WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 74
Emigrating Israeli Families: Who Goes Where?
Characteristics of Families of Israelis Who Immigrated to Three
Destinations: the United States; Central and Western Europe; and the
former Soviet Republics and Eastern Europe
Eilat Cohen-Kastro*
([email protected])
January 2013
* Israel Central Bureau of Statistics – Demography and Census Department
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The Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS) encourages research based on ICBS
data, such as the research published in this paper. These research papers are not
official ICBS publications. Therefore, the opinions and conclusions expressed therein
are those of the writers alone and do not necessarily reflect the opinions and
conclusions of the ICBS.
Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 66 Kanfei Nesharim St., corner Bachi
P.O.B. 34525, Jerusalem 91342
Tel. +972-2-6592666; Fax +972-2-6521340
www.cbs.gov.il
[email protected]
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Abstract
This study examined the characteristics of families that emigrated from Israel to selected
emigration destinations. The research was carried out through the use of official Israeli
databases. A unique methodology was developed that allowed for the identification of the
emigration destination country of Israeli families abroad. This was accomplished by using the
listing of the country of birth that was registered for children born abroad to Israeli residents.
This country of birth served as a proxy for the emigration destination country of the whole
family. The population study consisted of 34,047 families of Israelis (133,502 individuals) to
which a child was born abroad and whose birth was listed in Israel's Population Register,
during the years 1996–2008. The research had two purposes: (a) producing a new database
of Israeli families abroad—parents and their children up to age seventeen—during 1996–
2008, that included demographic and socio-economic characteristics as well as each
family's emigration destination country; and (b) analysis of the emigrating families according
to their selected emigration destination and according to various demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Three emigration destinations were selected that represented
distinct social and economic structures: (a) the United States (US), (b) Central and Western
European countries, and (c) Eastern European countries and the former USSR republics.
The study used two research methods: descriptive statistics to depict aggregated measures
of the characteristics of the families that had emigrated by their emigration destination, and
binary logistic regression to determine the most influential characteristics. Variables that
could have an effect on the decision to emigrate and its destination were chosen to be used
in both methods: religion, country of origin, immigration history, education, and occupation.
The results showed that the Israeli families that emigrated to the US were characterized, on
average, by a very high level of skills. Families that emigrated to Central and Western
European countries were not characterized by a high level of skills and families who
emigrated to Eastern European countries or the former USSR republics were characterized
by relatively lower levels of skills. Moreover, families whose origin was Eastern European
countries or the former USSR republics tended not to return to their country of origin but
rather to emigrate further to a more rewarding destination.
It was concluded that the Israeli families that emigrated to the US were characterized by a
high level of skills. They constituted the majority of the emigrating families as well as the
majority of the highly skilled ones, in comparison to families that emigrated to the other
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destination that were studied. The new database of Israeli families abroad that was
constructed for this study enables further research with regard to emigration from Israel and
study of the family as a migration unit.
Key words: immigration, emigration, destination of immigration, Israeli families abroad,
religion, country of origin, immigration history, skill level, education, occupation.
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1. Introduction
More people today live outside their countries than ever before in history, and the number of
people who move across international borders is expected to increase even more in the
future (United Nations, 2009b). In recent decades, international migration has become a
topic high on the international agenda, because the implications of migration are relevant to
many "hot" topics, such as low fertility rates over time and aging of populations,
unemployment, "brain drain" and "brain gain", transfer of migrant remittances, human rights,
social integration, fear of foreigners, human trafficking, and national security. The
implications of international migration on these and other issues influence the populations of
both the countries of origin and the destination countries of migrants who move across
international borders.
According to the United Nations, international migration is defined as a change a person's
place of residence from one country to another. It includes people who leave one country to
live in another (United Nations, 2009a). From a demographic perspective, because this
movement affects the population of both countries, it must be recorded twice, once as
immigration to the destination country and once as emigration from the country of origin.
However, there is a certain amount of asymmetry between the accessibility of data on
emigration and data on immigration, due to two major reasons: (1) Exits tend to be
documented less well than entrances, because most governments hesitate or are unable to
track closely emigration of people from their territory, especially if those exiting are their
citizens and not citizens of a foreign country. (2) From a statistical perspective, it is difficult to
count people who left a country, because they are not present. This comes into play in
measurement of both movements and stock. Censuses and sample surveys, which collect
information on the population of residents, inherently involve problems in counting people
who are not present, especially when the members of the household no longer live in the
country of origin (United Nations, 2009a).
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Israel, in contrast to most of the countries which at certain times limited the incoming of new
immigrants, has, since the establishment of the State, had a policy that has continuously
encouraged unlimited Jewish immigration. In accordance with the goal of increasing the
Jewish population, Israel attempted to discourage (Jewish) emigrants, generally by
employing ideological and moral pressure. Since Israel's establishment, the phenomenon of
emigration has attracted public attention. Emigration of Jews from the country is considered
as weakening it and the Zionist ideology behind its establishment, because the State was
founded based on the ideals of "the ingathering of the exiles" and establishing a national
home for the Jews in Israel. In Israel, neutral demographic concepts such as "immigration"
and "emigration" were exchanged for value-laden concepts with positive connotations for
immigration (aliya or "ascending") and negative stigmatization for emigrating (yerida or
"descending"). Therefore, it is not surprising that in Israel, emigration is considered a social
problem, and has engendered much literature. Until the 1980s, this literature focused mostly
on the "severity of the problem" and attempts to understand why Israeli Jews, especially
natives of Israel, preferred to leave the country. As the country matured and Israeli
researchers adopted more scientific standards to study this demographic phenomenon, an
increasingly large body of literature developed in which it was concluded that the rising
emigration rate and the number of Israelis living abroad were not unusual in their size, given
the unique circumstances in Israel: a large percentage of residents who were born abroad,
no opportunity of short-term migration to neighbouring countries, high rates of return
migration, and ongoing conflict with the Arab world (Cohen, 2009; Eisenbach, 1989;
Michaeli, Epstein, & Kheimets, 2007; Sikron, 2004).
The Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS) currently does not study emigrants from Israel
in terms of the various emigration destinations. The focus in the statistical data that are
published is on the total movement of departing and returning Israelis at the border, and an
estimate of the stock of Israelis who reside abroad and are "suspected" of being (i.e., might
possibly be) migrants who settled in another country, with analysis by some basic
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demographic characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, and origin. The ICBS
defines Israelis staying abroad as Israeli residents who departed abroad and stayed there
more than 365 days continuously, and who stayed in Israel for at least 90 consecutive days
before their departure (Hleihel and Ben-Moshe, 2002). Characterizing emigrants leaving
Israel is challenging for various reasons. An Israeli resident is not required to declare the
purpose of a trip (e.g., emigrating, touring, temporary work) when leaving the country. There
is no obligation to declare that one is leaving Israel for the purpose of settling in another
country. Furthermore, often residents do not know when leaving Israel whether they will
return to live there. Often, the emigrants continue to maintain ties to Israel: they visit Israel
often and sometimes even still own an apartment there. They have dual ties, to both Israel
and to the destination country. In addition, in cases in which the emigrants visit Israel often, it
is difficult to determine whether their "centre of life" is in the country of origin or the
destination country. Also, more than a small number of Israeli residents depart abroad and
return to Israel after a prolonged stay abroad. Thus, one aspect of the problem is that it is
difficult to estimate the overall number of emigrants, and another aspect is that currently
there is no way to study their characteristics with respect to emigration destinations based
on official Israeli data.
The first aspect is handled adequately, within the existing limitations, by the estimates
published by the ICBS. The current research deals with the problems of the second aspect
described above: investigating characteristics of emigrants from Israel with regard to their
destinations. The idea of developing a methodology enabling the identification of the
destination country of Israeli families abroad was conceived during investigation of the issue
of emigration from Israel. Briefly, the methodology uses the country of birth of a child born
abroad to Israeli residents to act as a proxy for the destination country of the entire family
(detailed descriptions can be found in the Method section and in Appendix A). Based on use
of this methodology and on data existing at the ICBS, it was decided that the research
population would be families of Israelis abroad to which a child was born and whose birth
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was recorded in the Population Register, during 1996–2008. To the best of my knowledge,
this is the first usage of a methodology that provides information about the destination
country of emigrating resident Israel families, from an Israeli data source. Once it was
possible to identify the families' destination countries, the research goals of a study of
characteristics of families of Israelis abroad were defined as follows: (a) the creation of a
new database of families of Israelis abroad (parents and their children up to age 17), during
1996–2008, including demographic and socio-economic characteristics as well as the
destination country of each family in the database, and (b) analysis of families that
emigrated, by selected major destinations.
Attaining the first research goal, which was the creation of a new database as a result of
development of the methodology, conferred several advantages compared to foreign
sources of data (from foreign countries and international organizations), which were used in
previous research on emigration of Israelis. First, the OECD's statistical database, the
Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), enables identification of only native
Israelis aged 15 and over who emigrated to an OECD country. The new database created in
the current research also includes children aged 0–14. Second, the DIOC database
presents aggregated statistics that do not allow breakdown by families and their differing
compositions. The new database allows breaking down by families according to any
composition needed (including families in which one spouse or both are not native Israelis).
Third, the DIOC database does not include data on all of the destination countries, even if
they are OECD members. For example, because Germany and Netherlands do not collect
data on the birth countries of their residents, one cannot identify natives of Israel who
emigrated to these countries using this database. The new database includes all of the
countries, as they appear in the variable "country of birth" recorded by the Ministry of Interior
and included in the Israel's Population Register. Fourth, when relying on foreign sources of
information, such as national censuses or data from foreign national bureaus of statistics,
one must rely on definitions, legislation, types of data collection systems, and frequency of
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data collection based on each country's discretion. In the new database, determination of the
research population is based on Israel's Population Register whose definitions and updating
methods are known, and are accepted by both the authorities and the researchers in Israel.
This enables research on a population of Israelis or former Israelis using standards that are
accepted in and appropriate for Israel. Fifth, in foreign national censuses, one can usually
locate the population of Israelis or persons who emigrated from Israel only during the past
five years, and even then, one cannot distinguish directly between the different types of
population groups in Israel. The new database enables characterization of all persons who
departed Israel who are included in the research population and are listed in the Population
Register, even if they immigrated in the past to Israel from another country and left Israel
after some time period for another destination. In addition, the data from the Population
Register allows one to distinguish among various population groups in the research
population (for example, to characterize according to religion, which enables distinguishing
between Jews and Arabs, which could have different demographic and socio-economic
characteristics). Sixth, inclusion in some foreign databases, such as that of the United
States immigration department, depends on the immigrant's legal status. If a person's stay in
the destination country does not involve a statutory residential status, the immigrant will not
be included in the database. Inclusion in this new database is not dependent on the statutory
status of the immigrant in the destination country, rather, only on whether the immigrant is
included in Israel's Population Register and whether he or she has child(ren) who were born
outside of Israel, the record(s) for whom are also included in the Register with a status that
indicates that the parents live or lived outside of Israel.
Attainment of the second research goal, namely, characterization of families of emigrants
according to their destination countries, increases our knowledge about the emigrant
population from Israel in general, and in particular, according to selected destination
countries of the emigrants. In addition, use of the family as the investigation unit enables
research on various levels: one can investigate characteristics of each individual in the
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family separately and the variance in the characteristics between that person and other
individuals, and concurrently investigate characteristics of the family as one unit and the
variance in characteristics between that family and other families. There are a number of
advantages to characterizing the emigrating families using the new database: First, focus on
emigration as a family unit. Investigation of an emigrant in the family context in which he or
she lives is necessary in order to understand the decisions made about emigration within the
family unit, and which are influenced by the family structure and by the characteristics of the
family as a whole. Second, family emigration has characteristics of its own, which do not
necessarily match the characteristics of lone emigrants or couples without children. It is my
opinion that there is important potential that has not been utilized up to now in focusing on
the family aspect of emigration from Israel, which involves characteristics that are common
to the entire family unit, as well as characteristics that are unique to individuals within
families. Third, examination of the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of
Israeli families by destination country of emigration (specific or grouped) enables pinpointing
differences in family characteristics by emigration to different destinations, thus increasing
the possibility of research that takes into account economic and social characteristics of the
structure of the destination country among the various reasons for emigration, leading to a
fuller picture of the phenomenon of emigration from Israel.
In accordance with the theoretical framework detailed below, three emigration destinations
were selected whose economic and social characteristics differ from each other.
Characteristics of the families which emigrated to these countries were examined separately:
(a) the United States, (b) countries of Central and Western Europe, and (c) the republics of
the former USSR and Eastern Europe. The reasons for selection of these destinations are
explained in the research hypotheses, and a list of the countries included in each destination
appears in the Method section.
We continue with a literature review, which presents relevant approaches from the
theoretical frameworks that are used in research on international migration, followed by
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major topics from the theoretical frameworks dealing with research on emigration from Israel.
The research hypotheses, which were formulated based on the theoretical frameworks, are
presented. Then, the methodology that was used to investigate the hypotheses is presented.
The following chapter presents the results of the research, according to the variables that
were selected to characterize the families at each destination. Finally, there is a discussion
and summary of the characteristics of the families of Israelis who chose to emigrate to each
destination, and directions for future research are presented.
1.1
Theoretical framework
Large migration movements, which began after 1945 and have expanded substantially since
1980, are taking place throughout the world, whereas previous large migrations were mainly
trans-Atlantic. Against this background, Castles and Miller (2010) referred to the
contemporary era as the "the age of migration". One of the reasons they mention for this
migration is increased mobility, which has been facilitated by political and cultural changes.
In addition, they mention the development of new transportation and communication
technologies, which have made it easier to plan and implement migration. Globalization is
another factor that has promoted and expanded international migration. Migration
movements can take many forms: People can migrate as manual labourers; as specialists
with high-level skills; as entrepreneurs; as refugees; or as family members of previous
migrants. The migrant's status in the country of origin also plays an important role:
Destination countries vie with each other to attract highly skilled immigrants through
legislation providing privileged entry and residence to this population. In contrast, manual
labourers and refugees often experience exclusion and discrimination. These processes
have been accompanied by the development of new types of migration: retirement migration;
migration for upward mobility and a better (or different) life style; and repeated or circular
migration. The distinction between migration and tourism has become blurred, as many
people travel as tourists in order to explore potential migration destinations.
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The present "age of migration" reflects the basic socio-economic structure of almost all
industrialized countries, most of which have become diverse and multi-cultural as a result of
this process. Even though there is no single theory that explains international migration,
several theories have attempted to provide explanations about the primary motives for
migration; and other theories have attempted to explain why the migration has continued,
expanded, and then developed. The explanations underlying the motives for migration are
mainly economic, and derive from theories about the development and conservation of the
capitalist economy.
The first theory that aimed to explain motives for migration was the neoclassical theory of
economics: macro and micro theory. According to this theory, international migration stems
from geographic differences in the supply and demand for labour. Differences in wages
cause workers from countries with low wages to emigrate to countries with high wages. The
theory posits that labour markets are the main mechanism that motivates migration (the
macro-approach). Accordingly, international migration derives from differences in wages and
employment across countries (without assuming that there is full employment), as well as
from a rational decision-making process. Because "rational actors" make individual choices,
the reasons for migration are based on cost-benefit calculations, which lead to the
expectation for positive net returns (usually financial compensation) for migration. That is,
taking their skills into consideration, potential migrants estimate the advantages and
disadvantages of moving to different countries, and choose to emigrate to the country that
provides the highest returns in the foreseeable future (the micro-approach)(Massey et al.,
1993). According to this approach, the decision to migrate is based on two major variables:
(1) differences or gaps in earnings and other forms of returns in the destination country
versus the country of origin; (2) the feasibility of finding employment in the destination
country. In other words, the decision to emigrate depends on the income that a person can
expect to earn in the destination country, in relation to the income that can be expected in
the country of origin. According to this model, migration is defined as the economic
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investment in human productivity. Like all forms of investment, it has costs as well as
benefits. Rational actors anticipate these costs and benefits when they decide whether and
where to emigrate. Studies founded on this theory have examined the effect of several
individual characteristics on migration, such as age, education, marital status, work
experience, and unemployment (see, e.g., Massey, 1990; Todaro, 1969; Todaro &
Maruszko, 1987).
