinese ( L i s t e r 1874), a n d
Yoruba
proverbs
(Lindfors
a n d Owomoyela
1973).
The e x i s t e n c e of c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o v e r b s
n a t u r a l l y poses a problern t o t h e v i e w of t h e
p r o v e r b a s a r e f l e c t i o n of r u l e s a n d i d e a l s
of
l i f e ( H e r t z l e r 1933,
Cohen
1913,
Kelso
1930), so i t w o u l d u n d e r m i n e t h e v i e w t h a t
(Bascom
1965).
folklore
validates
culture
It
would
indeed
upset
RadcI i f f e - B r o w n ' s
(1952)
n o t i o n of " f u n c t i o n a l
unity,"
which
i s s a i d t o e x p l a i n t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of s o c i e t y .
The v i e w t h a t p r o v e r b s c o n t r a d i c t c o u l d on
t h e o t h e r h a n d l e n d some credence to t h e
" s h r e d s a n d p a t c h e s " t h e o r y , i n w h i c h items
i n a s o c i e t y a r e p e r c e i v e d a s h a v i n g been
b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r b y a n a c c i d e n t of h i s t o r y .
3 u t we c a n n o t i g n o r e h e r e p a s t a t t e m p t s to
e x 9 l a i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n between p r o v e r b s .
To
Elmslie (l917),
a n t i t h e t i c a l proverbs represent
t h e v i e w p o i n t of d i f f e r e n t classes of
men.
T h i s view h i n t s a t the possible absence o f u n a n i m i t y i n a s o c i e t y ' s v i e w of
life.
To s c h o l a r s such a s F i r t h , on t h e
other
hand,
p r o v e r b s may c o n t r a d i c t each
o t h e r because they r e f l e c t t h e i d e a l of t h e
community o n t h e one h a n d a n d t h e s e l f i s h
i m p u l s e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l on t h e o t h e r .
Yet these e x p l a n a t i o n s of p r o v e r b cont r a d i c t i o n w o u l d s t i l l h a v e to c o n t e n d w i t h
t h e f a c t t h a t i t does
not t a k e t h e p r o v e r b
r e p e r t o i r e of a whole g r o u p to e x e m p l i f y cont r a d i c t o r y p r o v e r b s ; t h a t the a c t i v e p r o v e r b
r e p e r t o i r e o f a n i n d i v i d u a l may e x h i b i t t h e
a l l e g e d a n t i t h e s i s ; a n d f i n a l l y t h a t t h e act i v e use of a p r o v e r b
presupposes t h e a p -
.
p r o v a l of t h e r e l e v a n t communi t y
The p r o b l e m of c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o v e r b s
i s p a r t i a l l y r e s o l v e d b y T a y l o r who c o n t e n d s
t h a t t h e a d v i c e t h a t u n d e r l i e s most p r o v e r b s
i s t h e counsel t o a v o i d excess ( T a y l o r 1950:
903).
T a y l o r ' s p o i n t h e r e i s embel I i s h e d
b y Greenway when h e s a y s t h a t p r o v e r b s a d vise expediency,
w h i c h obeys n o c o n s i s t e n t
p r e c e p t s (Greenway 1964:64).
The v i e w p o i n t
of T a y l o r a n d Greenway o s t e n s i b l y l e a d s u s
to t h e r h e t o r i c a l v i e w o f p r o v e r b s .
The v i e w of t h e p r o v e r b a s a tool f o r
r h e t o r i c i s advanced b y such scholars as
B u r k e (1957), A b r a h a m s (196G), X i r s h e n b l a t t S i m b l e t t (1972), Soadi (1972), a few of whom
exploit the antithesis in proverbs as a p a r t i a l basis f o r advocating a rhetorical view
of p r o v e r b s .
From t h i s s t a n d p o i n t , t h e mor a l s p r o v e r b s a d v o c a t e a r e n o t of p r i m a r y
importance.
This notwithstanding,
it
i s our view
here that
the admission b y scholars t h a t
p r o v e r b s c o n t r a d i c t does not n e c e s s a r i l y shed
l i g h t on
t h e r h e t o r i c a l v i e w of p r o v e r b s ;
n e i t h e r does t h e r h e t o r i c a l v i e w of p r o v e r b s
adequate1 y e x p l a i n t h e a l l e g e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n
i n proverbs.
F o r w h e r e v e r these v i e w p o i n t s
h a v e been l a u n c h e d b y s c h o l a r s , t h e element
w h i c h w o u l d h a v e been most c r u c i a l i n t h e
v a l i d a t i o n of t h e i r theses h a s been m i s s i n g .
I r e f e r h e r e to context.
B u t t h e absence of c o n t e x t u a l i n f o r m a t ion i n the l i t e r a t u r e on p r o v e r b c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s n o t of l i m i t e d r e l e v a n c e ; i t c h a r a c terizes
a
goodly
proportion
of
scholarly
works on the p r o v e r b .
