Volume 14 | Issue 7 | Number 5 | Apr 01, 2016
The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus
A New Cultural Geography of East Asia: Imagining A 'Region'
through Popular Culture
Nissim Otmazgin
circulation of popular culture products, such as
Summary
movies, pop music, animation, comics, television
The majority of studies on regional formation in
programs, and fashion magazines, not to mention
East Asia (both Northeast and Southeast Asia)
their derivative products such as games, food,
have focused on economic integration and
toys, accessories, etc. The "Korean Wave," better
institutional build-up initiated by states.
known as "Hallyu", which is the focus of this
Developments in the field of contemporary
special issue, constitutes an important part of
society and culture, however, have been largely
these developments. While many of these
overlooked. This study seeks to shed light on the
popular culture confluences and "waves"
way popular culture influences our perception of
originated in Europe and the United States, a
regions by examining some recent developments
significant proportion is now produced and
in the study of translational dissemination of
disseminated locally or within the Asian region.
popular culture across Asian societies. The paper
Confluences of Korean, Japanese and popular
argues that popular culture plays a constructive
cultures, in particular, have not only intensified
role in shaping the East Asian region by creating
in recent decades, reaching consumers of
transnational markets for cultural commodities
different national and linguistic boundaries, but
and by disseminating communalities of lifestyles
have also inspired a variety of transnational
and concepts, which are based on the experience
popular-culture collaborations and co-
of consuming the same cultural products by
productions involving creative personnel from
different people in different parts of East Asia.
different parts of Asia. The result is that in
virtually every big city in East Asia, it is possible
Introduction
East Asia
1
to find a variety of imported popular cultural
in the last two decades has
products that are regularly disseminated,
experienced a cultural renaissance rooted in
indigenized, hybridized, and consumed.
economic growth and booming urban
Some of these dramatic developments in East
consumerism, and manifested in the dense
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Asia's popular culture market have been well-
have been extensively analyzed in the available
documented and analyzed, especially in
literature, popular culture has not.
anthropology and cultural studies. This literature
Given the long history of dissemination of
provides substantial testimony for the
popular culture across the region, and the more
proliferation of the various popular culture
recent state policy regarding it and the
confluences and contains rich information and
development of major media alliances, why has
analysis relating to the practices and "meanings"
culture barely figured in the critical discussion on
of popular culture in an age of globalization.
region-making? While ASEAN (The Association
These studies have focused mainly on the
of Southeast Asian Nations), for example, has
representational and ideological aspects of
popular
culture,
in
particular
emerged as a hub of East Asian community-
the
building, and to some extent norm-setting, its
consumption/reception of, say, Korean TV
cultural impact as far as popular culture is
dramas, Japanese anime or a Hong Kong-made
concerned has been far less visible. Why so?
movie. The overwhelming majority of the
Given that a large number of people in East Asia
studies, many of them employing a close reading
spend many hours every day in front of their
of media-as-texts, do this kind of analysis
television screens, go to movies, listen to music,
(Otmazgin 2008. Recent examples include Allen
and generally spend more time than before on
and Sakamoto 2006; Fitzsimmons and Lent 2013;
cultural consumption, can't we assume that these
Fung 2013; and Iwabuchi 2004).
practices have an impact on their lives and
perceptions of other places? Perhaps they
Curiously, however, none of these studies of
introduce new images and options and create
popular culture have been incorporated into
new social and symbolic references? To use
political science, economics, and geography
international relations scholar Andrew Hurrel's
disciplines, especially in relation to the processes
term (1994: 65), can we think of popular culture,
of region making. Very few studies have actually
including practices and discourses about popular
looked at the constructive role played by
culture, as creating a sense of "we-ness"?
networks and mechanisms of distribution and
consumption of popular culture in East Asia, or
In the case of East Asia, the dense circulation of
examined the cultural linkages they facilitate
popular culture plays a constructive role in
between communities across this region
shaping the way people perceive a "region." This
(Otmazgin 2013: 3). While issues related to the
circulation has an impact not only on the
impact of trade, finance, industry and technology
institutional aspect of regional formation, e.g. the
on creating an integrated region in East Asia
creation of transnational markets and the
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consequential collaboration between all those
or states-led project designed to reorganize a
involved in this process (companies, agents,
particular regional space along defined economic
promoters, distributors, retailers, etc.), but also
and political lines." Holly Wyatt-Walter (1995: 77)
on the dissemination of lifestyle commonalities
defines regionalism similarly, as "a conscious
and concepts, which are based on the experience
policy of states or sub-state regions to coordinate
of consuming the same cultural products by
activities and arrangements in the greater
different people in different parts of East Asia.