Another approach that focuses on the reasons for migration is self-selection theory, which
attempts to explain the extent and composition of streams of international migration (Borjas,
1994). According to this approach, there is a large pool of people who believe that there are
better economic opportunities elsewhere, and who are willing to bear the costs of pursuing
these opportunities. Both of these conditions indicate that the pool of potential migrants is
not selected randomly from the population in the countries of origin, nor is it randomly spread
across potential countries of destination. Rather, the pool of migrants in every destination
country consists of a sub-sample of people with skills that give them better opportunities in
another destination country than they have in their country of origin. In addition, the costs of
their migration are low enough to make the transition profitable. In the context of the United
States, which is the country with the largest immigrant population in the world (UN, 2009a;
many studies cited in the literature have used data produced from the US Census), two
conditions are necessary for positive selection of potential immigrants: (1) a strong positive
correlation between the immigrant's expected earnings in the country of origin and the
expected earnings of the same immigrant in the United States; (2) a more unequal
distribution of income in the United States than in the country of origin. Consistent with this
argument, examination of empirical data reveals that the United States attracts immigrants
with above-average skills, and that the characteristics of the country of origin explain a large
share of the differences in the economic status of groups of immigrants to the US. This is
because the skills acquired in developed economies can be transferred more easily to the
American labour market. Thus, there is a strong positive correspondence between the
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migrant's earnings in the US and the level of economic development in the country of origin.
More specifically, migrants whose earnings in the US are relatively high in comparison with
their measurable skills arrive from countries with high levels of GNP, low levels of income
inequality, and politically competitive systems (Borjas, 1987, 1988, 1994; Jasso &
Rosenzweig, 1990).
In contrast to these approaches, which examine migration based on the individual as a unit
of analysis and argue that the goal of migration is to maximize returns, other researchers
have argued that households or families are the main agents that make decisions, and that
migration should be perceived as part of broader strategies for socio-economic preservation
and improvement. In accordance with these approaches, empirical models of migration
behaviour should be examined on the basis of households or families as the unit of analysis
(Massey, 1990). This is a broader perspective, which considers reasons for migration that go
beyond the rational decision of the individual, and includes the family as an integral part of
the decision-making process about migration. As such, the New Economics of Labour
Migration theory shifts the focus of migration from individual independence to mutual
interdependence. Stark and Bloom (1985) defined migration as a "calculated strategy" in
mutual relationships, and not as an isolated activity aimed at unlimited maximization of
possibilities. According to this approach, the family is not a divided or separate entity, in
which the young members seek independence and leave in an attempt to separate
themselves from traditional family ties and obligations. Rather, the family is viewed as a
social and economic unit, which exists in an unstable environment and chooses to disperse
its financial risks as an extended unit across various sources of income. This is done by
financing emigration to a more developed country for one family member, who will enter an
employment sector which provides an income that correlates negatively with the same
sector in the country of origin. The emigrating family members, who will earn more than they
did in their country of origin, transfer a substantial share of their income back to the family
members who stayed in the country of origin. In that way, both parties benefit from the
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emigration because the exchange of obligations to share remittance provides mutual
security. The shared obligations might explain the characteristics of the immigrants' financial
performance. The migrants often outperform the native-born in the destination country. In
addition, strong reliance on the "capital of social networks and family members" is also an
important characteristic of the behaviour patterns of migrants (Stark & Bloom, 1985).
Notably, in general, there is a lack of comprehensive research literature on migration of
families, which is the focus of this paper. There is still much room to develop approaches
which will integrate various interests, skills, and characteristics that can exist within the same
family and have a differential impact on migration patterns. In my view, many migrant
families that have high skills show a greater tendency to migrate as a family as opposed to
migrating as individuals because they have the appropriate resources and legal status.
From a structural perspective, world systems theory, which is based on the well-known
research conducted by Wallerstein (in Massey et al., 1993), associates the sources of
international migration with the world market structure that has developed and expanded
since the 16th century. According to this theory, the penetration of capitalist economic
relationships into peripheral noncapitalist societies creates a mobile population that is prone
to migrate abroad. In the global system, international migration is a by-product of disruptions
and dislocations that occur in the process of capitalist development. The more capitalism
has spread outside of the core of Western Europe, North America, Oceania, and Japan, the
more the population in the rest of the world has integrated into the global market economy.
When land, raw materials, and labour in peripheral areas are affected and controlled by
market processes, there are inevitably streams of migration abroad. Wealthy core countries
have sent links of goods and capital to less developed countries through international
structured pathways; and in the opposite direction, labour forces have been sent to the core
countries through the same pathways (Massey et al., 1993). As mentioned, globalization has
linked the economies of different countries, and has generated more mobility of people,
capital, and information. In the Israeli context, the globalization process has gained
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momentum since the 1990s, and the Israeli economy has become more international in
terms of the entry of international corporations on the one hand and in terms of Israeli
corporations expanding into external markets on the other hand. This has brought into the
Israeli economy international corporations, mostly in the fields of communications and hightech, which in turn facilitates or migration (including long-term) between countries (Lahav &
Arian, 1999).
The theories that explain the continuity and perpetuation of migration include network theory,
which argues that networks of migrants constitute a system of interpersonal relationships
that link migrants, former migrants, and non-migrants in the country of origin and destination
country through kinship, friendship, and shared community origin. These social networks
play a functional role in constructing decisions to migrate, because the existence of friends,
relatives and other members of one's personal community in the destination country
substantially increase the probability of migrating there. These social networks also lower the
costs of moving, and increase the expected net returns of migration as a result. As such,
these networks constitute social capital that migrants can rely on in order to gain access to
employment in a foreign country (Massey, 1990; Massey et al., 1993).
Despite the differences in the theoretical approaches described above, it is important to note
that international migration takes place on different levels simultaneously. On one level, it is
driven by individual motives (personal considerations such as costs and benefits, maximizing
potential returns, and mutual dependence of families). Concomitantly, migration is a result of
social and economic structures (e.g., supply and demand in the labour market, wage gaps in
different countries, and globalization processes). In addition, there are push and pull factors
for migration, such as social networks that are structured in terms of their range and scope,
as well as individual factors such as personal contacts and origin. However, the existence of
international migration is not necessarily an outcome of all these factors together. It is
possible that in certain cases, one type of factor will have a significant impact on migration
from country to another whereas other factors will have less of an impact.
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Besides the factors influencing migration presented in the above theories, which mainly
reflect an economic perspective, several other factors affect streams of migration between
countries throughout the world. People can seek to migrate for personal reasons, e.g.,
because they are refugees or political asylum seekers who have been persecuted in their
countries of origin; or because they seek to become reunited with their families. Political
instability and violation of human rights in certain parts of the world are a push factor that
has created forced movement of populations, usually on a large scale. The United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR, 2011) reported that there were 10.5 million
refugees throughout the world in 2010. With regard to Israel, the UNHCR reported that 1,301
refugees and 799 political asylum seekers left Israel over the past 10 years.
Another factor that influences migration is ideological background. Although the large waves
of immigration from Europe to the United States, Australia, Canada, and other countries
were not motivated by ideological considerations, the situation was different in Israel. In the
former case, leaving one's country of origin or returning to one's country of origin due to
adjustment problems in the destination country was not associated with negative
characteristics of the immigrants themselves or of the countries of migration. Even though
emigration from Israel (yerida) has occurred since the beginning of the Zionist movement,
the attitude toward people who leave the country has not been tolerant. Moreover, people do
not usually leave Israel for ideological reasons (e.g., disappointment with Zionism or a sense
of alienation from the country). Rather, in most cases people leave due to their personal
circumstances and out of a desire to improve their economic situation. Nonetheless, in the
1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, emigration from Israel was still considered to be a loss of one's
Israeli identity. In subsequent decades, the stigma associated with yerida declined; the
public has shown a tendency to accept emigration from Israel as more legitimate, and has
expressed more willingness to understand and to consider the circumstances underlying the
decision (Michaeli, Epstein, & Kheimets, 2007). Whereas most people do not migrate for
ideological reasons, there are those who also seek to leave their country of origin because
17
their personal ideology conflicts with the ideology of that country. In a paper dealing with
emigration from Israel to the United Kingdom, Gold and Hart (2009) argued that despite the
negative stigma associated with the concept of yerida in Israel, recent political and economic
crises have made Israel a less desirable place to live and have caused some residents to
seek better living conditions abroad. The authors indicate that toward the end of the first
decade of the 21st century, political and economic crises became a push factor for
emigrants to leave Israel, and, at the same time, the number of emigrants who have returned
to Israel is lower than it was in the mid-1990s. Attitudes toward emigration from Israel today
have been affected by the more tolerant attitudes toward yerida that developed during the
1990s; in contrast to the past, emigrants today can criticize Israel publicly and justify their
decision to leave the country. In a similar vein, Cohen (2009) argued that the security and
economic situation of Israel explains a large share of the difference in the number of Israelis
who left versus the number of Israelis who returned to the country. The highest rates of
emigration and the lowest rates of returning Israelis were in 2001-2002. These were the
peak years of the Second Intifada, when Israel faced the threat of constant terror attacks and
the onset of economic crisis. At the same time, there was a period of a major influx of
immigrants who arrived in Israel, some of whom stayed for a short time and then moved on
to other destinations. This is a common characteristic of migration known as transit
migration, and is another factor that caused the increase in the number of emigrants from
Israel at that time. In addition, there is "circular migration", which refers to repetitive
movement of migrants for continuous periods between the origin and destination countries,
usually for purposes of work. Examples include academic professionals, scientists, and
physicians who are on sabbatical abroad, and return to the origin country when the
sabbatical is over (Cohen, 2008). According to these studies, some people who emigrate
from Israel apparently have ideological motives, but this does not typify most of the
emigrants, who leave for economic and employment reasons.
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According to UN statistics, migration to developed countries remained high between 1990
and 2005 (United Nations, 2009b). The largest increase in the number of migrants was to
North America, where 17 million immigrants were absorbed during that period, and to
Europe (15 million immigrants). A large share of the migrants who arrived in those countries
moved for the purpose of reuniting with family members, although the proportion of migrants
who were categorized as highly skilled increased. In this case, another factor that affected
the direction and nature of international migration was the absorption policy of the
destination country. The governments of many destination countries took measures to
promote the entry of migrants who are in demand, particularly educated migrants and lowlevel temporary workers. In 2005, a growing number of countries had a policy for promoting
the immigration of highly skilled workers. These countries implement a selective immigration
policy, which gives priority to migrants with skills that are needed in the science and
technology sectors (United Nations, 2009b). It has been argued that the rapid growth of the
information technology sector and the decline in fertility rates in Western countries (e.g.,
Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom) caused these countries to adopt a migration
policy that encourages absorption of highly skilled workers (Gould & Moav, 2007). According
to UN statistics, approximately 30 countries (including 17 developed countries) have policies
or programs to promote the entry of highly skilled workers. For example, this type of
immigration policy is implemented in North America, where, in Canada, candidates for
permanent residency are selected on the basis of a score system, in which higher scores are
allocated to people with diplomas or degrees that are recognized by the Canadian
authorities. Similarly, in the United States, there are several categories of visas that allow
temporary entry to highly skilled workers. In Europe, several countries (France, Germany,
the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Netherlands, and Sweden) as well as the
European Union have eased the restrictions on entry and migration for highly skilled
workers. These countries have recently revised their approach to migration by establishing
specific pathways for highly skilled immigrants. Concomitantly, developed countries have
sought to restrict and control the entry of low-skilled migrants. Therefore, developed
19
countries that absorb immigrants have been adopting a dual approach, which encourages
the entry of highly skilled immigrants on the one hand and restricts the entry of low-skilled
immigrants on the other hand (Castles & Miller, 2009; Skeldon, 2009; United Nations,
2009b). It is clear that the immigration policy of the destination countries has distinguished
between different types of immigrants. However, where should highly skilled people with no
personal, ideological, or other restrictions seek to migrate, given that most countries would
welcome the highly skilled migrants? A partial explanation for this, which relates only to the
families included in the research group, can be found in the results presented in this paper.
The findings indicate that people who seek to migrate face various constraints and barriers
that can delay or prevent their migration to certain destination countries. The personal or
ideological motives for migration during certain periods might lead them toward a certain
destination country where entry is restricted to them due to immigrant absorption policies or
other restrictive conditions in that country. In those cases, the person will either choose not
to emigrate at all, or will emigrate to another country. In any case, people who seek to
migrate make certain choices, and this paper will examine the characteristics of people who
choose to migrate for an extended period, and sometimes permanently, to one of three
destinations. In so doing, the paper aims to examine the characteristics of families that were
included in the research population and emigrated to a certain destination country. Before
presenting the specific research hypotheses, methods, and results, the following section
provides an overview of emigration from Israel.
1.2 Emigration of Israelis, and Research Hypotheses
Researchers have tried to characterize emigration of Israelis and estimate its impact on
Israeli society in various areas. For example, Gould and Moav (2007) found that a high
percentage of Israeli emigrants are highly educated, and they referred to emigration of
educated Israelis from Israel as a "brain drain". They also found a positive correlation
between the tendency to emigrate from Israel and level of education: Israeli emigrants do not
represent the whole population because the percentage of emigrants with high levels of
21
education is disproportionate. The United States is a preferred country of destination for
educated Israelis, among other reasons because it is a centre for studies, teaching, and
research at well-known, prestigious universities and scientific research institutes. It has been
estimated that thousands of researchers, university faculty members, and academic scholars
leave Israel every year, mainly for the United States. This estimate was presented in an
article summarizing a panel on the brain drain from Israel, which was published in the
Calcalist economic newspaper (Sikuler & Kurz, 2010). In that panel, Israeli researchers who
returned from the United States shared their experiences. Some of them indicated that the
decision to move abroad derived from a desire for academic advancement, and mentioned
that there is an unwritten assumption that in Israel, if you want to pursue an academic career
you must have studied abroad at some point. According to those participants in the panel,
there are many academic scholars who do not reject from Israel, but who travel abroad in
order to advance their career and do not succeed in returning to Israel for several reasons:
the gap between Israel and countries abroad in terms of working conditions, professional
and career opportunities, and personal considerations. The article quotes a survey
conducted by the Israeli Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labor which revealed that only 2% of
the researchers who went abroad in recent years feel they can return to an appropriate job in
Israel; 90% reported that they had to compromise on their income and on opportunities for
professional challenge. There are those who believe that emigration of Israeli scholars to the
United States is desirable because academic scholarship is an international field, so in order
to expand knowledge, universities need to send faculty members abroad and receive them
when they return. In order to maintain an academic system with an international reputation, it
is necessary to adopt this model. Throughout the world, there are numerous scientists who
study in the United States, and not all of them return to their countries of origin. The
researchers interviewed on the Calcalist panel view this as a normal and acceptable
phenomenon. However, to Israel's credit, they also argue that the level of the country's
academic institutions is high and that many scholars who study abroad still consider Israel to
be their home (Sikuler & Kurz, 2010).
21
The relatively large percentage of emigrants from Israel with high levels of education is not
unusual. The theoretical and empirical literature cited above indicates that, consistent with
neoclassical theory and the self-selection theory, if the return for higher skills is greater in the
destination country than in the country of origin, those who choose to emigrate will have
higher levels of skills and income. In this respect, Israel is not different from other countries.
That is, emigrants from Israel with high skills, statutory status in the destination country, as
well as academic degrees and skills that are in demand, show a greater tendency to
emigrate while maintaining ties with their country of origin. In contrast, low-skilled migrants
who do not have statutory status as citizens outside of Israel, are more likely to find
migration to be much more expensive, problematic, and temporary (Gold & Hart, 2009).
Emigration of academic scholars from Israel is a global phenomenon that can be expected to
increase over time. The catalysts for this process include the expansion of the IT sector,
which has made job-seeking and migration to a foreign country easier than ever, as well as
the rapid growth of the high-tech sector and the decline in the fertility rates in Western
countries (e.g., the United States, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom), which has
caused these countries to adopt a migration policy that encourages the absorption of highly
skilled workers. Research conducted among Israeli-born residents of the United States
(based on US Population Census data) has revealed that their education level is relatively
high. The largest difference between Israeli-born residents of the United States and the
comparison group of Israeli residents related to the level of academic education (MA degree
and higher), which was higher for those residing in the US. Considering the high education
level of Israelis, it is not surprising that their performance in the American labour market was
found to be higher than the performance of American residents born in the US. Both male
and female Israelis who immigrated to the US were found to have higher-level socioeconomic characteristics than white, non-Hispanic Americans born in the US (Cohen, 2008;
Cohen & Haberfeld, 2003, 2007; Eisenbach, 1989; Michaeli, Epstein, & Kheimets, 2007;
Toren, 1980). Cohen (2009) examined patterns of selection among Israeli-born migrants
aged 15 and over in OECD countries. The findings of that study showed that the self-
22
selection of emigrants from Israel, which is measured on the basis of education,
employment, and age, was most positive in English speaking countries, and especially in the
US where the return on skills was highest. In contrast, Israeli emigrants with the lowest skills
chose to migrate to Scandinavian countries where the labour markets are relatively inflexible
and the return on their skills tends to be lowest. Self-selection of skill levels in other
European countries tended to be moderate. However, developing economies, which lack the
regulation mechanisms and equality, such as in Eastern Europe, appear to attract few
Israelis, and much less so, highly skilled Israelis. These findings are consistent with the
theories of self-selection in migration, which predict that highly skilled migrants will choose
destinations where the returns for their skills will be highest.