Often, s c h o l a r s h a v e
compi l e d p r o v e r b s frorn v a r i o u s c u l t u r e a r e a s
a n d a s s i g n e d m e a n i n g s to these, w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e to t h e l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t i n w h i c h they
a r e , o r were used.
I n a p p e a l i n g to c o n t e x t to r e b u t t h e
e x i s t e n c e of c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o v e r b s ,
we a r e
a w a r e of t h e over-use t o w h i c h the term h a s
I n fact,
been s u b j e c t e d in. f o l k l o r i s t i c s .
t h e p o s s i b l e abuse of t h e n o t i o n of c o n t e x t
i n t h e s o c i a l sciences, a n d t h e p o s s i b l e d a n g e r s i n i t s use a s t h e b a s i s f o r e x p l a i n i n g
the i r r a t i o n a l i s pointed out b y Gellner:
Cactextual interpretation is, in some respects,
like t h e invocation of ad hoc additional hypotheses
in science: it is inevitable, proper, often very
valuable, and at the same time dangerous and liable
t o disasterous abuse.
It is probably impossible
in either c a s e to drau up general rules for delimiting t h e legitimate and illegitimate uses of it
(1973:44).
Our s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t t h i s danger i s that
u n l i k e t h e t r e a t m e n t of b e l i e f s , s u p e r s t i t i o n s ,
etc.,
p e c u l i a r to " p r i m i t i v e " societies
with
w h i c h Gel l n e r exempt i f i e s h i s p o s i t i o n ,
we
a r e dea l i n g h e r e w i t h a phenomenon ( c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o v e r b s ) w h i c h i s almost u n i v e r s a l .
Secondly, t h e v e r y n a t u r e of t h e p r o v e r b as
o c c u r r i n g o n l y w i t h i n a m a t r i x of d i s c o u r s e
s h o u l d d i s c o u r a g e a n y a p p r o a c h to i t s meani n g outside contextual setting.
Proverb inf o r m a n t s among t h e A k a n of Ghana, f o r i n stance, p r o t e s t a g a i n s t d i r e c t e l i c i t a t i o n of
p r o v e r b s t h r o u g h t h e use o f t h e p r o v e r b "One
c a n n o t sleep except in a d r e a m , " a n d the
meta-proverb,
"Without
discourse,
one does
not tel l proverbs
The a d v a n t a g e i n p a y i n g heed to the
p o i n t i n t h e above-ci ted p r o v e r b s b y i n f o r rnants i s t h a t i t e n a b l e s t h e c u r i o u s s c h o l a r
to explore a possible meaning discrepancy
between t h e p r o v e r b as i s o l a t e d a n d f r o z e n
on p a p e r b y the scholar,
a n d the p r o v e r b
a s used in t h e f l o w of d i s c o u r s e .
I t is this
dichotomy between p r o v e r b concept a n d p r o v e r b i n context that underlies o u r position
i n this paper.
The a t t r a c t i o n in the p r o posed schism i s t h a t i t p r o v i d e s u s w i t h a
."
t h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r the u n l ikeI:i.hood of
contradiction
i n the use of p r o v e r b s , a n d
indeed e x p l a i n s the m u l t i p l i c i t y of meanings
that
c a n b e associated w i t h one p r o v e r b .
The suggestion h e r e i s t h a t p a s t s c h o l a r s
of
the p r o v e r b i n a s s i g n i n g meaning a n d
subsequently c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,
have only dealt
But the d i f f e r e n c e
w i t h the p r o v e r b concept.
between p r o v e r b concept a n d p r o v e r b context
i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y one of i d e o l o g y .
Whereas i n the r e a l m of p r o v e r b concept, one
i s d e a l i n g w i t h the p r o v e r b a s a c u l t u r a l
f a c t o r truism, w h i c h i s l i a b l e to c o n t r a d i c t i o n , i n c o n t e x t u a l usage t h e t r u t h i n a p r o verb i s irrelevant.
I n r e f e r r i n g to the p r o v e r b concept a s
c truism, we a r e o n l y d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n to
i t s general o r i e n t a t i o n to the a s s e r t i o n of
a cultural truth.
The t r u i s m i n a p r o v e r b
lnay be e m p i r i c a l l y v a l i d a s i n the Akan
p roverb,
"The f i v e f i n g e r s a r e of u n e q u a l
length!"
i t may b e i n t h e f o r m of a v a l i d
t r a d i t i o n a l be1 i e f a s i n t h e l n d i a n p r o v e r b ,
"Oxen
with
bad
traits
bring
misfortune"
S r i v a s t a v a 1972). The p r o v e r b on the o t h e r
h a n d , may be based on a q u e s t i o n a b l e logic,
o r a n u n v e r i f i a b l e c l a i m a s i n the E n g l i s h
p r o v e r b , "3ne h o u r ' s sleep b e f o r e m i d n i g h t
i s w o r t h two h o u r s a f t e r , " o r "We must a l l
eat a p a c k of d i r t b e f o r e we die"
(Hand
1980).