region." Regionalism thus refers to ideological
Popular culture consumption creates a special
and
bond based on a shared experience between
institutionalization and regional identity.
consumers. In this way, the circulation of popular
Regionalism also represents a deliberateattempt
culture puts East Asian fans, especially city
by states or their agents to create formal
residents, into a new cultural realm and
mechanisms for dealing with common issues in
invigorates a feeling of common-ness. This may
the pursuit of mutual benefits.
suggest widening our understanding of a
rhetorical
concepts
of
regional
Regionalization, on the other hand, refers in this
regional "community"-not only people of similar
literature to an indirect and bottom-up process
ethnic, national, or local belonging but a
that increases the proximity between markets,
community of people from different locations
institutions, and communities, in geographical
who are exposed to the same cultural
and conceptual domains broader than two states.
commodities and share the consequential
perceptions, lifestyles and thoughts they offer.
The majority of studies of region-making in East
Specifically regarding Hallyu, this paper suggests
Asia have concentrated on the process of
that cultural consumption is creating a sense of
building regional institutions through trade
community among fans in the sense that it serves
mechanisms and regime build-up initiated by
as a shared language for transnational
national governments (Liu and Régnier 2003;
communication that enhances a sense of "we-
Yoshimatsu 2008: 24). Others argue that "regional
ness" and, at least for some, eventually
dynamism" and cross-border economic activities,
constitutes part of their identity.
more than formal agreements between
governments or a shared historical or cultural
What constitutes the "region" of East Asia?
"Asian" background, have promoted formation of
According to Anthony Payne and Andrew
the region (for example, Buzan 1998; Frost 2008;
Gamble's (2004: 16) definition of regionalism,
Funabashi 1993; Harvie, Kimura, and Lee 2005;
which is typical of the international relations (IR)
and Pempel 2005). This sort of market-led
approach to this term, "Regionalism is a state-led
regional dynamism continues despite an obvious
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lack of strong regional institutionalization in East
requires a methodological and interdisciplinary
Asia-especially when compared to the EU.
pluralism that considers a variety of possible
(Katzenstein 2005).
regionalizing factors, including new definitions
for regions. As contested by Peter J. Katzenstein,
However, the construction of regions is not only
"geographic designations are not "real", "natural",
the result of economic dynamism and state-led
or "essential", but are "socially constructed and
initiatives, but also other processes emerging
politically contested and thus open to change"
from populations within a certain geographical
(Katzenstein, 1997: 7). In the following
area (Hettne 2005: 548). Cultural anthropologist
paragraphs I suggest that popular culture is one
Arjun Appadurai challenges the theoretical
such force, nested within other factors and
understanding of regional formation, arguing
processes, which shape the way the East Asian
that the concept of the region is not based on any
region is being appropriated and perceived.
"natural" formation and that there is no way that
regions should be defined. According to him,
Popular culture and region-making
"the large regions that dominate our current
Looking at the regional flow of popular culture in
maps for area studies are not permanent
East Asia, especially in cities, may advance our
geographical facts[…]Regions are best viewed as
empirical and theoretical understanding of how
initial contexts for themes that generate variable
regionalization actually works and more
geographies, rather than as fixed geographies
basically what constitutes a "region." For one
marked by pre-given themes" (Appadurai, 2000:
thing, it overturns conventional wisdom on who
7). In this sense, academic interaction is
the driving forces and actors of integration are,
important to "hav[ing] elaborated interests and
showing that regionalization rather than
capabilities in constructing world pictures whose
regionalism is a superior concept for
very interaction affects global processes" (Ibid:
understanding this part of the world. Such
13). Here Appadurai conveys the idea of regional
investigation redirects one's attention away from
formation being a matter of attribute emanating
the state and highly institutionalized
from social and cultural interactions and not by
arrangements and looks instead at the more
state actors or economic activity. Although
dispersed agency involved in the creation and
Appadurai does not clearly explain how regions
marketing of culturally oriented commodities.
should be defined, his vision is far-reaching in
Examining the actual operations and networks
the challenge he presents to the theoretical
which drive the dissemination and consumption
literature.
of popular culture not only reveals the bottom-up
The study of regional formation in East Asia thus
logic of regionalization, but also illuminates the
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actual practices and processes of regionalism. It
images, and texts available through music and
shows the collaboration and interlinking of
smartphones, TV and movie screens, in comic
companies, the creation of transnational cultural
publications, on commercial billboards, or via the
platforms, the distribution of products, and the
Internet. These commodities and images do not
(belated) policy initiatives of governments.
have to be uniquelyEast Asian, as long as they are
shared by wide segments of the East Asian
population.