Regarding migration of highly skilled Israelis to the United States, a combination of motives
was found, which have also been found in the theoretical literature. First, according to the
neoclassical theory of economics, these migrants consider the United States as the
destination where the returns for their skills will be higher than in other destination countries.
According to the positive self-selection theory, highly skilled Israelis who choose to migrate
to certain destination countries are not selected randomly from a pool of all Israelis. Rather,
there are two conditions that lead them to prefer certain countries, and particularly the United
States, as their destination: (1) a strong correlation between the income that these Israelis
can expect to earn in Israel and the income they can expect to earn in the United States (in
both cases, above-average income); (2) economic inequality is more prevalent in the United
States. Since Israel has become part of the global economy, there are highly skilled Israeli
migrants who are employed at institutions of higher education abroad, or who are employed
at business and global corporations. These migrants have jobs that require them to leave
Israel for an extended period with their family members (also referred to as relocation).
Often, they move to the United States, where high-level technological, scientific, and
business knowledge are concentrated. In the long run, this type of relocation can yield two
different outcomes. First, it has the potential to lead to return migration to the country of
23
origin after their academic program or work assignment abroad finishes. This experience can
improve their economic status in Israel, or it can lead to circular migration, which is
characterized by intermittent periods of residence in two or more countries. Second, staying
abroad for an extended period can create permanent migration to the destination country,
with the assistance of social networks that the migrants establish during their stay abroad.
In keeping with the new economics model of migration, all of the migration possibilities
considered in this paper are based on the family unit. In this context, the theoretical and
empirical literature highlights the importance of the nuclear family as the core unit for
decisions about migration. Therefore the nuclear family (parents and children) was the basic
research unit in this study, and the hypotheses are tested on the basis of a combination of
the characteristics of each parent.
The hypotheses of the current study, which maintain that migrants to the United States will
have the highest skill levels, were derived from assumptions proposed in previous theories
and in empirical research. The United States has been a major destination where people can
maximize their returns, according to neoclassical theory and the self-selection theory. The
United States is also a primary location for international business, and technological and
academic research, all of which comprise a major aspect of the global economy.
Concomitantly, and even as a result of this predominance, social networks expand with the
growing migration of highly skilled Israelis to that country, and serve as a resource for other
Israelis who migrate there. Based on all of the above, the United States was the first
destination selected for this study. (Canada was not included because the level of returns
and economic structure there differ from those in the US.) The second group of destination
countries, in Central and Western Europe, are also characterized by a relative high level of
economic development, but the structure of the labour market does not provide a level of
returns that is as high as the level provided in the US. The third group of destination
countries, in the former USSR and Eastern Europe, was chosen in order to examine whether
the large number of immigrants who arrived in Israel from there will choose to return there,
24
and in order to examine the characteristics of migrants to countries that have a less
developed economic structure than Israel in principle. The social networks mentioned in the
literature review also encourage migration to the destinations that were chosen. There are
migrants who arrived in Israel in the past from Central or Western Europe, and even more so
from the former USSR and Eastern Europe, who could show a tendency to move back to
their country of origin because they were dissatisfied with Israel and wanted to return to the
supportive social and family networks that they had left behind. Theories that place the
family at the centre of migration are consistent with the framework of the current study,
which focused on the family as the main unit of research, and related to variables shared by
the family as a whole as well as to variables that are specific to each individual family
member.
In accordance with the above, three research hypotheses were formulated:
(1) Emigration to the United States: In accordance with the theories of neoclassical
economics and self-selection, which maintain that emigrants will choose to emigrate
to a country where their skills will lead to maximum returns, the research hypothesis
stated that families that emigrated to the US will tend to be characterized by a very
high level of skills: a level that will raise to a maximum the returns expected from the
move. In addition, US natives who immigrated to Israel in the past and then
emigrated from it will tend to return to their country of origin with their family
members, for two reasons: (a) social and family networks that exist for them there,
and (b) economic returns at a higher level than in Israel. In contrast, the hypothesis
stated that natives of Israel (who do not have a supportive family network outside of
Israel) with a high level of skills will tend to emigrate to the US, with the thought that
once one decides to emigrate, one should emigrate to the destination with the best
returns possible.
(2) Emigration to Central and Western Europe: These countries are characterized by
developed economies that basically can provide returns at a higher level than in
25
Israel, for emigrants with a high level of skills. Therefore, in accordance with the
theories of neoclassical economics and self-selection, here the research hypothesis
stated that the skill level of families that emigrate to these countries will be relatively
high. Natives of these countries will tend to return to their country of origin in Europe
due to the social and family networks that exist for them there, and also because of
the shared regulations of free passage among countries of the European Union,
which allow EU citizens to reside and work in any of the EU countries, which might
raise the returns expected from the move.
(3) Emigration to the former USSR and Eastern Europe: These countries are
characterized by less remunerative economies than the first two destinations, and
sometimes by economic, social, and political instability. Therefore, in accordance
with the self-selection theory, the research hypothesis stated that families with a
relatively low level of skills, especially those that originated in these countries, will
tend to emigrate to a republic of the former USSR or Eastern Europe, where the
expected returns are relatively low and which therefore do not attract emigrants with
a high level of skills. There are two major reasons for emigration to these
destinations: (a) the existence of a supportive social and family network in the
country of origin, which reduces expenses and eases the move and integration, and
(b) return migration to the country of origin on the part of persons who immigrated to
Israel in the past and who did not acclimate well. The hypothesis was that many of
them will be non-Jews whose connection to Israel is likely to be weaker.
26
2. Method
As mentioned, the purpose of this research was to examine the characteristics of the group
of Israeli families abroad in three selected emigration destination, during the years 1996–
2008. The research was enabled by the development of a methodology that permitted the
creation of a new database that included the destination countries of emigrating families,
including characteristics of the families and of the individuals in them. After investigation of
various possible methods to research the research hypotheses, two statistical research
methods were chosen: (a) descriptive statistics, to present aggregate measures of the
characteristics of the emigrating families, by the various destinations, on order to obtain an
overview of the status of the phenomenon using diagrams and statistical measures of
various types, with the goal of the descriptive statistics being to describe the data, and (b)
binary logistic regression (using the stepwise method, and using selected variables that were
important to characterization of the phenomenon). This type of regression was chosen
because the event of emigration of a family to a particular destination constitutes a
dependent dichotomous variable, for example "emigrated to the US or did not emigrate to
the US", whose occurrence is investigated while controlling for other, independent,
dichotomous variables. That is, the "effect" of an independent variable, which is measured
by its coefficient, represents the odds ratio of the potential to influence the dependent
variable – the event of emigration to a particular destination, while all the other variables are
held constant. The advantage of using logistic regression is the ability to examine the effect
of any one factor while controlling for the effects of other factors. In addition, the stepwise
method was used, which chooses the independent (explanatory) variables that have the
most influence on the dependent (explained) variable by a process of progressively entering
each potential explanatory variable into the model according to its statistical significance,
and removal of a variable which, at any stage in this process, changes from being significant
to being non-significant. The procedure ends when no additional variables are left to be put
into the model, and there are no non-significant variables that need to be removed from the
27
model. Details on the variables and the process of carrying out the regression appear later in
this chapter.
The research population comprising the database of Israeli families outside of Israel includes
families of men and women who are or were residents of Israel, listed in the Population
Register, with children up to age 17, who have at least one child born outside of Israel
between the years 1996–2008. All families were included for which there was an indication
in the Population Register records that they had a child or children born outside of Israel, no
matter what the marital status of the parents was, or whether both spouses were Israeli
residents or whether one was not an Israeli resident. The status "citizen residing abroad"
(CRA) is given to children who are born outside of Israel to an Israeli parent who lives
predominantly outside of Israel, and whose parent requested that the child be recorded in
the Population Register at an Israeli consulate abroad. At the time of registration, the child is
assigned an identity number and his or her personal information is entered into the
Population Register, and the status "CRA" is applied, as well as the locality code 0000,
which indicates that the child does not live in Israel. In the current work, these families were
combined into a file entitled "Citizens Residing Abroad" (CRA). At the same time, a record is
made of children who were born abroad to Israeli parents, entitled "immigrant citizens" (IC).
An IC is a person who was born to an Israeli citizen while he or she was staying abroad, and
who entered Israel with the intent of settling (Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 2010, p.
225). These children born abroad are also an indication that their families lived outside of
Israel for a substantial period of time, before the child and/or family returned to Israel. In the
current research, these families were aggregated into a file entitled "Immigrant Citizens" (IC).
The two files CRA and IC constituted the basis for the new database of Israeli families
abroad (for more information on the process of constructing these files, see Appendix A).
The following is a detailed description of the construction of the file of the research
population.
28
Diagram 1. Procedure for Building the Database of Israeli Families Abroad:
CRA
IC
File 1:
Source: Children born abroad
during 1996–2008 to an Israeli
citizen, and whose status is
"CRA".
Source: Population Register
04/2009.
Number of records: 27,480
File 2:
Source: Children born abroad
during 1996–2008 to an Israeli
citizen, and who immigrated to
Israel.
Source: Multi-year data file of
ICs, based on the Population
Register, extracted from the
CBS's migration system
Number of records: 25,565
File 1b:
Constructing administrative
families: Adding parents and
children through age 17 to the
records in File 1.
Source: Population Register
04/2009.
Number of records: 70,035
File 2b:
Constructing administrative
families: Adding parents and
children through age 17 to the
records in File 2.
Source: Population Register
04/2009.
Number of records: 67,547
Research group
File 3:
Merging of Files 1b and 2b.
Attaching all characteristics from the Population
Register 04/2009 to each record.
Number of records: 133,539.
This file included the entire research group. The
variable "country of birth" of the records in File 1 +
2 was copied to the other family members and
labelled "destination country".
In the first stage, a database of the Israeli families abroad was created. This database
contained 133,502 individual records, which constituted 34,047 families that were created
during the process of constructing administrative families, in a process that was almost
identical to that performed in the 2008 Population Census (see Appendix A). This file
included all children born abroad during the research period who were given a status of
"CRA" or "IC", the child's parents, and siblings through age 17. This age was chosen as an
29
age before independence according to the law; at this age, the vast majority of children are
still under their parents' legal care and migrate together with them.
In the second stage, characteristics were added to the records in the file by linking between
records in this file to other files with identification information existing at the CBS. These files
were:
Population Register 4/2009: The determinant date for inclusion of individuals and their
characteristics was Dec. 31, 2008. Demographic characteristics from this file were added:
sex, age, marital status, religion, country of birth, nationality, status in the Population
Register, year of gaining immigration status, year of entry, year of birth, and year marital
status took effect.
20% Sample from the 1995 Population Census: From this sample file, which contained 20%
of the census population, the following characteristics were added: education, occupation,
and marital status at the time of the census. This was done for 6,400 records which linked
between File 3, mentioned above, and the sample file of the census.
CBS database of degree recipients 1983–2008: This database contains data on academic
degrees and other post-secondary certificates, the field in which the degree was received,
the year of receipt of the degree, and the institution granting the degree. The following
characteristics were added from this database: type of degree, year of degree, and field of
the degree. There were 15,188 records from File 3 that were linked to this database.
Demographic Management of the Population by Individual Records (DMPIR) during 1996–
2008: This system documented the changes in annual population components
(entrances/exits from the population and other changes in status) at the level of the
individual. From this system, characteristics of entrance and exits from the population, as
well as year of exit to abroad, were added. The following numbers of records were linked,
with these statuses: past immigrants to Israel (27,330 records linked), family unification
(2,457 records linked), Israelis who stayed abroad and returned to Israel, termed "returning
31
residents" (12,952 records linked), Israelis staying abroad who did not yet return (23,929
records linked).
Multi-year file of immigrants to Israel 1984–2008: A file including all persons who immigrated
to Israel and received immigrant status during these years; a file of individuals records. From
this file, the characteristic of last country of residence before immigration was added to
13,947 records that linked between File 3 and this file.
Appendix A contains more information on the process of linking the files and its results.
After adding the characteristics from all of these files with identification information, a
database was created of the characteristics of the families investigated that included 55
variables from various files that were linked to the base file that was created based on the
Population Register. Some of the variables were taken as is and some underwent
processing to become calculated variables that were prepared especially for the purpose of
characterizing the records in the database.
Description of the Variables Included In the New Database on Emigrating Families
Status variables: the source of the record, the source of the record in the process of
constructing the administrative family, status in the Population Register, and various
variables denoting the different linkage statuses of the specific record with regard to the files
added to the database.
Demographic variables: age, sex, religion, nationality, country of birth, year of immigration,
last country of residence before immigration, marital status, year marital status took effect,
number of persons in family, number of children in family, and relationship to the household
representative.
Socio-economic variables: occupation in the 1995 Census, participation in the annual civilian
labour force, highest degree in the 1995 Census, degree in the CBS's database of academic
degrees, and field of study in the CBS's database of academic degrees.
31
In the third stage, checks were made of the quality of the database of Israeli families
abroad that was created in the process described above. First, processing was carried out
to locate the records from the family database in the CBS's statistical databases called
"possible emigrants". This refers to three databases: (a) a stock found in the DMPIR, which
includes a stock of persons who might possibly have emigrated during the years 1995–2008,
for each year; (b) a "surplus" database from the 1995 Population Census, consisting of
records that were in the Population Register in 1995 but were not found in the field at the
time of the census enumeration, and (c) the database "possible emigrants, from the 2008
Census", which is based on data from various sources, such as border control, National
Insurance, and individuals who were not enumerated in two previous censuses. In these
three databases of possible emigrants, together, 81,189 records were found from File 3.
These records constitute 61% of all records in the database that was created. This
percentage can be explained by the fact that some of the records in the series are those of
families of "ICs" who stayed abroad for a period of time and then returned to Israel, and
therefore were removed from the databases of "possible emigrants". This did not prevent
such records from appearing in the database because they stayed abroad for a substantive
amount of time in the past, and their choice to emigrate to a particular destination is relevant
to the research goals. For details of the comparison between the database to the database
of "possible emigrants", see Appendix A.
Second, the question arose as to whether the research population included in the current
database of emigrating families appropriately represents, with sufficient reliability, the entire
population of emigrating Israeli families. To address this question, two different examinations
were made during the research process of the reliability of the methodology. The
examinations focused on comparing two groups with similar characteristics that were derived
from two different sources. First, a comparison was made between the database and the
United States 2000 Census. Similar populations were derived from these two sources
consisting of families of only parents and children, with children up to age 18, and at least
32
one parent a native Israeli and one child born in the US. Comparison of these two files
showed great similarity in a number of the characteristics examined such as average family
size, age structure, and holders of first and second degrees. Second, a comparison was
made of the field of academic study of native Israelis who were holders of third degrees
(PhDs) whose destination country was the US, between the new database and the results of
a survey that was published as part of the report of the Shohat Commission on Higher
Education in Israel (Council for Higher Education, 2007). Again, the results showed great
similarity between the characteristics of the two groups. These examinations increase the
likelihood that the quality of the data in the series is good and reliably represents the
population of families emigrating from Israel. For details on the reliability checks of the
database, see Appendix B.
Third, the use of the CBS's database of degree recipients involves a certain upward bias in
the data of education level because most of those in it are recipients of academic degrees,
and only a minority are recipients of non-academic degrees. Although these data were
added to the data on highest certification in the 1995 Census, in which the sample has equal
representation to non-academic certificate holders, there is still apparently underrepresentation in the research group of persons with education at a level lower than
academic. The problem of bias is lessened due to several reasons: As stated, the 1995
Census data reduce the bias in data from the database of degree recipients; examination of
the education data among the research group from the Census only, by the three selected
emigration destinations, revealed that the gaps in educational level among the destinations
were maintained in this data also; the distribution of the academic degrees over the
emigration destinations has much variance in and of itself, and therefore is suitable for
testing the research hypotheses that focus on examination of emigration of persons with
relatively high skill levels. Fourth, the data available for this study did not include education
acquired by the immigrants to Israel before they came to Israel. The CBS does not have
data on education of immigrants in the format of "highest certificate", the variable that was
33
used for persons in this study who acquired their education in Israel. Therefore, in the
general database, it is possible that there is under-representation of the skills of persons with
higher education who immigrated to Israel and then proceeded to other destinations or
returned to their country of birth. Nonetheless, in the research group, upon which the
hypotheses were tested, only families for whom there was education data for at least one of
the spouses were included.