The p r o v e r b may a l s o b e an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a n a c t i v i t y i n the non-human
w o r l d as i n the A k a n p r o v e r b , "The persp i r a t i o n of
the
tiger
is
h a r d l y noticed."
Segardless of the l o g i c o r f a l l a c y of a p r o verb, however, i t i s o b s e r v e d i s a c u l t u r a l
truism, o r f a c t .
I n t h e o r e t i c a l terms, the
j r o v e r b s above a r e c a p a b l e of c o n t r a d i c t i o n
o r d e n i a l ; b u t i n p r a c t i c e , t h e t r u t h i n them
i s h a r d l y questioned.
It
i s t h i s u n q u e s t i o n e d c h a r a c t e r of
t h e p r o v e r b concept t h a t i s e x p l o i t e d f o r the
purposes of persuasion i n discourse.
But
i n t h e r e a l m of d i s c o u r s e c o n t e x t , t h e p r o v e r b ceases to b e f a c t - o r i e n t e d ;
i t assumes
t h e c h a r a c t e r of a n o p i n i o n ,
confirming or
validating
the judgment
or
opinion
the
s p e a k e r h a s a l r e a d y formed.
At t h i s s t a g e
where t h e t r u i s m i n a p r o v e r b i s o n l y exp l o i t e d to c o r r o b o r a t e w i t h a j u d g m e n t ,
discretion,
or
opinion,
contradiction
becomes
irrelevant;
f o r opinions b y t h e i r very nat u r e , a r e n o t f a c t u a i , even t h o u g h they may
b e p r e d i c a t e d upon f a c t s .
I n one s i t u a t i o n of p r o v e r b use docu-mented b y t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r , s p e a k e r A was
d e b a t i n g w h e t h e r he s h o u l d a v a i l h i m s e l f of
a p r o v i s i o n of u n a t t r a c t i v e u t e n s i l s t h a t were
b e i n g o f f e r e d f r e e of
c h a r g e b y another.
As A was d i s m i s s i n g t h e i d e a because t h e
items were not a t t r a c t i v e , s p e a k e r B s u g g e s ~
ted t h a t A s h o u l d t a k e them a s they were,
s i n c e b e t t e r u t e n s i l s were h a r d to come b y .
B s u p p o r t e d h i s s u g g e s t i o n w i t h the A k a n
proverb,
"A w o r t h l e s s sponge i s p i c k e d u p
i n needy times."
This proverb, in isolation
i s fact-oriented;
the p o i n t i n i t i s potentiall y c o n t e s t a b l e , b u t a s i t was u s e d b y speaker
B to s t y l i z e o r j u s t i f y h i s c o n s i d e r e d
judgement
or opinion,
i t ceased to b e den i a b l e s i n c e o p i n i o n s c a n n o t b e contested o r
d e n i e d , b u t a r e o n l y s u b j e c t t o acceptance
o r rejection.
T h i s makes t h e p r o v e r b a f i t t i n g tool f o r r h e t o r i c .
I n discourse situations,
s p e a k e r s may
adopt s i m i l a r o r d i f f e r e n t viewpoints.
But
r e g a r d l e s s of t h e s t a n d t a k e n , each s p e a k e r
a s s e r t s h i s p o i n t of v i e w b y a d o p t i n g a s t r a I-le may r e l y o n p e r s o n a l i n s i g h t s ,
tegy.
p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s o r precedences i n e n h a n c i n g
h i s a r g u m e n t ; b u t where necessary, a speake r may use h i s d i s c r e t i o n a n d , c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f h i s a u d i e n c e to p r o verbs,
use a p r o v e r b to s o l i d i f y t h e s t a n d
he has taken.
I n utilizing a proverb i n
t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e s p e a k e r may b e r e f e r r i n g
to a we1 I - k n o w n b e l i e f , p r a c t i c e , f a c t , conv e n t i o n o r phenomenon whose v a l i d i t y i n t h e
society
his
audience
takes
for
granted.
Knowing t h a t the relevant proverb i s a n unquestionable
truism,
the
speaker
exploits
t h i s s i t u a t i o n a n d uses t h e c u l t u r a l t r u i s m
t o s u p p o r t a n o p i n i o n h e h a s formed i n t h e
discourse o r a n action he h a s taken, which
may even b e u n p o p u l a r .