Figure 1. The culture of consumerism in East Asian cities
Secondly, popular culture play a constructive
role in pulling people closer together by
Figure 2. Asian pop music in a Music Shop in Hong Kong
providing them with a shared experience
Third, the growing involvement of a few states in
invigorated by the consumption of cultural
East Asia in the media and cultural industries has
commodities. The commodification, production,
intensified the inner-regional flow of popular
marketing, pirating, and consumption of popular
culture. Following the commercial success of
cultures first encourage collaborations between
these industries, the governments of South
companies and individuals involved in these
Korea, Japan, and China now see popular
processes. Moreover, these activities also
cultural products as both a profitable economic
construct new frameworks for delivering images,
sector and a means to attain "soft power." Recent
ideas, and emotions, which can invigorate
initiatives by these governments indicate that
feelings of proximity and belonging. In a free-
they actively intervene in order to foster the
market economy, dense (and often uncontrolled)
growth of this sector within their national
circulation of popular culture has the potential to
economies and are developing their own export-
weaken individual states' control over the inflow
oriented cultural industries for specific purposes
of culture and hamper their efforts to utilize
(Otmazgin 2011). In Japan, for example, no fewer
culture for their own purposes, such as nation-
than thirteen governmental ministries and
building. In other words, it creates a new sort of
agencies are in one way or another involved in
community that stretches beyond the reach of the
promoting the so-called "content industries"
state and may challenge it. The spread of popular
(Zykas 2011). A recent example is the
culture help people in East Asia to develop a
establishment in July 2011 of the Creative
common language made up of the same sounds,
Industries Division within the Ministry of
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Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), to
cultural power, regional popular culture
supervise the promotion of "cool" Japan abroad
confluences have also developed and intensified,
and assist Japanese small and midsize culture-
substantially decentralizing the world's cultural
related firms develop a global strategy. In South
structure and refuting the notion that East Asia's
Korea, the government is promoting the
popular culture scene will continue to be
country's "creative industries" (music, movies,
dominated by American or Western cultures.
television etc.) as an export industry by investing
Most visible are Chinese, Japanese, and of course
in infrastructure and sponsoring promotional
Hallyu, which have reached global audiences in
campaigns abroad (Shim 2008: 30). According to
Europe, North and South America, and even the
Korea Finance Corporation, in 2012 the Korean
Middle East. Their greatest visibility and impact
game industry's exports reached US$2.6 billion,
still remains within the cultural geography of
the music industry exported US$235 million,
East Asia (Lent and Fitzsimmons 2012; Fung
while exports of TV shows and Korean dramas
2013).
reached US$234 million and movies were about
The growth in intra-regional trade and
US$ 20 million (Ha 2014). In China, following the
consumption of popular culture in East Asia is
country's entry into the World Trade
related to several socio-cultural and technological
Organization (WTO) in 2001, the state has
changes. These include the emergence of a large
permitted foreign companies to own up to 49
pool of middle-class consumers who have time
percent of film companies, which has helped
and money to spend, the advent of social media
open the market and initiate new productions (Su
where cultural content is delivered and
2014). These all are expected to boost popular
consumed almost instantly, the dissemination of
culture production in East Asia even further and
accessible devices for consuming popular culture
increase governmental involvement. Let us look
such as DVD players and smart phones, and the
next at East Asia's popular culture market more
easing of political control over the importation of
closely.
culture as part of neo-liberal policies toward the
media industries (Chua 2000; Jin 2007; Otmazgin
The regionalization of taste
and Ben-Ari 2012). These have all encouraged
In East Asia, as in other parts of the world,
entrepreneurs, as well as the popular culture
American popular culture continues to loom over
industries and their promoters, to seek new
the markets. American products are successfully
expansion opportunities beyond their immediate
marketed in most places where local income
domestic market.