Testing the Research Hypotheses
To allow testing of the research hypotheses, a smaller research group that met the required
criteria for testing the research hypotheses was derived from the broader database of
families of Israelis abroad. This research group included families who met the following
criteria: Married parents, both spouses appearing in the Population Register as spouses of
one another, and at least one spouse for whom there was education data (from the 1995
Census or from the CBS database of degree recipients 1983–2008) or occupational data
(from the 1995 Census). The purpose was to base the testing of hypotheses on a population
with known data. Children were not included in this file because it was assumed that, as
minors going along with the parents, they did not influence the choice of destination.
Educational and/or occupational data constitute a representation of the level of skills of the
couple, which, according to the research hypothesis, greatly influences the choice of
emigration destination. These variables were used based on the wide consensus in the
literature that deals with migration that education acts as a proxy for an individual's level of
skills (see, for example, Borjas, 1994; Cohen, 2009; Ouaked, 2002; Skeldon, 2009; United
Nations, 2009b). The separate records for the spouses were merged into one record, with
each couple having some variables shared by both spouses and some individual variables
for each spouse. At the end of this stage, the regression file included 10,695 records
(couples), which included data on 21,390 individuals.
34
Sources of Data
In testing the research hypotheses, data from several sources was used, and variables were
calculated based on these data. The data sources were:
The Population Register: Derived for Dec. 31, 2008 (received by the CBS in April 2009). The
main source for identification and for creation of the base of the database of Israeli families
abroad. The data on "country of birth" in the Population Register is considered very reliable.
The families were created using an algorithm of construction of administrative families that
was developed for the 2008 Population and Housing Census, with one difference: there was
no importance to the geographic location of the family in Israel, and therefore there was no
meaning to the concept of "household", rather, only to the creation of an "administrative
family" with familial relations of parents to children. This avoided the need to use data on
address of residence, which has relatively low reliability in the Register. As part of creating
the file of married couples and their skills, only in cases in which only one spouse had data
on "identification number of spouse" was the missing number copied to the other spouse
(there were 44 such records). In addition, when the listed identification number of a spouse
was not found in the Register, apparently because of errors in recording, the "identification
number of spouse" was deleted and the status was changed to marriage without a spouse in
the Register (there were 217 such cases).
20% Sample from the 1995 Population Census: The data "highest degree" and "occupation"
were taken. From the records sampled in the Census, 4,910 records were also found in the
file of married couples and their skills that was built in this project.
CBS's Database of Degree Recipients: Created and maintained by the Education
Department of the CBS. The database includes persons who received their highest degree
from academic institutions in Israel, based on the following criteria: From the universities and
the Open University during 1989–2003, from the academic colleges during 1993–2003, and
from colleges of education during 1995–2003. Data were missing on recipients of degrees
from the academic colleges in 2001 and from the Open University in 2003. From this
35
database, 13,650 degree recipients were also found in the file of married couples and their
skills that was built in this project.
The research hypotheses were tested as follows. To test the hypotheses, that is, to
separately examine groups of families that emigrated to each of the three defined
destinations, statistical analyses were performed using three different methods: (a)
distributions of variables using descriptive statistics; (b) stepwise binary logistic regression
on all the existing variables, with the goal of identifying only the significant variables that
optimally contributed to characterizing the families emigrating to a particular destination, and
(c) binary logistic regression on major selected variables, to also enable analysis and
explanation of non-significant variables and their directions of influence.
Stages of Implementing the Research Method:
1) Each couple in the research file was classified into one of four groups of destination
countries, based on the model built in the research hypotheses: the United States
(as mentioned, Canada was not included together with the US in this model, even
though it is an emigration destination for many Israelis, because the level of
economic and employment returns that characterize the US are higher than that in
the Canada economy); Central and Western European countries, including: the
United Kingdom, Germany, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland, Italy, Spain,
Denmark, Austria, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Luxembourg; the former
USSR and Eastern European countries, including: the Russian Federation,
Ukraine, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Romania, Poland, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan,
Bulgaria, Latvia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Serbia, Slovakia, Uzbekistan,
Lithuania, Estonia, and Croatia; and a group called Other. The "Other" group was
used only in the descriptive statistics, in order to allow characterization of the entire
investigated group. Separate models were built for each destination based on the
research hypotheses – according to which emigrants with relatively high levels of
skills will tend to emigrate to the US; the emigrants to Central and Western Europe
36
will tend to be those with less high skill levels and/or those who are natives of the
countries they return to; and emigrants to a republic of the former USSR or to
Eastern Europe will tend to have relatively low skill levels and/or be natives of the
countries they return to – based on the differing characters of the economies and
labour markets in each of the chosen emigration destinations.
2) Variables were chosen that were likely to influence the decision to emigrate and the
choice of destination. These variables were: religion, origin, migration history,
education, and occupation. (See details below.)
3) The characteristics of the families which emigrated to each of the groups in the
model were investigated using three methods of statistical analysis: (a) descriptive
statistical analyses of selected variables that demonstrate the differences in the
characteristics of the family groups; (b) binary logistic regression using the stepwise
method; and (c) binary logistic regression on selected variables, even if not
significant, to examine their strengthening or weakening contribution to the model for
emigration to a specific destination. Each group of families that emigrated to a
particular destination was contrasted in comparison to emigration to all of the other
destinations combined. Results of the statistical analyses are presented in the
Results section. The three models of emigration destinations that were examined in
the statistical regressions demonstrate the logit function of the probability of an event
that has a binary outcome, as a linear function of the explanatory variables.
The model was as follows:
 p(emigration i ) 
   0   1 * X 1  ...  n * Xn  
ln 
1

p
(
emigration
i
)


emigrationi - indicates the emigration to a particular destination
37
Each emigration destination (emigrationi) was assigned the value 1 when
emigration occurred to it and 0 when emigration did not occur to it. In this
manner, the probability of emigration to each of the emigration destinations
was calculated in accordance with the explanatory variables.
Model A
H0 – immigration did not occur to the US
H1 – immigration did occur to the US
Model B
H0 – immigration did not occur to the countries of Western and Central
Europe
H1 – immigration did occur to the countries of Western and Central Europe
Model C
H0 – immigration did not occur to republics of the former USSR or to the
countries of Eastern Europe
H1 – immigration did occur to republics of the former USSR or to the countries
of Eastern Europe
The variables that were included in the testing of the research hypotheses were
based on the literature. Selection of the independent variables to be included in
testing the research hypotheses was based on the theories as well as on empirical
research. The theories of neoclassical economics and self-selection discuss
migration patterns that are influenced by the returns expected in exchange for the
skill level of the migrant, who is the rational actor in the economic sphere. In these
theories as well as in empirical research, education and occupation act as a proxy for
level of measurable skills or level of human capital. The literature review discussed
the following research that treated education and occupation as representative of
38
migrants' skill levels: Borjas, 1994; Cohen, 1989, 2009; Eisenbach, 1989; Gould and
Moav, 2007; Michaeli, Epstein, and Kheimets, 2007; Skeldon, 2009; and Toren,
1980. Many empirical research studies take into account the migration history of an
emigrant or his or her country of birth. This is because in every wave of migration, a
not insignificant portion of the migrants are returning to their country of origin, as
happens, for example, to Israelis who are natives of Europe or America who return to
their countries of birth, or Israelis born abroad who stay only a short time in Israel and
then proceed to another destination country, as happened to a portion of the
immigrants from the former USSR. The phenomenon of migration of emigrants who
were formerly immigrants, who use the host country as a stepping stone to reach
another country, is referred to as "transit migration" or "onward migration". In order to
investigate the family's country of origin, which can indicate ease of migration back to
that country, due to one spouse or a spouse's parent(s) having born in that country,
one can use parents' country of birth in order to attempt to explain emigration to a
particular country. The literature review discussed the following research that dealt
with the migration history of the migrants: Cohen, 2008, 2009; Gould and Moav,
2007; Michaeli, Epstein, & Kheimets, 2007; and United Nations, 2009a. Further,
regarding investigation of the variable religion, research that investigated migration of
Israelis as well as even CBS data indicate that the emigration rate among nonJewish immigrants from the former USSR is more than double that among Jewish
immigrants (Michaeli, Epstein, & Kheimets, 2007). In addition, the research mentions
that it is possible that emigration from Israel can be characterized as bi-polar: highly
educated persons on one hand, and less educated Israelis (including Arabs) on the
other hand (Cohen, 1989). However, even though the religion of the emigrants is
considered important when discussing Israel, more comprehensive research does
not exist on characteristics of emigration of Israelis by religion. The current research
adds information about this topic.
39
A description of the variables follows.
Dependent variable:
Grouped emigration destination countries.
Independent variables:
Religion: A variable indicating "both spouses are Jewish" or the opposite value
indicating "at least one spouse is not Jewish". Variable at the couple level.
Country of birth: A variable indicating "both members of the couple were born in
Israel" or the opposite value indicating "at least one member of the couple was not
born in Israel". Variable at the couple level.
Migration history: "At least one spouse was born in the family's emigration
destination", or "the man previously had immigrant status", or "the woman previously
had immigrant status". Variables at the couple level and the individual level.
Educational and occupational skills:
Education – Highest degree: Man has first degree; woman has first degree; man has
second degree; woman has second degree (second degree also includes
the medical degree M.D.); man has third degree; woman has third
degree; man has other education (less than academic); woman has other
education (less than academic); man studied a "high scientific" field of
study (i.e., a field of academic study that requires a person to have a high
level of skills to be accepted and complete the degree; the field can be
easily adapted to the international labour market; includes medicine,
mathematics, statistics, computer science, physical sciences, biological
sciences, engineering, and architecture) or woman studied a "high
scientific" field of study.
41
Occupation – In the 1995 Census: Man has an academic professionals or associate
professionals and technicians (requiring a high level of skills) occupation;
woman has an academic professionals or associate professionals and
technicians occupation.
Full details on all the variables and all their values that were prepared for the investigation of
the research group are presented in Appendix C. The results of the regression analyses are
presented in the Results section.
41
3. Results
The statistical analyses showed that some of the research hypotheses were confirmed and
some were not. Briefly, it was found that, in accordance with the research hypothesis,
families that emigrated to the US did have very high levels of skills. In contrast, support was
not found for the research hypothesis that the families who emigrated to Central and
Western Europe would also be characterized by high levels of skills. Instead, it was found
that skills taking the form of a man with a "high scientific" field of study, a woman with a third
degree, or a woman having an academic or professional or technical occupation lowered the
odds ratio of emigration to this destination. The results additionally showed that the
characteristics that better characterized this group were whether one of the couple was born
in the emigration destination (return migration), if at least one of the couple was not born in
Israel, or if at least one of the couple was not Jewish. In accordance with the research
hypothesis, a relatively low level of skills was found among families who emigrated to the
former USSR and Eastern Europe. Against the research hypothesis that most of these
emigrants would be persons who were born in these countries, it was found that natives of
these countries did not tend to return to their countries of origin, but rather to continue to
emigrate to more remunerative destinations.
The results of the statistical analyses follow.
42
A) Descriptive Statistics
Selected Statistical Distributions
Diagram 2. Religious Composition of Married Couples, by the Selected Emigration
Destinations, in Percentages
Both spouses Jewish
At least one spouse not Jewish
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
US
Central and
Western Europe
USSR (former) and
Eastern Europe
Other*
* The "Other" group included 1,782 couples who emigrated to all other emigration destination countries, which
were not included in the three destinations that were studied. This group is too heterogeneous in terms of the
characteristics of the countries included in it to be characterized as a single entity. It is presented for the sake of
completeness and in order to present the entire research group.
Analysis of the results showed that both spouses were Jewish in approximately 95% of the
families that emigrated to the US, and only approximately 5% of these families had at least
one non-Jewish spouse. In comparison, the percentage of families with at least one nonJewish spouse increased to approximately 14% among families who emigrated to Central
and Western Europe, and was even larger (23%) among the families who emigrated to the
former USSR and Eastern Europe. This finding goes along with the increase in the nonJewish population that emigrated to Israel in the large wave of immigration during the 1990s,
and the increase in the right to immigrate due to the Law of Return, as well as perhaps the
presence of a weaker connection to Israel among this population.
43
Diagram 3. Country of Birth of the Couple, by the Selected Emigration Destinations, in
Percentages
At least one spouse born in emigration destination country
Neither spouse born in emigration destination country
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
US
Central and
USSR (former)
Western Europe and Eastern
Europe
Other
The percentage of emigrating families who emigrated to a destination that was new for both
spouses was greater than the percentage of families who migrated back to the country of
birth of at least one spouse. This was true for all the destinations. Among the families who
migrated back to the country of birth of at least one spouse, the largest percentage
(approximately 45%) migrated back to the republics of the former USSR or Eastern
European countries. Approximately 29% of the couples who emigrated to Central and
Western Europe were returning to the country of birth of at least one spouse, and only 15%
of the families who emigrated to the US had come from there.
44
Diagram 4. Origin (Country of Birth of the Couple's Parents), by the Selected Emigration
Destinations, in Percentages
Couple's parents not born in emigration destination country
At least one of couple's parents born in emigration destination country
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
US
Central and Western
Europe
USSR (former) and
Eastern Europe
Continuing the trend presented in Diagram 3, Diagram 4 shows that over half (52%) of the
couples who emigrated to the former USSR or Eastern Europe were from this origin. That is,
at least one of the four parents of the couple was born in former USSR or Eastern Europe.
Approximately one-fifth (19%) of the couples who emigrated to Central or Western Europe
were born to parents who were born in these countries. This European origin allows persons
who were born in a European Union country to work in any of these countries, which could
motivate a decision to emigrate to these destinations. The lowest percentage of couples
whose country of origin was identical to their emigration destination was found for the US:
Only 7% of couples who emigrated to the US were children of parents who were born in the
US.
45
Diagram 5. Israeli-Born Couples, by the Selected Emigration Destinations, in Percentages
USSR
(former)
and Eastern
Europe
3%
Other
15%
Central and
Western
Europe
18%
US
64%
Among families in which both spouses were born in Israel, there was a clear preference for
emigration to the US. Only slightly over one-quarter of these families emigrated to Central
and Western Europe, and a very small minority emigrated to the former USSR and Eastern
Europe. Apparently, when there is no family to return to in the destination country as a social
network, many families prefer to emigrate to a destination with relatively high opportunities
for returns.
46
Diagram 6. New Immigrants (Immigrated to Israel During 1996–2008) With a High Level of
Education (Second Degree or Higher) Who Were Born in the Former USSR or Eastern
Europe, by the Selected Emigration Destinations, in Percentages
Other
20%
USSR (former)
and Eastern
Europe
15%
US
48%
Central and
Western
Europe
17%
Almost half of the new immigrants born in the former USSR or in Eastern Europe with a
relatively high level of education (second degree or higher) who emigrated chose to emigrate
to the US rather than to their country of origin, even though they likely had social networks in
their country of origin. Including those who emigrated to Central and Western Europe, the
percentage of immigrants born in the former USSR or in Eastern Europe who chose to
emigrate to a more remunerative economy reached 65%. Only 15% migrated back to their
country of origin. These findings strengthen the research hypothesis that predicted that the
higher the skill level, the greater the tendency to emigrate to a destination where the skills
are better remunerated.
47
Diagram 7. Education of Men and Women by Highest Degree, by the Selected Emigration
Destinations, in Percentages
US
Central and Western Europe
USSR (former) and Eastern Europe
Other
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Less than
academic
B.A.
M.A.
M.D.
PhD
At all levels of education, more than half the families emigrated to the US. This was most
pronounced among holders of PhD degrees, of whom over 80% emigrated to the US, and
among holders of a medical degree (M.D.), of whom over 70% emigrated to the US. The
smallest percentage who emigrated to the US was found among those with less than an
academic education, relative to the other levels of education. Central and Western Europe
was in second place in terms of attractiveness to those with a higher level of education,
followed by destinations in the former USSR and Eastern Europe.