By u s i n g a c u l t u r a l t r u i s m to e n h a n c e a n o p i n i o n , t h e s p e a k e r
may
indeed
be saying,
t o h i s audience,
"Well,
i f y o u a l l accept t h i s p o i n t i n t h i s
p r o v e r b as a n incontestable t r u t h which has
been b l e s s e d b y o u r f o r e f a t h e r s a n d h a n d e d
down to u s ,
y o u may a s w e l l s u p p o r t t h e
v i e w I am a d v a n c i n g . "
Of course, t h e l o g i c
o r message i n t h e s p e a k e r ' s v i e w p o i n t a n d
t h a t i n t h e p r o v e r b may not n e c e s s a r i l y b e
i d e n t i c a l , b u t the speaker here exploits the
t r a d i t i o n a l i t y of t h e p r o v e r b , i t s f l e x i b i l i t y
a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r ; h e i n f a c t exp l o i t s t h e wisdom:
of many to a s s e r t h i s
personal w it
The d i s t i n c t i o n between p r o v e r b concept
a n d p r o v e r b i n c o n t e x t to w h i c h we r e s o r t
i n s e p a r a t i n g f a c t f r o m o p i n i o n becomes even
more r e l e v a n t i f we emphasize t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l essence of t h e p r o v e r b ( S e i t e l 1969); f o r
e v e n t h o u g h a p r o v e r b may b e a n image o r
a set o f images, i t may d e f i n e a n u n l i m i t e d
r a n g e o f s i t u a t i o n s , each d i s t i n c t i n p a r t i cularity.
These s i t u a t i o n s may h a v e a common l o g i c a l d e n o m i n a t o r , b u t t h e y need n o t ;
for
the
isolated
p r o v e r b concept
may
be
v i e w e d a s h a v i n g a c o n s t e l l a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l
m e a n i n g s e a c h of w h i c h c r y s t a l I izes i n con-
.
t e x t u a l usage.
Kirshenblatt-Girnblett
(1972)
f o r example,
r e f e r s to the p r o v e r b meaning
a s the i n t e g r a t i o n of p r o v e r b i a l a n d si tuat i o n a l meaning,
a n d exemplifies the multip l e m e a n i n g s t h a t a p r o v e r b may c o n t r a c t
as i t i s used i n d i f f e r e n t contexts.
P a r t of
the reason f o r the m u l t i p l e
m e a n i n g s a p r o v e r b may a c q u i r e i s t h a t potential
proverb
users
may
have different
t e c h n i q u e s of t i m i n g in a p p l y i n g t h e p r o v e r b , w h i c h may o c c a s i o n a c h a n g e i n p r o v e r b meaning.
T h i s i s beside the manipulat i o n of o t h e r e x t r a l i n g u i s t i c f e a t u r e s such
a s tone, s t r e s s , o r r e c o u r s e to f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n o r o t h e r motor o r g e s t u r a l a c t i v i t y b y
proverb users.
A l l these r e f l e c t on t h e m u l t i p 1 i c i t y of m e a n i n g s t h a t may b e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h one p r o v e r b .
Among t h e Jabo o f L i b e r i a , a c c o r d i n g to Herzog, t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o v e r b c a n b e used i n two senses w h i c h d i r e c t l y c o n t r a d i c t each o t h e r ; a p e r s o n may
condemn o r p r a i s e t h e same b e h a v i o r w i t h
the same p r o v e r b : "They u s u a l l y s a y i t i s
the
villager,
they
don't
say
it
is
the
s t r a n g e r , w h o i f h e w a l k s a b o u t town, w a l k s
l e i s u r e l y " ( t i e r z o g 1936).
E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d (1963) a l s o d r a w s a t t e n t i o n to t h e m u l t i p l e m e a n i n g s
Zande
proverbs contract i n v a r y i n g contexts; t h i s
he demonstrates
w i t h v a r i e d m e a n i n g s ass i g n e d b y d i f f e r e n t s c h o l a r s t o t h e same Zande proverbs.
F i e l d w o r k on t h e p r o v e r b c a r r i e d out b y the present w r i t e r in fact reveals t h a t p r o v e r b informants often f i n d i t
difficult
t e l l i n g the scholar what precisely
a
p r o v e r b means.
Instead of
indicating
w h a t a p r o v e r b means, i n f o r m a n t s w o u l d n o r m a l l y g i v e t h e c o n t e x t o r c o n t e x t s in w h i c h
t h e p r o v e r b w o u l d be used.
The p o t e n t i a l
f o r m u l t i p l e m e a n i n g s i n a p r o v e r b seems
to h a v e been missed b y such s c h o l a r s as
klerrick,
who,
w h i l e w o r k i n g on p r o v e r b s
among the Hausa, p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e Haus a ' s way of l o o k i n g a t t h i n g s i s d i f f e r e n t
from the European.
His reason?
I.lausa i n f o r m a n t s a r e u n a b l e to p i n down t h e m e a n i n g
of p r o v e r b s .
F o r example,
one man g a v e
t h r e e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e sarne p r o v e r b o n
t h r e e successive d a y s ( X l e r r i c k 1905).
In
squeezing out a p r o v e r b ' s meanings from a n
i n f o r m a n t , M e r r i c k h a d i n f a c t compelled t h e
i n f o r m a n t to come u p w i t h t h r e e m e a n i n g s
based on d i f f e r e n t
h y p t h e t i c a l c o n t e x t s of
usage.
A n d one c o u l d irnay i n e t h e e x t e n t
of chaos,
i f M e r r i c k h a d f u r t h e r asked h i s
informant for proverbs that contradicted h i s
e a r l i e r ones.