levels have reached a certain standard. However,
Chinese popular culture, now freed from the
in spite of the global projection of America's
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totalitarian understanding of culture and the arts
approximately 80 percent of sales of Mandarin
and its complete subjection to the desires of the
music. China's young generation of movie
Chinese Communist Party, has been flourishing,
directors is producing a wide range of films
not only in Mainland Chinabut also along
dealing with social issues related to
China's economic sphere in other parts of Asia.
contemporary Chinese society. For example,
China's economic ties with the rest of East Asia
many movies deal with China's Cultural
provide the infrastructure for the spread of
Revolution in a way that leaves no doubt as to
Chinese popular culture as well. In turn, the
the critical way they see this period (Tobari 2007).
feedback from Asian audiences encourages
The Chinese comic-book industry (manhua)
cultural creativity in China and convinces the
initially absorbed many influences from Japanese
Chinese industries to look beyond their
manga starting as far back as the 1960s, but has
immediate domestic audiences. The culture and
recently been developing its own recognizable
entertainment sections of local newspapers in
identity away from the Japanese model (Berndt
Singapore, Bangkok, and Manila constantly
2012). In 1993, the first Chinese manga magazine
depict Chinese music, TV, and movie artists,
was launched (manga taisho/ manga king),
making Pan-Asian Chinese pop culture a reality.
which included not only manga translated from
The fact that the non-China Chinese popular
Japanese but also original stories by young
culture is sometimes glitzier and more fluid,
Chinese manga artists (Seno 2007: 115-116). This
makes it popular among Chinese in China and
new creativity is expressed not only in a wide
eventually contributes to the melding of
range of movie, anime, TV and comic-book
transnational Chinese audiences from different
productions but also in urban theater shows
parts of East Asia.
dealing with contemporary social issues, as well
as contemporary arts and avant gardeculture in
Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Taipei have
urban studios, such as 798 art villagein Beijing.
evolved as incubator sites for Chinese cultural
These processes create a sort of Chinese popular
production, especially in animation, digital
culture language regionalism that encompass
television, and video games, in spite of the state
different parts of East Asia.
censorship that still sometimes interferes.
Chinese pop music, in both Mandarin and
Cantonese, is increasingly popular among young
Chinese audiences in East Asia. Taiwan has
recently replaced Hong Kong as the regional hub
of Mandarin-language pop and is the source of
Figure 3. Japanese fashion magazines sold in Hong Kong
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Japanese cultural products are widely distributed
adding a variety of new images and consumption
throughout East Asia. During the 1990s and the
opportunities. With a marketing strategy that
early 2000s, Japanese music, television programs,
mixes television exposure, commercials, and
animation, and comics have carved out an
music, South Korean idols have also become
integral position in East Asian markets,
phenomenally popular throughout the region.
introducing young consumers to a variety of new
Wŏn Pin and Sŏng Sǔng-hǒn, for example, are
consumption opportunities and lifestyles.
widely known to young audiences for their parts
Japanese music artists, such as Hamasaki Ayumi
in the hit television drama Autumn Fairy Tale
and Utada Hikaru are widely known in the
(2000). Other famous South Korean idols include
region. (Utada Hikaru has sold more than one
Chang Dong-gǒn (Friend), Cha T'ae-hyǒn (My
million copies of her three albums over the last
Sassy Girl), Lee Chǒng-jae (Il Mare), Kwǒn Sang-u
six years in Thailand alone!) Japanese television
(My Tutor Friend) and Pae Yong-jun (Winter
programs and animation series such as Doraemon,
Sonata). More recently, the phenomenal success
Tiger Mask, and Detective Conanare constantly
of Psy's "Gangnam Style," has brought Korean
broadcast on public television and cable channels
pop to the heart of the mainstream, both in Asia
in Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
and beyond. Even more recently, Korean fashion
Japanese manga are routinely translated into
is also gaining momentum. Korean designers'
Thai, Bahasa, and Tagalog too. Japanese fashion
brands such as Lie Sang Bong, Doii, Big Park,
magazines are also an effective distribution of
Kumann Yoo Hye-jin, Steve J and Yoni P,
contemporary culture and lifestyle. In bookshops
pushbutton, ARCHE, and Ko Soyǒng are
and kiosks across this region's big cities, it is
massively imported and sold in fashion shops
possible to find translated or original versions of
across Asia together with orchestrated campaigns
famous Japanese fashion magazines such as
presenting the latest work by young Korean
CanCan, JJ, ViVi, COOL, Cutie, Vita, Myojo, Brand,
designers.2
and nonno, which keep East Asian youth updated
These popular culture confluences create a new
about the latest fashions from Tokyo.