48
Diagram 8. Education of Men and Women With a Second Degree or Higher, by the Selected
Emigration Destinations, in Percentages
USSR (former)
and Eastern
Europe
3%
Other
14%
Central and
Western
Europe
16%
US
67%
This diagram also shows that emigrants with the highest levels of education emigrated to the
US. In comparison, only one-quarter as many emigrants went to Central and Western
Europe, and even fewer emigrated to the former USSR and Eastern Europe.
Diagram 9. Men and Women With "High Scientific" Fields of Study, by the Selected
Emigration Destinations, in Percentages
USSR (former)
and Eastern
Europe
2%
Other
13%
Central and
Western
Europe
14%
US
71%
The emigration of those with high skill levels is also seen in Diagram 9. A degree in one of
these fields of study (in the current study: medicine, mathematics, statistics, computer
49
science, physical sciences, biological sciences, engineering, or architecture) can be more
easily adapted to the needs of the US labour market. The trend was the same as that
indicated by the previous diagram, which showed those with second and higher degrees:
about 70% of them emigrated to the US.
Diagram 10. Men and Women Who Were Academic Professionals or Associate
Professionals and Technicians in the 1995 Census, by the Selected Emigration Destinations,
in Percentages Out of Total Emigrants in the Research Group With These Occupations
Approximately 62% of the emigrants who were Academic professionals or Associate
professionals and technicians in 1995 emigrated to the US, 16% to Central and Western
Europe, and 6% to republics of the former USSR or to Eastern Europe. These occupations
are usually characterized by a high level of skills, together with easier adaptation to the
needs of the US labour market. These factors explain the large share of the US in attraction
of emigrants with these skills.
51
Summary Table: Descriptive Characteristics of the Research Group,
by Emigration Destinations
Variable Name
Emigration Destination
United
Central and
USSR
Other
States
Western
)former) and
Europe
Eastern
Europe
Percentages
Religious composition of married couples:
Both spouses Jewish
At least one spouse not Jewish
3..9
3..9
6...
3..9
7.6
79.6
99.7
3.3
3..9
67.9
...9
3..7
77.3
93.6
77.3
77..
39.9
37.9
73..
..3
73.7
.9..
.7..
73..
9..
Country of birth of couple:
Neither spouse born in emigration
destination country
At least one spouse born in emigration
destination country
Origin (country of birth of the couple's
parents):
Couple's parents not born in emigration
destination country
At least one of couple's parents born in
emigration destination country
Both spouses born in Israel
7...
51
Variable Name
Emigration Destination
United
Central and
USSR
Other
States
Western
)former) and
Europe
Eastern
Europe
73..
76..
7...
9...
Less than academic
.7..
99.9
..3
76.3
B.A.
...9
73.6
9.9
7..3
M.A.
.7.3
73.6
9..
7..3
M.D.
69.7
6..
..3
73.9
PhD
63.7
79..
7..
6..
Men and women with second degree or
.6..
7...
9..
77..
67..
77..
9..
79..
academic professionals
.7.3
77.7
...
7..9
associate professionals and
.3.6
73.7
..7
7..9
New immigrants (immigrated during
1996–2008) with second degree or
higher, born in former USSR or Eastern
Europe
Education of men and women, by highest
degree:
higher
Men and women with "high scientific"
fields of study
Men and women with academic
professionals or associate
professionals and technicians
occupation in the 1995 Census:
technicians
52
B) Statistical Analyses: Regression Results
Below is a detailed description of the results of the regression analyses of emigration to each
of the three destinations. Two procedures involving binary logistic regression were used. The
first was a binary logistic regression analysis which included variables chosen in the
stepwise procedure out of all the relevant variables in the file. The second was a binary
logistic regression analysis run on selected variables (i.e., there were two regressions for
each destination). The second regression analysis was performed to investigate the extent
and direction of the contribution to the model of relevant variables, even if not significant,
thus helping to strengthen or disprove the research hypotheses. It should be emphasized
that in accordance with the research hypothesis, which regarded the characteristics of the
emigrants to each emigration destination separately, each model stands on its own and the
regression was built comparing the families who emigrated to a particular destination to all
other families in the file.
53
Table 1.1: Results of Stepwise Regression Analysis Analyzing the Chances of Emigrating to
the US (Model A)
Independent Variables
Estimate
Odds Ratio
Estimate
Both spouses Jewish
..376***
9..63
Both spouses born in Israel
..7.7***
7..3.
At least 1 spouse born in family's emigration
..99.**
7.9..
Man has "high scientific" academic study field
...73***
7.377
Woman has "high scientific" academic study field
0.213*
7.993
Man has PhD
..76.***
7...3
Woman has PhD
..69.***
9.77.
Man has B.A.
-0.164**
..373
Woman has B.A.
..97.***
7.977
c (area under the ROC curve)
...7.
Number of observations (couples) H1
.69.3
destination country
* p < .01; ** p < .001; *** p < .0001.
The results of the analysis in Table 1.1 (Model A) show that the statistically significant
characteristics for the population of families that emigrated to the US were families in which
both spouses are Jewish, and in which both spouses were born in Israel or alternatively at
least one of the spouses was born in the US. In addition, a high level of skills, measured as
a "high scientific" academic study field or as a PhD degree, for the man or the woman,
strengthens the tendency to emigrate to this destination. The man's holding a B.A. degree
has a negative, significant influence on the tendency to emigrate to the US, whereas the
woman's holding a B.A. degree has a positive, highly significant influence.
54
Table 1.2: Results of Regression Analysis Analyzing the Chances of Emigrating to the US
(Model A, on Selected Variables)
Odds Ratio
Independent Variables
Estimate
Estimate
Both spouses Jews
..377***
9..67
Both spouses born in Israel
..7.9***
7..67
..993**
7.96.
Man had immigrant status in the past
-..7.3
..377
Woman had immigrant status in the past
-...7.
..33.
...99***
7.339
..97.*
7.977
Man has PhD
..739***
7..9.
Woman has PhD
..673***
9.77.
Man has M.A. or M.D.
....6
7..6.
Woman has M.A. or M.D.
..7.9
7.7.3
Man has B.A.
-0.153*
..3.3
Woman has B.A.
..9..***
7.993
Man has less than an academic education
-...63
..397
Woman has less than an academic education
...73
7..9.
Man has an academic professionals or associate
professionals and technicians occupation
..793
7.7..
Woman has academic professionals or associate
professionals and technicians occupation
-....9
..393
c (area under the ROC curve)
...76
Number of observations (couples) H1
.69.3
At least 1 spouse born in family's emigration
destination country
Man has "high scientific" academic study field
Woman has "high scientific" academic study field
* p < .01; ** p < .001; *** p < .0001.
55
Table 1.2 displays the results of the logistic regression analysis for families that emigrated to
the US, with the explanatory variables including variables relating to religion, origin,
migration, and skills. The results of the regression show that the variable that contributes the
most to predicting emigration to the US is both spouses being Jewish (this raised the odds
ratio by 2.6 times; p < .0001). The next variables, in decreasing order of contribution to the
prediction (according to the Wald chi-square), were: man has "high scientific" academic
study field (this raised the odds ratio by 1.9 times; p < .0001), both spouses born in Israel
(this raised the odds ratio by 1.6 times; p < .0001), woman has a PhD (this raised the odds
ratio by 2.1 times; p < .0001), man has a PhD (this raised the odds ratio by 1.6 times;
p < .0001); woman has a B.A. (this raised the odds ratio by 1.2 times; p < .0001), at least
one spouse was born in the US (this raised the odds ratio of return migration to the US by
1.3 times; p < .001), woman has a "high scientific" academic study field (this raised the odds
ratio by 1.2 times; p < .01), and man has a B.A. (this lowered the odds ratio by 0.9 times;
p < .01). Additional variables that were included in the model but were not found significant
and therefore their contribution to the model is limited, were as follows, in decreasing order
by the extent of their contribution to the model and direction of influence: man had immigrant
status in the past (lowered the odds ratio), woman has an M.A. (raised), man has M.A.
(raised), man has less than academic education (lowered), woman has less than academic
education (raised), man has an academic professionals or associate professionals and
technicians occupation (raised), woman has an academic professionals or associate
professionals and technicians occupation (lowered), and woman had immigrant status in the
past (lowered).
These findings indicate that the following variables significantly strengthen the odds ratio for
emigration to the US: if both spouses are Jewish and born in Israel, if at least one of them
was born in the US, if they have high-level skills measured as a PhD (held by the man or the
woman) or by a "high scientific" field of study (more true for the man than the woman). There
56
is a dual trend for holders of B.A.s: When the woman has a B.A., the tendency to emigrate to
the US is stronger, and when the man has a B.A., the tendency is weaker.
Table 2.1: Results of Stepwise Regression Analysis Analyzing the Chances of Emigrating to
Countries of Central or Western Europe (Model B)
Odds Ratio
Independent Variables
Estimate
Estimate
At least 1 spouse not Jewish
At least 1 spouse not born in Israel
At least 1 spouse born in family's emigration
destination country
Man has "high scientific" academic study field
Woman has PhD
...9.***
7.39.
..739*
7.77.
..939***
7.963
-0.597***
....3
-0.467*
....9
c (area under the ROC curve)
...7.
Number of observations (couples) H1
969.7
* p < .01; *** p < .0001.
Analysis of the results shown in Table 2.1 (Model B) shows that families with the following
characteristics have a statistically significant higher tendency to emigrate to Central and
Western Europe: at least one spouse not Jewish, one spouse was not born in Israel or at
least one spouse was born in the emigration destination country. Regarding skills, a high
level of skills that takes the form of either the man having a "high scientific" academic study
field or the woman having a PhD, negatively influences emigration to this destination. That
is, the analysis shows that holders of these types of skills did not tend to choose emigration
to this destination.
57
Table 2.2: Results of Regression Analysis Analyzing the Chances of Emigrating to Countries
of Central or Western Europe (Model B, on Selected Variables)
Estimate
Odds Ratio
Independent Variables
Estimate
At least one spouse not Jewish
...33***
7.39.
At least one spouse not born in Israel
..976**
7.77.
At least 1 spouse born in family's emigration
destination country
..97.**
7.963
Man had immigrant status in the past
-0.108
..336
Woman had immigrant status in the past
-0.134
..367
-0.581***
....3
Woman has "high scientific" academic study field
-...39
..37.
Man has PhD
-....3
..399
Woman has PhD
-..779
....9
Man has M.A. or M.D.
-...33
..377
Woman has M.A. or M.D.
-...6.
..396
Man has B.A.
....7
7...9
Woman has B.A.
-.....
..3.7
Man has less than an academic education
...9.
7..9.
Woman has less than an academic education
-...97
..3.3
Man has an academic professionals or associate
professionals and technicians occupation
-..79.
..363
Woman has an academic professionals or
associate professionals and technicians
occupation
-..993
..63.
c (area under the ROC curve)
...79
Number of observations (couples) H1
969.7
Man has "high scientific" academic study field
** p < .001; *** p < .0001.
Table 2.2 displays the results of the logistic regression analysis for families which emigrated
to countries of Central and Western Europe, with the explanatory variables including
58
variables relating to religion, origin, migration, and skills. The results of the regression show
that the variable that contributes the most to predicting emigration to this destination is the
man having a "high scientific" academic study field (this lowered the odds ratio by 0.6 times;
p < .0001). The next variables, in decreasing order of contribution to the prediction
(according to the Wald chi-square), were: at least one spouse not being Jewish (an opposite
and complementary variable to the variable "both spouses Jewish"; raised the odds ratio by
1.8 times, p < .0001), at least one spouse not born in Israel (an opposite and complementary
value of the variable "both spouses born in Israel"; raised the odds ratio by 1.4 times,
p < .001), and at least one spouse born in the emigration destination country (raised the
odds ratio by 1.3 times, p < .001). Additional variables that were included in the model but
were not found significant and therefore their contribution to the model is limited, were as
follows, in decreasing order by the extent of their contribution to the model and direction of
influence: woman has a PhD (lowered the odds ratio), woman had immigrant status in the
past (lowered), woman has an academic professionals or associate professionals and
technicians occupation (lowered), man had immigrant status in the past (lowered), man has
M.A. (lowered), woman has a "high scientific" academic study field (lowered), man has B.A.
(raised), man has an academic professionals or associate professionals and technicians
occupation (lowered), woman has an M.A. (lowered), woman has a B.A. (lowered), man has
a PhD (lowered), man has less than academic education (raised), and woman has less than
academic education (lowered).
These findings indicate that, in accordance with the research hypothesis, if at least one
spouse was born in the emigration destination country, the odds ratio for emigrating to that
destination increase significantly. In addition, the variables "at least one spouse not Jewish"
and "at least one spouse not born in Israel" were found to be highly significant and reliably
explained emigration to this destination. Against the research hypothesis, a high level of
skills was not a good predictor of emigration to this destination. Most of the education
variables were not significant, and even weakened (had a negative influence on) the
59
tendency to emigrate, according to the odds ratios. Note that the man having a PhD
significantly weakened the tendency to emigrate to this destination. Religion and origin
variables were found to be better predictors of emigration to this destination.
Table 3.1: Results of Stepwise Regression Analysis Analyzing the Chances of Emigrating to
Republics of the former USSR or to Eastern European Countries (Model C)
Estimate
Odds Ratio
Independent Variables
Estimate
At least one spouse not Jewish
7.777***
9..93
At least one spouse born in family's emigration
-0.338*
..679
destination
country status in the past
Man had immigrant
...79***
7.37.
Woman had immigrant status in the past
..936**
7.733
Man has "high scientific" academic study field
-0.626***
...97
Woman has "high scientific" academic study field
-0.794**
..7.9
Woman has B.A.
-0.550***
...6.
Man has less than an academic education
..97.*
7.777
Woman has an academic professionals or
associate professionals and technicians
occupation
...39**
9...7
c (area under the ROC curve)
...33
Number of observations (couples) H1
777
* p < .01; ** p < .001; *** p < .0001.
An analysis of the results of Model C shows that the characteristics that increase the
tendency to emigrate to the former USSR and Eastern Europe are as follows: At least one
spouse is not Jewish or the man or woman had immigrant status in the past. Conversely, if
at least one spouse was born in the emigration destination country, the odds ratio for
emigration to this destination decreases. Regarding skills, the following have a significant,
negative influence on emigration to this destination: the man or woman having a "high
scientific" academic study field or the woman having a B.A. The man having less than an
academic education or the woman having an academic professionals or associate
61
professionals and technicians occupation significantly increase the tendency to emigrate to
this destination.
Table 3.2: Results of Regression Analysis Analyzing the Chances of Emigrating to Republics
of the former USSR or to Eastern European Countries (Model C, on Selected Variables)
Estimate
Odds Ratio
Independent Variables
Estimate
7..39***
9.33.
At least one spouse not born in Israel
-0.088
..37.
At least 1 spouse born in family's emigration
-0.360
...33
...66***
7.3.3
..77.*
7..7.
-0.646***
...97
-0.649*
...99
Man has PhD
-...33
....9
Woman has PhD
-..6..
..737
Man has M.A. or M.D.
-..9.3
..377
Woman has M.A. or M.D.
-..9.3
..667
Man has B.A.
-....7
..333
-0.703***
..73.
Man has less than an academic education
..933
7.99.
Woman has less than an academic education
..979
..697
....7
..333
..3.6***
9.937
At least one spouse not Jewish
destination country
Man had immigrant status in the past
Woman had immigrant status in the past
Man has "high scientific" academic study field
Woman has "high scientific" academic study field
Woman has B.A.
Man has an academic professionals or associate
professionals and technicians occupation
Woman has an academic professionals or
associate professionals and technicians
occupation
c (area under the ROC curve)
Number of observations (couples) H1
..6.9
777
* p < .01; *** p < .0001.
61
Table 3.2 displays results of the logistic regression for families who emigrated to the
republics of the former USSR or to Eastern European countries, with the explanatory
variables including variables relating to religion, origin, migration, and skills. The results of
the regression show that the variable that contributes the most to predicting emigration to this
destination is when at least one spouse is not Jewish (this raised the odds ratio by 3.0 times; p
< .0001). The next variables, in decreasing order of contribution to the prediction (according
to the Wald chi-square), were: whether the woman had a B.A. (lowered by 0.5 times; p <
.0001), the man having immigrant status in the past (raised by 2.0 times; p < .0001), whether
the man had a "high scientific" academic study field (lowered by 0.5 times; p < .0001), the
woman having an academic professionals or associate professionals and technicians
occupation (raised by 2.3 times; p < .0001), the woman having immigrant status in the past
(raised by 1.5 times; p < .01), and whether the woman had a "high scientific" academic study
field (lowered by 0.5 times; p < .01). Additional variables that were included in the model
but were not found significant and therefore their contribution to the model is limited, were as
follows, in decreasing order by the extent of their contribution to the model and direction of
influence: at least one spouse born in the emigration destination country (lowered the odds
ratio), woman has less than an academic education (raised), man has less than an academic
education (raised), man has a PhD (lowered), woman has a PhD (lowered), man has an M.A.