I n f a c t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to t a l k
of c o n t r a d i c t i o n between p r o v e r b s , s i n c e p r o v e r b s h a v e more t h a n one m e a n i n g .
This
c h a r a c t e r of t h e p r o v e r b i n c r e a s e s i t s v a l u e
as a r h e t o r i c a l tool.
a u t t h e r h e t o r i c a l p o w e r of t h e p r o v e r b
i s a l s o a t t r i b u t b l e to i t s l i t e r a r y f l a v o r ( b a l a n c i n g , r h y m e , assonance, a l l i t e r a t i o n , p u n ,
etc.),
motivated b r e v i t y ,
and authoritative
tone.
T h r o u g h these a t t r i b u t e s , rnany p r o v e r b s assume t h e c h a r a c t e r of a b s o l u t e , u n q u a l i f i e d rules encapsulated in abbreviated
language.
T h i s o f t e n l e a d s to a p p a r e n t cont r a d i c t i o n in some p r o v e r b p a i r s o u t s i d e t h e i r
c o n t e x t u a l usage.
F o r example, the fol lowing
two A k a n p r o v e r b s seem to c o n t r a d i c t each
other, the f i r s t a d v i s i n g a g a i n s t fel lowship,
a n d t h e second a d v o c a t i n g f e l l o w s h i p :
a.
I t ' s due to f r i e n d s h i p t h a t the c r a b
got n o h e a d .
b.
'"Blow
o f f a mote i n my eyes," t h a t i s
why a n t e l o p e s w a l k i n p a i r s .
The f o l l o w i n g E n g l i s h p r o v e r b s h a v e a s i m i l a r antithetical flavor:
a.
Look b e f o r e y o u l e a p .
5.
He who h e s i t a t e s i s l o s t .
a.
Out of s i g h t , o u t of m i n d .
b.
Absence makes the h e a r t grow f o n d e r
( G o d w i n a n d Wenzel 1981).
A second look a t these p r o v e r b p a i r s s u g gests
t h a t t h e i r f u l l meanings a r e conditioned b y the v a r i o u s situations i n which
t h e y w o u l d b e used, a n d the p a i r s may even
complement e a c h o t h e r i n c o n t e x t u a l u s a g e .
The f i r s t A k a n p r o v e r b , f o r example, w o u l d
b e seen i n c o n t e x t a s g u a r d i n g a g a i n s t e x cesses i n a c q u i s i t i o n of f r i e n d s o r s e l e c t i o of f r i e n d s ,
w h i l e t h e second p r o v e r b wou I - T
ae u s e d i n s i t u a t i o n s where a v o i d i n g f r i e n b s
e n t ire1 y h a s l e d to u n t o w a r d consequences.
A significant
p o i n t here i s that the t i m i n g
of a p r o v e r b p l a y s a r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g i t s
s i t u a t i o n a l m e a n i n g : f o r w h i l e the use of t h e
anti-friendship'
p r o v e r b in a n t i c i p a t i o n oi
a m i s h a p h a s a n under1 y i n g , weaker m e a n i n g
of "stop i n d u l g i n g i n too much f e l l o i v s h i p .
d i s a s t e r may o c c u r , I ' i t s use a f t e r t h e occ u r r e n c e of a d i s a s t e r h a s the u n d e r l y i n g
" d ~ s a s t e r has occurred; this promeaning,
v e r b confirrns i t . "
S i m i l a r l y , the a p p a r e n t l .
contradictory
E n g l i s h p r o v e r b s above h a \ s
a
parenthetical
preface,
"In
some
contexts..
,4 f u r t h e r a r g u m e n t t h a t s u p p o r t s t h e
n e g o t i a b l e rneaning of a p r o v e r b i n c o n t e x i
l i e s i n the c a u t i o n e x e r c i s e d b y some p r o v e r b compilers i n e x p l a i n i n g proverbs.
FGexample,
h a v i n g r e n d e r e d a n A k a n prover;
i n the f o l l o w i n g E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , " I f the
rnouth s l i p s ,
t h e consequence i s worse t h a r ,
t h e s l i p p i n g of t h e foot.."
Akrofi (n.d.) provides
the f o l l o w i n g explanation:
"A
wrong
w o r d m a y do more h a r m t h a n a f a l l
Arc
f o r t h e p r o v e r b ? "One l i e d e s t r o y s a thousar;
truths,"
A k r o f i states, "An honest man m a y
ruin h i s r e p u t a t i o n b y t e l l i n g lies,"
evet h o u g h t h e p r o v e r b s themselves a r e more a b Cine may i n d e e d o b s e r v e how absurc.
solute.
."
."
t h e f o l l o w i n g w o u l d s o u n d a s p r o v e r b s among
the Akan:
"
I f t h e mouth s l i p s , t h e consequence may
b e worse t h a n t h e s l i p p i n g of t h e f o o t .
"'
One l i e may d e s t r o y a t h o u s a n d t r u t h s .
a n d how t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e not l i k e l y to b e
proverbs i n English:
'
Haste somet imes makes waste.