economy of products shared by a selective
In recent years, Korean popular culture is also
section of the population-especially young urban
leaving a strong mark on East Asia's cultural
residents with an elevated standard of living.
scene, creating the Hallyu, as it is known among
Increasingly for these people, popular-culture
fans. In about a decade, South Korean television
consumerism has become an integral way of life,
dramas, movies, music, and fashion have gained
which creates a bond with other people who
immense popularity throughout the region,
share the same urban lifestyle. In other words, for
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them, popular culture has become an important
the same genre of music as teenagers. If they
factor in value production-not only in the
eventually meet, they will have a lot more in
economic sense but also in the social and cultural
common than if these products had not been
sense. East Asia's culture and media industries,
available.
for their part, are encouraged by both market
Imagining the East Asia region through popular
forces and by their respective governments to
culture
think beyond their immediate domestic markets
and seek opportunities in new markets in Asia.
A few important questions arise from the
Put differently, these developments encourage
relationship between popular culture and the
trans-nationality where the nation state ceases to
regionalization process in East Asia: Is popular
be the main framework of production and
culture a significant enough phenomenon that it
consumption and, instead, foreign audiences are
should be recognized as contributing to the
considered by producers to be an integral part of
creation of this specific "region"? Is popular
their popular-culture community.
culture important enough to make people within
East Asia feel distinct and share a common
identity? Is popular culture's distinctiveness
based in the fact that its consumption, even more
than its production, is value-shaping to a greater
degree than other products? The available
Figure 4. Anime gathering (cosplay) in Bangkok
literature on popular culture only partly
As a result of all this activity, East Asian urban
addresses these questions while, as noted above,
consumers today have multiple popular culture
the political science literature on regions ignores
preferences, deriving from multiple centers.
them altogether. While cognizant of the region-
Millions of youth in places like Singapore, Hanoi,
specific cultural resonance and asymmetry of
Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, and Jakarta can covet
intra-Asian flows, the literature on popular
the latest fashions from Tokyo, listen to the same
culture in East Asia does not systematically
genre of American pop music, watch Chinese
explore the implications of popular culture for
dramas on television or online, read Japanese
regionalization. However, the statistics on the
comic books, and go with friends to watch the
export of Japanese and Korean TV programs, for
latest Korean movie. Through the dissemination
example, suggest that there is a geographical
of popular culture, people in different places can,
reach, scope and limit to the networking and
for example, watch a certain genre of animation
patterns of popular culture flow and
program throughout their childhood and listen to
consumption, that is creating an imagined East
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Asian region. The geographical field tends to
isolated from economic and cultural
vary from one product to another, however, as
developments in the wider Asian region or
does the density and directionality of this flow.
globally. Nevertheless, there is a concentration of
The East Asia "region" is thus a convenient but
certain popular culture flows and influences
notoriously slippery term, since Japanese and
found most intensively in the cultural geography
Korean popular culture flows have less visibility
of urban East Asia (such as Japanese fashion
in, say, Cambodia, Myanmar or the Indian
magazines, Chinese pop music, and Korean idol
market, than they do in Taiwan, China, and the
culture).
major cities of East Asia.
The fact that a common popular culture is central
Nevertheless, a few important conclusions can be
to the lives of many consumers in East Asia,
drawn by looking at the dissemination and
especially in cities, suggests that region-making
acceptance of popular culture across East Asia.
is not simply a matter of institutionalization but
First, market forces-and not governmental
also of practice. Rather than viewing region-
policies-are at the heart of the process, promoting
making as simply the deterritorialization and
and spurring the construction of new cultural
disentanglement of national boundaries by
linkages. The dissemination of popular culture in
economic and political forces, as typically
East Asia is essentially the result of bottom-up
described in the literature on region-making in
processes not directly guided by the states-and at
East Asia, we can also view it as something that
times even taking place in spite of them. Second,
happens through the cumulative practices of
as noted above, the dissemination of popular
groups of people who, over a period of time, are
culture is centered on cities and their middle
geared toward some common lifestyle.
class residents rather than encompassing the
Consequently, as Alder and Greve argue (2009:
entire population as a whole. In this sense, the
59), the boundaries of regions may be determined
regional acceptance of popular culture in East
by the practices that constitute them, a pattern of
Asia is fragmented: a certain part of the
relations indicative of what Emilian Kavalski
population (overwhelmingly urban middle
(2009: 10) calls "community of practice."