(lowered), at least one spouse was not born in Israel (lowered), man has B.A. (lowered), and
man has an academic professionals or associate professionals and technicians occupation
(lowered).
The results of the regression show that when at least one spouse is not Jewish or the man
or woman were immigrants in the past, the odds ratio of emigrating to this destination
increases. It is possible that the persons involved are non-Jewish immigrants who
immigrated to Israel in the past, but due to various reasons (perhaps also related to their not
being Jewish) they did not acclimate well in Israel and therefore tend to migrate back to this
62
destination. In accordance with the research hypotheses, the families who emigrated to the
former USSR or to Eastern Europe were characterized by a relatively low level of skills: The
man (significant in the stepwise regression) or woman having less than an academic
education increased the odds ratio of emigrating to this destination, and the other education
variables lowered the odds ratio of emigrating to this destination. It should be noted that
whereas the large immigration to Israel from the former USSR in the 1990s was
characterized by a relatively high level of education, in the current research, the degrees of
persons who earned them outside of Israel were not included in the CBS's database of
academic degrees. Therefore, their degrees were included only if they were included in the
20% sample from the 1995 Population Census. Against the research hypothesis, according
to which a strong finding was expected to be return migration to the country of birth by
persons who were born in a country of the emigration destination, i.e., persons who
immigrated to Israel and decided to return to their country of birth, it was found that persons
born in these countries did not tend to return to their country of birth but rather to continue to
emigrate to more remunerative destinations.
63
4. Discussion and Conclusion
The research hypotheses of the current work focused on emigration of Israeli families to
three different destinations. The characteristics of the families were examined, along with a
research hypothesis about the level of skills characterizing each group of families, taking into
account the economic structure characterizing each emigration destination that was
examined. In accordance with this, three research hypotheses were formulated: (1) The
Israeli families emigrating to the US will tend to be characterized by a very high level of
skills; families of US natives who immigrated to Israel will tend to return to their country of
origin; and native Israelis will tend to emigrate to the US. (2) The Israeli families emigrating
to Central and Western Europe will be characterized by a relatively high level of skills.
Families of natives of one of these countries will tend to return to their country of origin, from
which they can proceed to any of the European Union countries. (3) The Israeli families
emigrating to the former USSR and Eastern Europe will be characterized by a relatively low
level of skills. In addition, natives of the former USSR and Eastern Europe will tend to return
to their country of origin.
Overview of the Findings
Emigration to the US
The findings that emerged from examination of the skill levels of the spouses, through
examining their levels of education and occupations, consistently showed, over all the
statistical analyses, that persons with higher educational levels emigrated to the US. In
agreement with the research hypotheses, the largest proportion of holders of doctoral
degrees (among men and women), holders of medical degrees (men and women), and
persons who studied a "high scientific" field of study (men and women), emigrated to the US.
These findings were statistically significant. In contrast, it was found that among men, a
lower level of education (a first degree [significant] or education lower than academic)
weakened the tendency to emigrate to the US. It might be that in the family compositions in
64
the file, there is a tendency for the men to have higher educational levels than their spouses,
and in these cases, the emigration destination was chosen based on the man's skills. There
was no clear trend regarding the characteristic of occupation: The man's having an
academic professionals or associate professionals and technicians occupation increased the
tendency to emigrate to the US, but the woman's having such an occupation decreased this
tendency (neither of these were significant). Family characteristics that strongly influenced
emigration to the US were both spouses being Jewish and both being native Israelis (both
significant at a level of p < .0001). Apparently, when both spouses are native Israelis and
they do not have a family or social network in an emigration destination (as do persons born
outside of Israel), the thought is that once the choice has been made to emigrate, one
should emigrate to a destination whose economic structure allows maximal returns. The
religion of the couple might be explained by the fact that in Israel, the vast majority of those
receiving advanced academic degrees are Jewish (in the academic year 2007/2008, 94.5%
of third degree recipients were Jewish, 2.8% were Arab and 2.7% were unclassified by
religion or Christians; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 2010, p. 436). It is possible that
there is an association between these two variables. In accordance with the research
hypothesis, it was found that US natives tended to migrate back to the US if they left Israel
(significant at a level of p < .001).
Central and Western Europe
Contrary to the research hypothesis, families who emigrated to Central and Western Europe
were not characterized by a high level of skills. The man having a "high scientific" field of
study or the woman having a PhD significantly weakened the tendency to emigrate to this
destination. In addition, although not significant, the other variables for relatively high
educational level (second and third degree, for both sexes, and "high scientific" field of
study, for women) negatively influenced the tendency to emigrate to this destination, and
variables for lower educational levels (first degree and education less than academic, both
for men) had positive influences on the tendency to emigrate to Central and Western
65
Europe. Regarding the occupational variable, the same trend was observed: the man or
woman having an academic professionals or associate professionals and technicians
occupation weakened the tendency to emigrate to this destination (not significant). The
characteristics that best described the emigrants to Central and Western Europe were that at
least one spouse was not Jewish, and at least one spouse not having been born in Israel
(both significant, at levels of p < .0001 and a level of p < .001, respectively). It might be that
the low level of skills found among emigrants to this destination is tied to the characteristic of
at least one spouse not being Jewish. As mentioned, in Israel, the educational level of Jews
tends to be higher than that of non-Jews. In accordance with the research hypothesis, it was
found that among families in which at least one spouse was born in the emigration
destination country, the tendency to emigrate to this destination was strengthened
(significant at a level of p < .001).
Former USSR and Eastern Europe
In accordance with the research hypothesis, relatively low levels of skills were found among
families who emigrated to the former USSR and Eastern Europe. All of the higher education
variables were found to negatively influence the tendency to emigrate to this destination; the
man or woman having a "high scientific" field of study and the woman having a first degree
were significant. In accordance with the research hypothesis, education less than academic,
for both men and women, also positively influenced the tendency to emigrate (although this
was not significant). An additional statistical analysis that was performed regarding the
education of "new immigrants" who immigrated from the former USSR or Eastern Europe
having second or higher degrees showed that almost half of them preferred to emigrate to
the US (48%). Fewer preferred to emigrate to Central and Western Europe (17%), and even
fewer to their country of origin (15%). Hence, also among immigrants from the former USSR
or Eastern Europe, as skill levels increase, so too does the tendency to emigrate to a
destination where the skills are remunerated at the highest levels. Emigration to such
destinations was preferred by 65% of these emigrants over return to the country of origin.
66
Among the reasons for this, it can be suggested that it might be that improvement in skill
level acquired in Israel enables a move to a more attractive destination, or that from the
outset, Israel was only a stepping stone on the way to the desired destination. The fact that
the man or woman having an academic professionals or associate professionals and
technicians occupation increased the tendency to emigrate to this destination (among
women, this was even highly significant, p < .0001) might be explained in that these families
were part of the large immigration wave, which was characterized by relatively high
occupational levels. In accordance with the research hypothesis, it was found that at least
one spouse not being Jewish increased the tendency to emigrate to the former USSR or
Eastern Europe. Contrary to the research hypothesis, it was found that the tendency to
emigrate to this destination was weakened when at least one spouse was born in a country
of the family's emigration destination. The reason for this is apparently similar to the
explanation mentioned above, according to which the immigrants from these destinations
who had relatively high skill levels strongly preferred to emigrate to the US as a first choice
rather than returning to their country of origin.
In terms of the theories, emigration to the US by Israeli emigrants having high levels of skills
fits the neoclassical economics theory in that there are geographic differences in supply and
demand for labour force. There are wage differences between the US (relatively high wages)
and Israel (relatively low wages compared to the US) which influence workers with relatively
high income potentials to emigrate to the US. Apparently, the emigrating family acts as a
"rational actor" who examines the emigration options and chooses to emigrate to the US,
where the family will receive the greatest net positive returns in exchange for skills. In other
words, the two important variables – a large difference between returns in the country of
origin and the destination country, and the chances of attaining a remunerative job in the
destination country – operate in this case as a mechanism that promotes emigration of those
with the highest skill levels, relative to others' skill levels, to the US.
67
In accordance with the assumptions of self-selection theory, it emerged from the current
study that the pool of emigrating families is not random. Most of the families emigrating to a
particular emigration destination have skills suiting the emigration destination that enable
them to have better opportunities in the destination country. Specifically, families that chose
to emigrate to the US are families who could also be expected to have relatively high
incomes in Israel (due to their educational and/or occupational characteristics), such that
there is a strong positive correlation between the income levels of the family in the country of
origin and the destination country. In addition, the income distribution in the US is more
unequal than that in Israel, which strengthens the US as a desired destination in the selfselection of families that wish to emigrate. This is true also when the emigrant was not born
in Israel (as in the case of immigrants from the former USSR): The emigrant will prefer to
emigrate to the US in order to maximize returns rather than return to the country of origin,
where the returns are lower. From the results of the statistical analyses in this work, one can
view the families' choices of the various destinations, overall, as a choice of each family unit
according to the skill levels of the couple.
Theories that put the family unit at the centre of the choice to emigrate and the migration
itself are relevant to the current research because they take into account the complexity of
the various characteristics in each family and enable examining both the individual
characteristics of each spouse or children as needed. The current research took into account
both individual characteristics of each spouse such as education and occupation, as well as
characteristics at the couple level such as religion, origin, country of birth, and migration
history of at least one spouse, which influence the destination choice of the entire family.
Analysis at the family unit level showed that the couple's religion greatly influences the
emigration to a particular destination: The variable of the religious composition of the family
was highly significant in emigration to all three destinations. In addition, the fact that both
spouses were born in Israel, or that at least one of them was born in the emigration
destination country, also had a significant influence on the emigration destination, when all
68
other variables were held constant. All of these results demonstrate that the family variables
play an important role in characterizing the emigration pattern of the family members, and if
one had studied only the individual characteristics of emigrants, without taking into account
family characteristics, one might not have noticed the influence of the family characteristics
on the emigration, which would prevent taking into account the entire set of causes.
Using a global theoretical framework has become meaningful for studies of Israel since the
1990s, when on one hand global companies entered Israel, and on the other hand Israeli
companies increased their expansion to external markets. This economic development leads
to worker mobility in both directions. However, it mostly encourages educated Israelis with
high skill levels to emigrate to the US, due to the fact that many centres of research and
development of advanced technological, global companies are located there, and the very
large consumer market in the US serves as a desired target for many companies.
The theory regarding the role of social networks in maintaining and expanding emigration to
particular destinations, seems to operate in emigration patterns of educated Israelis to the
US. Social networks that were already formed in Israel, such as in the army, at university,
research institutes, and workplaces, promote the emigration of educated Israelis to the US
because a social network helps in social and economic integration in the destination country,
thus reducing the costs of the emigration and increasing the returns from it. In addition,
persons are connected to their colleagues at universities, research institutes, or companies
due to the social network phenomenon. Today's modern, vast communication networks
enable larger, dynamic social network ties among colleagues in the various work and
research fields who live in different countries, thus increasing the possibilities of finding
sought-after employment opportunities abroad.
The relatively large rate of emigration from Israel to the US among persons holding
advanced academic degrees also involves two structural factors that were beyond the scope
of the theories. (1) First, the number of academic positions at the Israeli universities is not
sufficient to accommodate all of the demand for senior faculty positions. During recent
69
decades, there has been a continual decrease in the number of academic positions in
academic institutions per resident, as well as an increase in the number of students per
lecturer (Ben-David, 2008). Only a very small number of positions are allocated for young
staff members. The policy of reducing faculty size leads to a decrease in the number of fields
that the universities can offer to their students and to global research, and an increase in the
burden on the remaining faculty members. This load makes it difficult for the researcher to
also excel in research, which puts the researcher at a disadvantage compared to
researchers in leading Western universities (Podeh, 2006). (2) Second, emigration
destination countries prefer migrants with high skills. According to the United Nations (United
Nations, 2009b), a growing number of countries prefer migrants with high, needed skills in
order to meet a demand for workers in the scientific and technological sectors.
Approximately 30 countries, including 17 developed countries, have various policies or
programs to promote immigration of highly skilled workers. Since 1965, the US has
prioritized the granting of immigration visas to highly skilled workers in order to meet the
demand for such workers in the US labour market. The ceiling for visas in this category
increased to approximately 140,000 annually according to the immigration law of 1990. In
addition, the US has a number of additional visa categories enabling temporary entrance of
workers with high skills (United Nations, 2009b). The first reason is a mechanism that
pushes academics out of Israel, and the second reason is a mechanism that pulls
academics to the US or to other developed countries.
The findings of the current research corroborate other research that was quoted in the
literature review, mainly, that Israeli families that emigrated to the US are characterized by a
high level of skills, and that they constitute the largest portion of emigrants from Israel, both
overall and of the group of those with high skills, relative to the other destinations studied.
Other researchers came to similar conclusions using different methods. In addition to revalidating their conclusions, the similarity in the conclusions also lends increased validity to
the worthwhileness of using the methodology presented in this work.
71
The new database on Israeli families that emigrate from Israel that was created for this work
includes various demographic, social, and economic characteristics at both the family and at
the individual levels. In addition to enabling reaching the goals of the current research, this
series enables additional research with the purpose of characterizing emigration from Israel.
One area that is worthy of further study is the family as an emigrating unit. For example, are
there differences in the characteristics of various types of families, in terms of different
emigration destinations? Are there difference in the characteristics of families that emigrate
during different time periods, depending on concurrent events in Israel and in the world?
Another area could be focus on emigration countries that were beyond the scope of the
current research, such as Canada, Oceania, or the Far East. Research on these topics will
broaden the demographic and socio-economic knowledge of this important and interesting
population.
71
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6. Appendix A: Method of Constructing the New Database of Israeli
Families Abroad
The research population included male and female, current or past residents of Israel,
included in the Population Register with their children through age 17, in cases in which
there was an indication in the Register that at least one child was born abroad, during 1996–
2008. This research population comprised the database of the Israeli families abroad. The
database was constructed and reviewed in three major stages: (a) creating the basis for the
database, (b) adding characteristics to the series from CBS files with identifying information,
and (c) reviewing whether the records from the database were found in other CBS "possible
emigrants" databases. Following is a diagram and explanations of the three stages:
76
(A) Creating the database
Diagram of the Stages of Creating the Database
CRA
IC
File 1:
Source: Children born
abroad during 1996–2008
to an Israeli citizen, and
whose status is "CRA".
Source: Population
Register 04/2009.
Number of records: 27,480
File 2:
Source: Children born
abroad during 1996–2008
to an Israeli citizen, and
who immigrated to Israel.
Source: Multi-year data file
of ICs, based on the
Population Register,
extracted from the CBS's
migration system
Number of records: 25,565
File 1b:
Constructing administrative
families: Adding parents
and children through age
17 to the records in File 1.
Source: Population
Register 04/2009.
Number of records: 70,035
File 2b:
Constructing administrative
families: Adding parents
and children through age
17 to the records in File 2.
Source: Population
Register 04/2009.
Number of records: 67,547
File 3:
Merging of Files 1b and 2b.
Attaching all characteristics from the
Population Register 04/2009 to each
record.
Number of records: 133,539.
This file included the entire research
group. The variable "country of birth" of
the records in File 1 + 2 was copied to
the other family members and labelled
"destination country".
77
In the first step, relevant records were identified. These were records with Register status
implying "CRA" in the Population Register 04/2009 (the determinant date for this research
was December 31, 2008) and records with the status "IC" in the multi-year file of ICs. This
resulted in 49,045 records that formed the basis for the database. In the second step, the
family of every record, including (at least) one parent or two parents and siblings up to age
17, was constructed from the Register. This age was chosen as an age prior to legal
independence; moreover, at this age, the vast majority of children are still under their
parents' care and will migrate together with them. The family was constructed according to
an algorithm for building nuclear families that was used to build administrative families in the
2008 Population Census, with one difference: In contrast to the Census guidelines, in this
research file the geographic location of the various family members did not serve as a
criterion for linking the records. Below is a brief description of the algorithm for building
nuclear families:
78
Step 1: Pairing children with one or two parents:
Research group
Marking of records of persons who are
unmarried, have no children, through age
17 (i.e., the records in File 1 and File 2)
Was a mother located?