',.
Absence sometimes makes t h e h e a r t grow
fonder.
The
potential
for
negotiable
meaning
does n o t ,
however,
mean a n y t h i n g goes f o r
a
proverb's
meaning o r
that
the proverb
u s e r i s in n o way c o n s t r a i n e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c
m e a n i n g he a s s o c i a t e s w i t h t h e p r o v e r b i n
discourse.
Zather,
the
proverb
user
is
guided
in
h i s c h o i c e of
proverb,
by his
known position o r a t t i t u d e i n the discourse
interaction,
what
l i t e r a l statements precede
h i s p r o v e r b c i t a t i o n , o r statements he u t t e r s
a f t e r t h e p r o v e r b he q u o t e s .
These d e f i n e d
a t t i t u d e s h a v e to c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e i n t e n d e d
m e a n i n g of
the
proverb
which
i s circums c r i b e d b y t r a d i t i o n a n d usage.
Thus even
though the p r o v e r b user i s not accountable
f o r t h e c o n t e n t of t h e p r o v e r b , w h i c h i s a t t r i b u t e d to t r a d i t i o n ,
t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of
timely
and
appropriate
u s a g e d e v o l v e s on
hirn.
He i s ,
i n fact,
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the
aesthetic effect the p r o v e r b achieves i n the
d i s c o u r s e a n d how
t h e p r o v e r b harmonizes
w i t h h i s known sentiments i n the i n t e r a c t i o n .
The p r o v e r b u s e r i s i n d e e d a c c o u n t a b l e ,
if
s u b c o n s c i o u s I y , f o r t h e a v o i d a n c e of a poss i b l e d i s h a r m o n y between h i s a t t i t u d e ,
and
t h e p r o v e r b h e c i tes.
B u t even a f t e r d i s p u t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e
of c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o v e r b s on t h e b a s i s of t h e
concep t / c o n t e x t
sch i sm,
one cou I d
proverb
go e x t r a l e n g t h s to s u b j e c t to c l o s e r p e r u s a l
some of t h e p r o v e r b p a i r s s c h o l a r s h a v e suggested a r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y .
!Yhi l e t h i s b o r d e r s
-9.
J.
&
.
m.a
o n t h e f r i n g e s of o u r a r g u m e n t i n t h i s p a per,
i t h e l p s to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t even a t
t h e l e v e l of p r o v e r b concept,
not a l l the
proverbs p u r p o r t e d to b e contradictory a r e
l o g i c a l l y so; f o r we r e a l i s e t h a t these o f t e n
Andrzeh a v e d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of e m p h a s i s .
j e w s k i (1968), f o r e x a m p l e , o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g a s e x a m p l e s of c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n Somali
proverbs,
.-.
.,
God does not p u t to shame a b r a v e man.
The mother of a c o w a r d does n o t lose h e r
children.
a d d i n g t h a t w h i l e the f i r s t advocates courage,
t h e second e n c o u r a g e s c o w a r d i c e .
A
c l o s e r look a t t h e p r o v e r b s , however, i n d i cates that
t h e p o i n t s of e m p h a s i s i n the
proverbs,
" b r a v e man,"
a n d " t h e mother of
a c o w a r d " occupy d i f f e r e n t g r a m m a t i c a l p o s i t i o n s ( t h e f i r s t a c t i n g a s s u b j e c t , t h e second
a c t i n g as object) a n d therefore reflect a disSecondly,
" b r a v e man"
tance i n meaning.
of a c o w a r d " a r e n o t l o g i c a l
a n d "niorher
opposites.
For w h i l e i n the f i r s t proverb,
i t i s t h e b r a v e man t h a t i s ' r e w a r d e d ' i n
h i s e x h i b i t i o n of c o u r a g e , i t i s not the cowa r d t h a t i s rewarded i n h i s cowardice, b u t
h i s blood r e l a t i o n .
The l a t t e r r l i o d i f i c a t i o n
l e a d s to a n absence of l o g i c a l p a r i t y between
t h e two c o n s t i t u e n t s ,
a n d t h e r e f o r e a n absence of c o n t r a d i c t i o n between the two p r o verbs.
C o n s i d e r a l s o the f o l l o w i n g p r o v e r b s
h i g h l i g h t e d b y I i e r z o g a s c o n t r a d i c t i n g each
other:
'
C h i c k e n s a y s : we f o l l o w t h e one who h a s
something.
",.
Chicken says:
i f y o u h a v e rnanaged to
get something, y o u a v o i d y o u r f e l l o w s .
The c o n t r a d i c t i o n , f o r Herzog, l i e s i n j u s t i f y i n g generosity
i n the f i r s t p r o v e r b a n d
d e f e n d i n g s e l f i s h n e s s i n t h e second.
A sec o n d r e a d i n g of
these p r o v e r b s i n d i c a t e s ,
however,
t h a t even i f we a g r e e t h a t b o t h
p r o v e r b s a d v o c a t e a c o u r s e of a c t i o n ,
the
4
.
recommendations h e r e a r e n o t m u t u a l l y exclusive.