classes) are more "regionalized" than those who
The dissemination and acceptance of popular
live in rural areas because they are more exposed
culture may also introduce a new meaning to the
to the transnational flow of popular culture. This
concept of "community" as not only a group of
connective-ness between cities and their
people living under the banner of the nation state
inhabitants is not an equal process, but a socially
or belonging to a certain ethnicity or religion, but
selective one. Third, the East Asian region is not
also urban residents living in different cities in
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different countries bound by shared behaviors
Berndt, Jaqueline (ed). 2012. Mahwa, Manga,
and practices encouraged by the inflow and
Manhua: East Asian Comic Studies
. Leipziger
practice of popular culture. This definition,
Universitaetsvlg.
however, points to the creation of large swathes
Buzan, Barry. 1998. "The Asia-Pacific: What Sort
of excluded populations that are not part of
of Region in What Sort of World?" In Asia-Pacific
urban popular culture consumer culture.
in the New World Order
, ed. Anthony McGrew
In summary, conceptualizing East Asia as a
and Brook Christopher. London and New York:
region based on popular culture requires going
Routledge.
beyond the conventional tools provided by
Chua, Beng-Huat. 2000. "Consuming Asians:
geographers and scholars of international
Ideas and Issues." In Consumption in Asia:
relations (IR) and requires a methodologically
Lifestyles and Identities
, Beng-Huat Chua, ed. 1–34.
pluralistic approach open to considering how a
(London: Routledge).
variety of socially and culturally embedded
practices and behaviors affect regional formation.
Chua, Beng Huat, and Koichi Iwabuchi. 2008.
Recommended citation: Nissim Otmazgin, "A New
"Introduction: East Asian TV Dramas:
Identifications, Sentiments and Effects." In East
Cultural Geography of East Asia: Imagining A
Asian Pop Culture: Analysing the Korean Wave,
'Region' through Popular Culture",The Asiaedited by Beng Huat Chua and Koichi Iwabuchi,
Pacific Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 7, No. 5, April 1,
1–12. Aberdeen: Hong Kong University Press.
2016.
Fitzsimmons, Lorna and John Lent (eds.). 2013.
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Notes
reviewers for excellent comments on previous
versions of this paper.
SPECIAL FEATURE
Hallyu: The Korean Wave and Asia (2 of 6)
Jooyeon Rhee and Nissim Otmazgin, "Expanding Transnational Dialogue in Asia through
Hallyu." (http://apjjf.org/2016/07/Rhee-1.html)
Mary J. Ainslie, "K-dramas across Thailand: Constructions of Koreanness and Thainess by
contemporary Thai consumers." (http://apjjf.org/2016/07/Ainslie.html)
Millie Creighton, "Through the Korean Wave Looking Glass: Gender, Consumerism,
Transnationalism, Tourism Reflecting Japan-Korea Relations in Global East Asia."
(http://apjjf.org/2016/07/Creighton.html)
Chikako Nagayama, "Women's Desire, Heterosexual Norms and Transnational Feminism:
(http://apjjf.org/2016/07/Nagayama.html)
Kitahara Minori's Good-bye Hallyu
." (http://apjjf.org/2016/07/Nagayama.html)
Jooyeon Rhee, "Gendering Multiculturalism: Representation of Migrant Workers and Foreign
Brides in Korean Popular Films. (http://apjjf.org/2016/07/Rhee-2.html)
Dr. Nissim Otmazgin is Senior Lecturer and Chair of the Department of Asian Studies at the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His research interests include popular culture and
regionalization in Asia, cultural industry and cultural policy in Japan and Korea. He is the author
14
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APJ | JF
of Regionalizing Culture: the Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in(University
Asia
of
Hawai'i Press, 2013), and co-editor (with Eyal Ben-Ari) of Popular Culture and the State in East and
Southeast Asia(Routledge, 2012) and Popular Culture Co-Productions and Collaborations in East and
Southeast Asia(NUS Press and Kyoto University Press, 2013). His recent book (edited with
Rebecca Suter), is titled Stories for the Nation: Rewriting History in Manga
(Palgrave-Macmillan,
forthcoming).
Notes
1
In this paper, "East Asia" refers to both Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia, especially to urban
centers, which are the main sites for the reproduction and consumption of imported popular
cultures.
2
Lee, Woo-young. "Hallyu Buoys Korean Fashion," The Korea Herald
, March 28, 2013, pp. 1, 6.
15