No
Yes
Was a father located?
Joining mother to her children
Joining mother to her children
No
End of process.
No family found
for the person.
Yes
End of process.
Attaching father's
ID number and
that of his spouse
and her children
to the child's
record.
Was a spouse of the mother located?
No
End of process.
Family created of
mother and her
children.
Yes
End of process.
Attaching
mother's ID
number and her
children to the
records of her
spouse and his
children.
79
Step 2: Attempt at locating a spouse for parents who remained without spouses after
Step 1
Marking in the database of all persons
without spouses after Step 1
Was a lone male partner (with or without children)
located for lone women (with no children according to
the definition of the model)?
No
No family was found
Yes
Pairing of the husband and his
children with the record of the wife
After application of this algorithm and screening out of surplus records, 133,509 records
remained in the base file of the database. These constituted 34,057 families who were
assumed to be currently living overseas or lived there for a substantial period of time in the
past during the research period (1996–2008). After merging this file with the Population
Register file, unneeded variables and duplicate records were removed, and a unique number
was assigned to all family members. The same emigration destination was assigned to each
individual in the family according to the country of birth of the child born abroad. If the family
had more than one child abroad, and the children were born in different countries, the
highest country code was chosen, which gave slightly more priority to the US (code 710),
Canada (code 700), or Australia (code 860. These countries accounted for more than 53%
of the emigrants in the file.
81
Following are the 10 emigration destination countries with the largest number of persons, in
descending order:
Emigration
destination country
Total
Number of
persons in
research file
133,502
Thereof:
US
60,169
France
10,559
United Kingdom
9,230
Canada
7,220
Russian Federation
4,921
Germany
4,633
Australia
3,078
Belgium
3,051
Netherlands
2,287
Ukraine
2,174
Then, a variable was constructed for relationship to the family representative, according to
the Population Register. The oldest person in the family, man or woman, was assigned Code
1, the spouse of that person (if married to a spouse in the Register) was assigned Code 2,
and the children of the couple or of the single parent were assigned Code 3. After building
this variable, the database had 34,046 records with Code 1, 22,553 with Code 2, and 76,903
with Code 3.
The variable "marital status" was handled as follows: For married persons, if there was an
"ID number of spouse" for only one of the spouses, the other one was completed
accordingly. If the "ID number of spouse" of the person assigned Code 1 was not found in
the Population Register, the spouse was deleted (this was attributed to an error in
81
recording). For divorced or widowed persons, if there was an "ID number of spouse", it was
deleted.
After these corrections, the marital status data of the parents in the database was as follows:
Absolute numbers
Marital
status
Percentages out of known cases
Gender
Total
Men
Gender
Women Total
Men
Women
Total
56,376
26,648
29,728
100.0
100.0
100.0
Single
2,691
838
1,853
4.8
3.1
6.2
Married
51,569
25,429
26,140
91.5
95.4
87.9
Divorced
1,957
337
1,620
3.5
1.3
5.4
Widowed
159
44
115
0.3
0.2
0.4
Unknown
223
(B) Adding Characteristics to the Research Group from Identified CBS Files
In the second stage of building the database of Israeli families, additional identified CBS files
were added to the database. Identified files are data files containing individual records with
ID numbers. These files enriched the scope of data about the persons in the research group.
Selected characteristics from five identified files were added to the base file: (a) the
Population Register 4/2009, (b) the 20% Sample File from the Population and Housing
Census 1995, (c) the database of degree recipients 1983–2008, (d) the multi-year file of
immigrants to Israel 1984–2008, and (e) the DMPIR during 1996–2008.
82
Diagram of Adding Characteristics to the Database from Additional Files
File 3, Database:
133,509 records; 34,057 families
Database of degree
recipients 1983–2008.
The DMPIR during 1996–
2008.
Added educational
characteristics: type of
degree, year of degree,
and field of study of the
degree.
Adding characteristics of
record status and year of
emigration from Israel.
The following were linked
with this file, with the
following statuses:
Immigrants (27,330 records
linked), family unification
(2,457 records linked),
returning residents (12,952
records linked), exiting
emigrants who did not yet
return (23,929 records
linked).
15,188 records of
persons aged 18 and
over were linked (by ID
number).
Population Register
04/2009.
Added demographic
characteristics: sex, age,
marital status, religion,
country of birth,
nationality, Population
Register status, year of
immigration, year of
entry to Israel, year of
birth, and year marital
status took effect.
All records in File 3 were
linked to the Register;
99,954 were found to
have "active" status and
33,555 had "CRA"
status.
Multi-year file of
immigrants to Israel 1984–
2008.
Includes immigrants who
immigrated to Israel during
these years.
Added the characteristic of
last country of residence
before immigration.
20% Sample File from
Population Census 1995.
Added the characteristics
education, occupation,
marital status at the time of
the census. 6,400 records
linked
13,947 records linked.
At the end of Stage 2, the expanded database included 55 variables. Some were taken as is
from the files described above, and others were constructed especially for this research
based on the data in these source files. The variables that were added to the file were
varied, and enable research in many fields of demographic and socio-economic statistics.
The database is in SAS format. The following is a description of the structure of the research
83
file, which is the new database of Israeli families abroad that was constructed in this
research:
Structure of the Database File
No. Variable Name
Values
Notes
1
ID Number
Source: Register 04/2009
2
Father's ID Number
Source: Register 04/2009
3
Spouse's ID Number
Source: Register 04/2009
4
Mother's ID Number
Source: Register 04/2009
5
ID Number of
Exists for married couples who are
Married Spouse
both in the research file and in the
Population Register. The variable
was not relevant for married persons
without a spouse in the Register, and
for divorced and widowed persons.
Source: Register 04/2009
6
Destination country
Country codes of Ministry of Interior
Calculated variable. Derived from the
of emigration from
model. Country of birth of the
Israel
records in the source files copied to
the variable "destination country" for
all family members.
7
Code for source file
1 = CRA file of persons born abroad
of record
Calculated variable. Created as part
of the procedure of creating the
research group. Sources: Population
Register and IC files
2 = IC file of persons born abroad
8
Source of record in
1 = from source files: File 1 (CRA) or
Calculated variable. Created as part
procedure of creating
File 2 (IC)
of the procedure of creating the
administrative family
administrative family in the model.
84
No. Variable Name
Values
Notes
2 = family members of records from
source files who were added in
procedure of creating administrative
family
9
Unique number for
Calculated variable. Created as part
administrative family
of the procedure of creating the
administrative family in the model.
10
11
Number of persons
1...17
Calculated variable. Created as part
in administrative
of the procedure of creating the
family
administrative family in the model.
First person in family
1
Calculated variable. Determined by
the earliest birth date in the family.
empty = all other family members
12
Spouse exists in the
1 = Married, person of first record
Calculated variable.
Register
(one of the parents)
Source: Register 04/2009
2 = Married, spouse in research file
Variable is relevant only for married
of first person
persons.
3 = Married, no spouse in research
file
13
Family relationship to
7 = First in family record
Calculated variable. Value 2 exists if
first record in
married and spouse has an ID
research group
number of the research file.
model
2 = spouse
Source: Register 04/2009
3 = child
14
Age
0...80
Reference date: Dec. 31, 2008.
Source: Register 04/2009
85
No. Variable Name
Values
Notes
7.
1 = Jew
Source: Register 04/2009
Grouped religion
2 = Moslem
3 = Arab Christian
4 = Other Christian
5 = Druze
6 = Unclassified by religion
16
Country of birth from
Country codes of Ministry of Interior
Source: Register 04/2009
Citizenship code
Citizenship codes of Ministry of
Source: Register 04/2009
from the Register
Interior
Nationality code from
Nationality codes of Ministry of
the Register
Interior
Marital status code
10 = single
the Register
17
18
19
Source: Register 04/2009
Source: Register 04/2009
from the Register
20 = married
30 = divorced
40 = widowed
20
Sex code from the
1 = male
Source: Register 04/2009
2 = female
Source: Register 04/2009
According to the 2008 list of localities
Source: Register 04/2009
Register
21
Locality code
of Ministry of Interior
22
Year of immigration
Source: Register 04/2009
23
Year of first entry to
Source: Register 04/2009
Israel
24
Year of last entry to
Source: Register 04/2009
Israel
86
No. Variable Name
25
Values
Year of immigrant
Notes
Source: Register 04/2009
entry
26
Year of birth
Source: Register 04/2009
27
Year marital status
Source: Register 04/2009
took effect
28
Year of last exit
29
Code of status in the
Source: Register 04/2009
1 = active
Register
"CRA" includes other similar
statuses: 3, 5, 54, 61, 71, 72.
Source: Register 04/2009
51 = CRA
9.
Included in
1 = the record has status of family
Calculated variable. Source: DMPIR
population through
unification in the DMPIR
2008
family unification in
the DMPIR
2 = the record does not have status
of family unification in the DMPIR
31
Included in
1 = the record has status of
Calculated variable. Source: DMPIR
population through
immigrant in the DMPIR
2008
immigration in the
DMPIR
2 = the record does not have status
of immigrant in the DMPIR
32
Code of entry status
5 = immigrant
Source: DMPIR 2008
in the DMPIR
8 = family unification
9 = returning residents
33
Code of exit status in
7 = emigrant
Source: DMPIR 2008
the DMPIR
87
No. Variable Name
34
Values
Notes
Year of emigration
Separate, independent datum for
from Israel – DMPIR
each year. A datum existing for one
("emigration")
family member was copied to the
other family members. In the case of
two or more different data, the
earliest year was used. Source:
DMPIR 2008
35
Year of emigration
Created from the merger of stock
from Israel – stock of
files from 1995 through 2008 and
emigrants
CRA through 2003. The stock
("emigration")
consists of all "possible emigrants"
each year since 1995. There is data
for 2004–2009. A datum existing for
one family member was copied to
the other family members. In the
case of two or more different data,
the earliest year was used.
36
Source of the record
1 = model
within the database
Source: database of potential
emigrants from 2008 Census
of potential
emigrants in
emigrant model of
Census 2008
3 = earlier database of potential
emigrants known as "Dan 95"
4 = citizenship code 23
5 = National Insurance records
88
No. Variable Name
37
Values
Notes
Database of potential
1 = the record exists in the database
Calculated variable. Source:
emigrants from 2008
of potential emigrants from 2008
database of potential emigrants from
Census
Census
2008 Census
9 = the record does not exist in the
database of potential emigrants from
2008 Census
38
Left population as an
1 = the record exists with status of
Calculated variable. Source: DMPIR
emigrant in the
emigrant in the DMPIR
2008
2 = the record does not exist with
Applies to persons who were given
status of emigrant in the DMPIR
emigrant status at the end of 2008
Entered population
1 = the record exists with status of
Calculated variable. Source: DMPIR
as a returning
returning emigrant in the DMPIR
2008
DMPIR
39
resident in the
DMPIR
2 = the record does not exist with
status of returning resident in the
DMPIR
40
Aged 15 or over in
0 = aged 0 through 14
1995 Census
Source: 20% Sample from the 1995
Census
1 = aged 15 or over
89
No. Variable Name
41
Family relationship to
Values
Notes
empty = unknown
Source: 20% Sample from the 1995
first record in
Census
household in 1995
Census
1 = first record
2 = spouse
3 = child
4 = parent
5 = sibling
6 = brother- or sister-in-law
7 = son-in-law or daughter-in-law
8 = mother-in-law or father-in-law
9 = grandchild
10 = other relative
11 = non-relative
12 = nephew or niece
15 = great-grandchild
16 = grandparent
42
Total years of
0 = did not study at all
Imputed variable. Does not include
schooling in 1995
years of study in yeshiva (religious
Census
academy). Source: 20% Sample file
from the 1995 Census
xx = total years of schooling
98 = children under age 15
43
Record exists in 20%
1 = the record exists in 20% Sample
Calculated variable. Source: 20%
Sample from the
file from the 1995 Census
Sample file from the 1995 Census
1995 Census
2 = the record does not exist in 20%
Sample file from the 1995 Census
91
No. Variable Name
44
Occupation: first digit
Values
Notes
empty = not relevant
Alphanumeric variable.
0 = academic professionals
Source: 20% Sample from the 1995
in 1995 Census
Census
1 = associate professionals and
technicians
2 = managers
3 = clerical workers
4 = agents, sales workers, and
service workers
5 = skilled agricultural workers
6–8 = industry, construction, and
other skilled workers
9 = unskilled workers
X = under age 15
Y = unknown occupation + other
45
Marital status in 1995
1 = married
Census
Source: 20% Sample from the 1995
Census
2 = divorced
3 = widowed
4 = single
46
47
Unique ID for
Created during the editing process in
household in 1995
the Census. Source: 20% Sample
Census
file from the 1995 Census
Participation in
0 = not in annual civilian labour force
annual civilian labour
Source: 20% Sample file from the
1995 Census
force?
1= in annual civilian labour force
8 = children under age 15
91
No. Variable Name
Values
Notes
73
Type of record in
1 = Person enumerated in regular
Source: 20% Sample file from the
1995 Census
household
1995 Census
2 = Person enumerated in regular
household outside of a locality
3 = Person enumerated in a kibbutz
household
4 = Person enumerated as a resident
of an institution
5 = Person enumerated in a
household in an institution
49
Highest degree in
0 = did not study at all
1995 Census
Imputed variable. Source: 20%
Sample from the 1995 Census. For
persons aged 15 and over.
1 = no diploma or certificate
2 = completed elementary or lower
secondary school
3 = completed upper secondary
school
4 = matriculation certificate
5 = non-academic post-secondary
certificate
6 = first degree
7 = second degree
8 = third degree
9 = other certificate
50
Field of academic
0 = general humanities
study
For persons aged 18 and over.
Source: database of degree
recipients 1983–2008
1 = languages, literature, and
92
No. Variable Name
Values
Notes
regional studies
2 = education and teacher training
3 = art, crafts, and applied arts
4 = social sciences
5 = business and management
science
6 = law
7 = medicine
8 = paramedical studies
9 = mathematics, statistics, and
computer science
10 = physical sciences
11 = biological sciences
12 = agriculture
13 = engineering and architecture
14 = special programs, misc.
51
Highest academic
10 = first degree
degree
For persons aged 18 and over.
Source: database of degree
recipients 1983–2008
20 = second degree
30 = M.D. (second degree in
medicine)
40 = third degree
50 = teaching certificate
60–69 = non-academic certificate
52
Year of receipt of
academic degree
7337–9..3
For persons aged 18 and over.
Source: database of degree
recipients 1983–2008
93
No. Variable Name
53
Last country of
Values
Notes
Country codes of Ministry of Interior
For persons who previously had
residence before
immigrant or potential immigrant
immigrating to Israel
status, during 1984–2008. Source:
Multi-year file of immigrants.
54
Database of stock of
1 = found in stock of emigrants in
Calculated variable. Built from
emigrants – DMPIR
DMPIR
combining stock files of 1995
1995–2008
through 2008 and the CRA file
through 2003. The stock consists of
all "possible emigrants" each year
since 1995.
55
"Surplus" records
1= Record exists in "surplus" records
Calculated variable. Basis created
that were in the
based on the 1995 Census. Possibly
Population Register
long-term residents abroad.
in 1995 but were not
found in the field at
the time of the
census enumeration
(C) Checking for Database Records in Other "Possible Emigrant" CBS Databases
In the third stage, the records in the database were compared with the various "possible
emigrant" databases existing at the CBS. It should be noted that the purpose of the current
research was not to locate and estimate the number of Israelis who live abroad permanently,
but rather to locate Israeli families spending a substantial period of time abroad and examine
their characteristics by the various emigration destination countries. Thus, there are families
in the research file that were located as individuals who emigrated from Israel and had not
returned by 2008, or families that returned during the research period, and are defined as
"returning residents" or "immigrant citizens" (IC). At the same time, in order to examine the
methodology that was developed, it is interesting to see where it stands compared to the
94
other data sources of possible emigrants. In future research, it will be possible to focus only
on the records that appear both in the database and in a particular data source of possible
emigrants in order to gain validation from different sources on emigrants living outside of
Israel.
Diagram of Comparing the Database Records with "Possible Emigrant" Databases at the
CBS
File 3, Database: 133,509 records
Database of Israeli
residents abroad,
2008 Census.
Before the 2008
Census, a database
of possible
emigrants was
created based on
data from various
files, such as border
control, National
Insurance, and
individuals who
were not
enumerated in two
previous censuses.