For w h i l e the c h i c k e n h a s every
r i g h t to seek food frorn a n o t h e r h a v i n g food,
t h e l a t t e r a l s o h a s e v e r y r i g h t to a v o i d t h e
needy c h i c k e n .
The e x a m i n a t i o n o f p r o v e r b
p a i r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t a r e a s of f o c u s suggests
t h a t t h e composition of p r o v e r b s i n a c u l t u r e ' s r e p e r t o i r e i s b a s e d on a d i v e r s i t y of
human experiences.
Z a c h ~ r o v e r b composer
was g u i d e d b y t h e i d i o s y n c r a c i e s of t h e s i - t u a t i o n t h a t i n s p i r e d the p r o v e r b .
This nat u r a l l y d i v e r s i f i e s t h e r e l e v a n t a r e a s of focus,
ana
gives
many
proverbs distinctive
l o g i c a l p a t t e r n i n g s t h a t r e d u c e t h e i r potent i a l of b e i n g c o n t r a d i c t e d .
aeside
t h i s , t h e t e n o r o f t h e two p r o v e r b s above
( a n d several
o t h e r s ) suggests
that
p r o v e r b s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
adv~cate
c o u r s e of a c t i o n , b u t sornztir-,ies m e r e l y h i g h l i g h t a n unpleasant hurt~an tendency,
or a
comrnon i r o n y i n l i f e .
FJore exarnples of p r o ironical
s i t u a t i o n s may b e
verbs depicting
c i t e d frorn o t h e r l a n g u a g e s :
Vietnamese: A b l a c k s n i i t h n e v e r h a s a k n i f e
for betel.
A rnat m a k e r d i e s c n b a r e g r o u n d .
Tamils:
Japariese:
A d y e r a l w a y s wears u n d y e d hakani
ihinese:
I n t h e horne of a c a r p e n t e r t h e r e
a r e n o benches ( Permy a k o v 1970).
Besides
sounding
more a b s o l u t e
t h a n they
r e a l l y mean,
the proverbs above h i g h l i g h t
t h e i r o n y of a p r o d u c e r of qocds o r s e r v i c e s
u n a b l e to b e n e f i t fr-0171 h i s l a b o r .
The p o i n t b e i n g e m p h a s i z e d h e r e i s t h a t
p r o v e r b p a i r s often h i g h l i g h t e d as contradict o r y sometimes do n o t a d v o c a t e c o n t r a d i c t o r y
courses o f a c t ion,
b u t a r e r,:ere s u i a r r l a t ions
of i r o n i c a l tendencies.
T h ? fol lo\ryin~jp a i r
of
proverbs
u s e d b y F i r t h as c o n t r a d i c t o r y
.
i n M a o r i p r o v e r b s may b e s u m m a r i e s of i r o n i c a l tendencies i n M a o r i l i f e , a n d n o t r u l e s
(1926:27) w o u l d
for
ideal
l i v i n g as F i r t h
suggest:
When t h e r e i s a f e a s t Paeko i s not
c a l l e d , when t h e r e i s f i g h t i n g y o u c a l l h i m
l o u d enough.
b.
At p l a n t i n g t i m e one l a b o r s alone, a t
harvest, friends a r e a l l around.
We h a v e i n t h i s essay a d v a n c e d a r g u ments a g a i n s t t h e e x i s t e n c e of c o n t r a d i c t o r y
proverbs,
based
m a i n l y on
t h e suggested
concept/con t e x t
discrepancy
T h i s schism
was
also
argued
as
coinciding with
the
m e t a p h o r i c a l n a t u r e of t h e p r o v e r b .
But p a r a d o x i c a l l y , w h i l e the metaphoric a l essence of t h e p r o v e r b s t r e n g t h e n s o u r
stand,
i t c o u l d a l s o b e a source of weakness;
f o r not a l l p r o v e r b s a r e open-ended
i n the s i t u a t i o n s t h a t
they may b e used.
The v a l i d i t y of t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t makes poss i b l e t h e p a i r i n g of p r o v e r b s whose c o n f l i c t i n g m e a n i n g s even i n some c o n t e x t s seem
beyond d o u b t .
I h a v e i n m i n d p a i r s of sayi n g s such a s t h e f o l l o w i n g c i t e d b y L i s t e r
(1874) f r o m Chinese p r o v e r b s :
a.
Know a man b y h i s looks.
b.
Looks a r e b o r n e i n t h e h e a r t .
I t seems i m p o s s i b l e f o r these p r o v e r b s to be
appl ied
to
convey
metaphorical
meanings
such
as
is
possible i n a
proverb
like,
" B i r d s of a f e a t h e r f l o c k t o g e t h e r . "
I n the
use of
the p r o v e r b s above,
t h e dichotomy
between
literal
meaning
and
metaphorical
m e a n i n g may b e b l u r r e d s i n c e t h e s i t u a t i o n s
i n w h i c h they may b e used a r e not openended.