Results: 40,054
records from File 3
were found in this
database.
DMPIR. Location of records from
File 3 in a combined file of all ID
numbers appearing at least once
in the database ("stock") of
emigrants of the DMPIR during
1995–2008, for each year.
Results: 26,678 records from File
3 were found in this database.
A "surplus" database
from the 1995
Population Census,
which began as records
that were in the Register
in 1995 but were not
found in the field at the
time of the census
enumeration and were
not linked to the
population of the 1995
Census, and which
constitute a component
of the DMPIR since
1995. The year 1995
was selected for
checking because the
database gradually
emptied since the
Census.
Results: 14,457 records
from File 3 were found
in this database.
In these three CBS databases of possible emigrants, together, 81,189 records were found
from File 3. These records constitute 61% of all records in the database. There were 13,687
records common to the database of emigrants of the DMPIR and the database of Israelis
abroad from the 2008 Census.
Records from File B1 (CRA) in the "possible emigrant" databases:
95
In the database ("stock") of emigrants of the DMPIR, 14,102 records originating in File B1
were found.
In the "surplus" database from the 1995 Population Census, which began as records
that were in the Register in 1995 but were not found in the field at the time of the census
enumeration and were not linked to the population of the 1995 Census, 9,609 records
originating in File B1 were found.
In the database of Israeli residents abroad, 2008 Census, 29,233 records originating in
File B1 were found.
Total: In the "possible emigrant" databases, 52,944 records were found, constituting 76% of
the total records in File B1.
Records from File B2 (IC) in the "possible emigrant" databases:
In the database ("stock") of emigrants of the DMPIR, 12,576 records originating in File B2
were found.
In the "surplus" database from the 1995 Population Census, which began as records
that were in the Register in 1995 but were not found in the field at the time of the census
enumeration and were not linked to the population of the 1995 Census, 4,848 records
originating in File B2 were found.
In the database of Israeli residents abroad, 2008 Census, 10,821 records originating in
File B2 were found.
Total: In the "possible emigrant" databases, 28,245 records were found, constituting 42% of
the total records in File B2.
96
7. Appendix B: Reliability of the Database as a Proxy for the
Population of Israeli Families Abroad
Although every research study on a particular population has limitations and some
deficiency, and there is no study that fully covers the whole population, the main
methodological contribution of the current research was the creation of a new, diverse
database of Israeli families abroad that enabled broadening our knowledge of the population
of these families, according to definitions and variables used by the CBS and in Israel, while
using the variable of emigration destination country of the family. This was accomplished
within the framework that the research population included families that emigrated during the
investigation period, to whom children were born abroad, and which registered their children
at the Israeli consulate abroad. Thus, the question arises: Can the research population
included in the new database be used as a proxy (i.e., a reliable representation) for the rest
of the population of Israeli emigrant families? To address this question, the reliability of the
methodology used in the current research was examined. Following are the results of the
examination.
Israeli society is characterized by high marriage and fertility rates relative to the average in
the other developed countries (as well as in comparison to the OECD countries).
Approximately 70% of Israeli households in 2002 consisted of a married couple, with or
without children, and a household had an average of 3.36 persons – larger than in the
developed countries (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009; Schellekens & Anson, 2007; Sikron,
2004). Based on these characteristics, it can be assumed that the emigrants from Israel are
also characterized by a large percentage of families and parents with children, even if they
were not married or did not have children when they left Israel. It is reasonable to assume
that behavioural norms they acquired while growing up in Israel influence them also as
adults, and that most marry and have children. Recall that the current research did not
attempt to draw conclusions about all emigrants from Israel, but rather focused on Israeli
97
families that live abroad or lived abroad in the past for a substantial period of time, as per the
definitions of the research population.
Registration of Children Born to Israeli Citizens Abroad in the Population Register
When a child is born to an Israeli citizen abroad, and the parents wish to register the child in
the Israeli Population Register, they must fill out a form called "Notification of Birth of an
Israeli Citizen Abroad" (MR/23). Then, the Ministry of Interior carries out the "Procedure for
Registration of a Child Born Abroad to an Israeli Citizen Mother" (Procedure No. 2.2.0004;
Ministry of Interior, 2010). This procedure is carried out at an Israeli consulate abroad, or, if
in Israel, at an office of the Ministry of Interior. Under this procedure, after verifying one or
both parents' personal information (even if they are not married to each other), as well as
that of the child, a new record is recorded in the Population Register. If the parent declares
that he or she is not settled in Israel, the record is immediately assigned a status of "citizen
residing abroad" ("CRA"). In the current project, these families were combined into a file
entitled CRA. Later, if the person titled CRA enters Israel with the intent of setting, his status
is altered to "immigrant citizen" ("IC")(Central Bureau of Statistics, 2010, p. 225). The
children born abroad are also an indication that their families lived outside of Israel for a
substantial period of time, before the child returned to Israel without his or her family. In the
current research, these families were aggregated into a file entitled IC. The two files CRA
and IC constituted the basis for the new database of Israeli families abroad (for more
information on the process of constructing these files, see Appendix A). Thus, the families
included in the database have at least one parent who was an Israeli citizen and resident in
the past. Because Israeli society is characterized by relatively high family cohesiveness, it is
reasonable to assume that many families that emigrate from Israel still maintain connections
with relatives in Israel, including physical visits to Israel. By law, when entering and exiting
Israeli borders, Israeli passports must be used for all of the family members, which
encourages the parents to register the children at an Israeli consulate abroad prior to visiting
Israel. In addition, persons who emigrate via means such as repeat or cyclical migration,
98
which have become more common in recent years, or who live alternately in two countries,
tend to leave open the option of returning to Israel. It is therefore very likely that they have a
motivation to register their children's births abroad at an Israeli consulate there. These
reasons increase the likelihood that a substantial portion of the population that emigrates
from Israel registers their children who are born abroad, even if they are settled in another
country at that stage in their lives.
Comparison Between the Population Included In the Database and the Parallel Population in
the US Population Census
The US was chosen as the comparison group because it is home to the largest group of
Israelis abroad, and because there are US data available for research in the form of
population files from the US Census that can be downloaded from the Internet. Data on
families of Israelis in the US were produced from the US Population Census file for 2000,
which included a sample of 1% of the residents of each state within the US borders. To
match the two comparison files, a group of families was derived from the US Population
Census file that met the following criteria: at least one parent was born in Israel, the family
has children under age 18, the family consists of only parents and children, and at least one
of the children was born in the US (N = 149,498). From the current Israeli database, in 2008,
a group of families was derived that met the same criteria: families that emigrated to the US
in which at least one parent was born in Israel, the family has children under age 18, the
family consists of only parents and children (this was derived from the way the file was
created), and at least one of the children was born in the US (N = 51,272). The results of the
comparison between the two groups on a number of selected indicators is presented below.
A) Average family size: In the database of the current research: 4.1 persons; in the US
Census: 4.6 persons.
B) Comparison of age composition: As can be seen in the age pyramid charts, the age
structures of males and females in the two groups are very similar, with the exception
of small variations in a few age groups.
99
Age Pyramid Comparison Between Data of Israeli Families Abroad and a Parallel Group
from the US Census: Males
Age Pyramid Comparison Between Data of Israeli Families Abroad and a Parallel Group
from the US Census: Females
111
C) An additional comparison was made between the two groups regarding education.
The number of holders of academic degrees was examined, and based on this,
holders of first degrees, and holders of second degrees and above. Again, as can be
seen from the diagram below, the results indicated great similarity between the
groups:
Percentage
US Census 2000
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
37.7
Series – Israeli Families Abroad 2008
33.2
23.8 21.4
13.9 11.8
Total academic
degrees
First degree*
Second degree
and above*
* Calculated from total holders of academic degrees
The slightly larger percentage of holders of academic degrees in the data from the US
Census might be explained by the fact that a not inconsiderable number of emigrants move
to the US to further their academic studies in the various frameworks there, thus slightly
raising their average educational level above what it was when they left Israel.
Comparison Between the Research Group and the Register of Doctoral and Research
Students Abroad
A comparison was made with another outside source of information. The report of the
Commission for Examination of the Higher Education System in Israel, known as "the
Shohat Commission" (Council for Higher Education, 2007), contained an appendix
(Appendix 2) that was a summary of the results of a register of young Israeli doctoral and
research students who reside abroad. The summary included approximately 900 men and
women. In the current research, a comparison was made between the data of holders of
111
doctoral degrees in the major fields of study as recorded in the Shohat report in 2007
(Council for Higher Education, 2007), and the academic fields of study in which persons
received doctoral degrees (PhDs) in Israel among the database of Israeli families abroad in
the current research (source of data: CBS database of persons receiving academic degrees,
2008). Note that it makes sense to compare these two sets of data in that 73% of the holders
of doctoral degrees in the Shohat Report (Council for Higher Education, 2007) received them
in Israel.
Holders of doctoral
Holders of doctoral degrees
Major field of research
degrees in Shohat
in current database
Report
Physical sciences/biological sciences
45%
55%
Computer sciences/mathematics
12%
13%
administration/Management/Economics
11%
8%
Humanities
6%
2%
Medicine
6%
5%
Social sciences
6%
7%
Engineering
3%
8%*
N = 531
N = 1,171
Business
*Including architecture.
The percentages of holders of doctoral degrees are quite similar, taking into account the
limitations of matching the classifications of fields of study between the two groups. The
classification groups are slightly different in the two sources. In addition, the CBS database
of degree recipients indicates the field of study in which the doctorate was received, whereas
the Shohat Report (Council for Higher Education, 2007) indicates the current major field of
research in the US. There might be slight changes in the field in which a person is involved
between these two points in time.
112
To sum up, from comparison between the database of families of Israelis abroad and the
external sources of information that were examined, it emerges that the data on the families
in the database are reasonably similar to data obtained from various external sources. This
fact increases the reliability level of the findings and the validity of the methodology that was
developed as suitable for the research population.
113
8. Appendix C: Description of the Variables in the Research File for
Testing the Research Hypotheses (Married Couples with
Measurable Skills)
Variable Name
Source of Data
Values
Notes
Dependent variable (explained variable)
Grouped emigration
destination countries
Variable calculated
from Population
Register
1 = US
Calculated variable
derived from the
model. Variable
shared by both
spouses.
2 = Central and
Western Europe
3 = Former USSR and
Eastern Europe
4 = Other
Independent variables (explanatory variables)
Demographic variables
Gender
Age
Religion: Both
spouses Jewish
Population Register
Population Register
Population Register
Country of birth
Population Register
Both spouses born in
Israel
Variable calculated
based on Register
Country of birth same
as emigration
destination country
Variable calculated
based on Register
Immigrant
Population Register
Male/female
7 = both spouses
Jewish
0 = at least one
spouse not Jewish
Country codes of
Ministry of Interior
7 = both spouses born
in Israel
0 = at least one
spouse not born in
Israel
7 = at least one
spouse born in, and
then emigrated to that
country
0 = neither spouse
born in, and emigrated
to that country
7 = Had immigrant
status in the past
0 = Did not have
immigrant status in
the past
Variable per individual
Variable per individual
Calculated variable
Variable per individual
Variable common to
both spouses.
Variable common to
both spouses.
Based on immigration
year in the Register.
Variable per
individual.
Socio-economic variables
Education - First
degree (B.A.)
Education - Second
degree (M.A.)
CBS database of
degree recipients or
highest degree in
1995 Census
CBS database of
degree recipients or
highest degree in
1995 Census
1 = has first degree
0 = does not have first
degree
Variable per individual
1 = has second
degree
0 = does not have
second degree
Variable per individual
114
Education - M.D.
(second degree in
medicine)
Education - Third
degree (PhD)
Education – Second
degree or higher
Other education (less
than academic)
"High scientific"
academic field
Occupation requiring
a high skill level
CBS database of
degree recipients
CBS database of
degree recipients or
highest degree in
1995 Census
Calculated variable
based on CBS
database of degree
recipients or highest
degree in 1995
Census
Calculated variable
based on CBS
database of degree
recipients or highest
degree in 1995
Census
Calculated variable
based on CBS
database of degree
recipients
Variable calculated
based on 20%
Sample from the 1995
Population Census
1 = has M.D.
0 = does not have
M.D.
1 = has third degree
0 = does not have
third degree
Variable per individual
1 = has second
degree or higher
0 = does not have
second degree or
higher
Variable per individual
7= has other
education
0 = does not have
other education
Variable per
individual. Includes
"did not study at all"
and all other types of
non-academic
certificates
A field of academic
study that requires a
person to have a high
level of skills to be
accepted and
complete the degree.
The field can be more
easily adapted to the
international labour
market. Includes
medicine,
mathematics,
statistics, computer
science, physical
sciences, biological
sciences, engineering,
architecture. Variable
per individual
7 = has a degree in a
high scientific
academic field
0 = does not have a
degree in a high
scientific academic
field
7 = Has occupation
requiring a high skill
level
0 = Does not have
occupation requiring a
high skill level
Does not include
doctorate in medicine.
Variable per individual
Includes these
classifications:
0 = Persons with
academic
professionals
occupation
1 = Persons with
associate
professionals and
technicians
occupation.
According to the
CBS Standard
Classification of
Occupations 1994.
Variable per
individual
115
116
9. Appendix D: Selected Distributions from the Database of Israeli
Families Abroad, 1996–2008
Selected
Data
Total 10
Countries
Chosen Emigration Destination Country
Russian
GerAusBelNetherUS
France
UK
Federmany
tralia
gium
lands
ation
Total
113,836
..67.3 7.6..3 3699. 6699. 76397
76.99 96.63
96..7
96936
% percentages
Religion - % of total emigrants to destination country
Jews
7.9697.
37.7
3..6
37.7
33.3
6..7
.3.6
39..
37.9
33..
Arabs
76663
7.7
..3
7.3
..9
7.9
73.9
7.9
7..
9.6
Others*
.6677
7..
9.7
..6
..3
93..
77.7
9.3
7.6
6.6
Marital status - % of persons aged 15 and over who emigrated to destination country
Single
36399
77.3
99.9
7..9
76.7
7...
7..3
77.3
73.7
9..3
Married
7769.7
39..
67.9
39.7
3..9
66..
63..
39.6
63..
67.9
Divorced
76..6
9.7
9.9
9.7
9.9
..7
7.3
9.7
9.9
7.3
Widowed
79.
..9
..7
..7
...
..9
..9
..7
..7
..7
Number of persons in household - % of total emigrants to destination country
7-9
36...
..9
6.6
..6
..7
73..
73.3
6..
7..
73..
9-7
.76339
76.7
93..
76.7
.9..
...9
...9
73..
93.9
.7.3
.-.
936399
93.7
9...
97..
99.7
7..6
99..
9...
79.3
97..
7+
7.6.99
3.9
7..3
77.3
3..
...
9.3
3.3
77.9
9.9
Country of birth - % of total parents in file who emigrated to destination country
Israel
9.63.9
67.7
93..
...9
...3
76.7
.3.6
.3.6
...3
69.6
Born in and
emigrated to
same
669.7
7..3
79.3
76.7
..6
93.3
3..
77.9
77..
7..6
destination
country
Population Census 1995 - % of emigrants aged 15 and over who emigrated to destination country
13 years and
over of
967.7
.9.7
93.3
.9.3
.9..
.7.9
76.7
...7
76.3
79.7
schooling
Highest
degree:
Second
97.
..3
9..
7.3
79..
7..6
3.6
...
7.7
...
degree or
higher
CBS degree recipients database - % of persons aged 15 and over who emigrated to destination country
Highest
degree:
Second
76777
97.6
96.7
93.7
99.3
93.7
97.7
9..3
97..
96..
degree or
higher
Field of study
for degree:
Humanities,
languages,
9637.
73.9
9..3
97..
9...
93..
93.3
99.6
96.3
9..6
literature, art
Social
sciences,
business and
.693.
93.3
7...
77.3
97.9
77.9
99.3
99.3
7..9
77..
management
science, law
Medicine
796
9..
..3
7..
..3
7.7
7..
9.7
..7
9.9
Absolute
numbers
Canada
Uk-raine
96767
....
7.7
79.9
77..
63.7
..3
...
77.3
.3.7
7..7
..9
9...
93..
...7
77.9
117
Mathematics,
statistics,
computer
science
Physics,
biology
76939
7...
..3
..3
3..
3..
..9
79..
..9
..9
769.7
7..7
3.9
6..
6..
..7
77.7
6.3
9.3
..3
* Non-Arab Christians, members of other religions, and not classified by religion in the
Population Register.
118