T h i s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y erase o u r
concepf/context d i s t i n c t i o n , h o w e v e r ; f o r each
of these p r o v e r b s may s t i l l c a r r y v a r y i n g
shades of m e a n i n g i n c o n t e x t .
Even so, i t
i s w o r t h a d d i n g t h a t most of s u c h non-metaphorical
s a y i n g s a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as
"maxims"
o r "aphorisms,"
a n d may not be
c o n s i d e r e d h i g h on t h e p r e f e r e n c e s c a l e of
good p r o v e r b u s e r s i n s o c i e t i e s where p r o v e r b s a r e a c t i v e l y used.
3.
.
Proverbs,
by their very
nature,
are
of ten m e t a p h o r i c a l , b u t t h e y a r e a l s o d i v e r s e
a n d unsystematized.
Even w i t h i n the prob e r b r e p e r t o i r e of a s i n g l e c u l t u r e o r i n d i vidual,
p r o v e r b s may b e i r r e g u l a r i n t h e
messages they c a r r y .
B u t t h i s i s not a s r e l e v a n t as t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s p o t e n t i a l needs
to b e e x p l o i t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e s of r h e t o r i c .
T h u s s p e a k e r s i n a d i s c o u r s e s i t u a t i o n may
e x c h a n g e p r o v e r b s to s u p p o r t d i v e r s e o p i n ions.
T h i s i s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y Messenger
(1965) i n h i s account of p r o v e r b use i n t r a d i t i o n a l courts
among t h e A n a n g of N i g e r i a .
I t must b e p o i n t e d o u t , however, t h a t p r o v e r b s used i n such s i t u a t i o n s a r e not d i r e c t
o p p o s i t i o n s , b u t h i g h l i g h t a s p e c t s of t h e r e l e v a n t p r o b l e m t h a t h a v e n o t been c o n s i d e r e d
b y the o t h e r s p e a k e r i n t a k i n g h i s p o s i t i o n .
T h u s even t h o u g h i n M e s s e n g e r ' s e x ample,
the p l a i n t i f f s u p p o r t s h i s accusation
of t h e d e f e n d a n t w i t h t h e p r o v e r b , " I f t h e
dog p l u c k s p a l m f r u i t s f r o m a c l u s t e r ,
he
does not f e a r p o r c u p i n e , " ( i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e
defendant i s a n o l d t h i e f ) , the p r o v e r b used
b y t h e d e f e n d a n t to r e p u d i a t e t h e c h a r g e a n d
assert
his
innocence,
"A
single partridge
f l y i n g t h r o u g h the b u s h leaves no p a t h " (imp l y i n g t h a t he h a s n o s y m p h a t i z e r s , a n d t h i s
h a s r e s u l t e d in h i s a p p a r e n t g u i l t ) i s not
in direct
o p p o s i t i o n to t h e f i r s t p r o v e r b .
The second p r o v e r b m e r e l y h i g h l i g h t s a p h i losophy w h i c h t h e p l a i n t i f f d i d not e a r l i e r
consider.
E v e n t h o u g h t h e two p a r t i e s t a k e
o p p o s i n g p o s i t i o n s i n t h e case, t h e p r o v e r b s
t h e y use a r e n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y .
To c o n c l u d e o u r a t t e m p t t o r e b u t t h e
e x i s t e n c e of c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o v e r b s ,
i t may
b e a d d e d t h a t p r o v e r b u s e r s themsel ves do
n o t seem to b e a w a r e t h a t p r o v e r b s c o n t r a dict.
The p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t t h e whole i d e a
of p r o v e r b s i n o p p o s i t i o n seems t o b e m e r e l y
a scholarly construct,
of l i t t l e o r n o r e l e -
v a n c e i n t h e f r e e f l o w of d i s c o u r s e .
In
p o i n t i n g t h i s o u t i t h a s not been o u r i n t e n t i o n to b e l i t t l e t h e v a l u e o f p a s t s c h o l a r s h i p
on the p r o v e r b .
R a t h e r , we h a v e sought to
h i g h l i g h t some of
t h e i l l u s i o n s a b o u t the
p r o v e r b w h i c h may b e p e r p e t u a t e d i n the
c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t of t h e p r o v e r b o u t s i d e
c o n t e x t u a l usage.
The f i e l d i n f o r m a n t h a s
been o u r g u i d e h e r e ; h a r k h i s words: "One
c a n not dream except i n a sleep,"
"Without
discourse, one does not t e l l p r o v e r b s . "
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
T h i s p a p e r was o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t e d i n P r o f e s s o r
s e m i n a r on F o l k l o r e a n d C u l t u r a l A n t h r o Roger J a n e l l i l s
I would l i k e t o
p o l o g y i n 1982, a t I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y .
e x p r e s s my t h a n k s t o h i m a n d a l l t h e o t h e r s e m i n a r p a r t i cipants.