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
Cognitive Processes
 Schemes: actions or mental representations that organize
knowledge
 Behavioral schemes (physical activities) characterize infancy
 Consist of simple actions that can be performed on objects such as
sucking and grasping
Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy
 Mental schemes (cognitive activities) develop in childhood
 Include strategies and plans for solving problems
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
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Cognitive Processes

2
Cognitive Processes
 Organization: the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts
into a higher-order system
 Assimilation: occurs when children use their existing schemes
to deal with new information or experiences
 Equilibration and Stages of Development:
 Accommodation: occurs when children adjust their schemes to
take new information and experiences into account
 Equilibration: the mechanism by which children shift from one
stage of thought to the next
 According to Piaget, individuals go through four stages of
development
 Cognition is qualitatively different from one stage to another
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Sensorimotor Substages

The Sensorimotor Stage: infant cognitive development
lasting from birth to 2 years
 Infants construct an understanding of the world by
coordinating
g sensoryy experiences
p
with physical,
p y
, motoric
actions
 Divided into six substages
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Object Permanence

The Sensorimotor Stage
 Object Permanence: the understanding that objects continue to
exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched
 Developed by the end of the sensorimotor period
 Studied by watching infant’s reaction when an interesting object
disappears
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Object Permanence

Conditioning:
 Classical and operant conditioning vs. information retention

Attention: the focusing of mental resources on select
information
 Orienting/investigative process
 Sustained attention
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Attention

 Habituation and Dishabituation
Attention
 Joint Attention: individuals focus on the same object or event
 Infants’ attention is strongly governed by novelty and habituation
 Requires an ability to track another’s behavior
 Habituation: decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated
presentations
 One person directs another’s attention
 Dishabituation: increased responsiveness after a change in
stimulation
 Reciprocal interaction
 Can help parents interact effectively with infants
 Increases infants’ ability to learn from other people
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
Memory: retention of information over time

Imitation:
 Meltzoff: infants’ imitative abilities are biologically based and
are characterized by flexibility and adaptability
 Encoding: the process by which information gets into memory
 Implicit memory: memory without conscious recollection

 Explicit memory: conscious memory of facts and experiences
 Infantile or childhood amnesia: inability to recall memories of
events that occurred before 3 years of age
Deferred Imitation: imitation that occurs after a time
delay of hours or days
 Piaget: deferred imitation does not occur until about 18 months
 Meltzoff: research suggests it can occur as early as 9 months
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
Concept Formation and Categorization

 Categories: groups of objects, events, and characteristics on the
basis of common properties
14
Measures of Infant Development
 Gesell Test measures four categories of behavior: motor,
language, adaptive, and personal–social
 Concepts: ideas about what categories represent
 Bayley Scales of Infant Development measures five scales:
cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, and adaptive
 Perceptual categorization: based on similar perceptual features
of objects
 Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence evaluates an infant’s ability to
process information
 Conceptual categorization: by 7–9 months, infants can
categorize objects even though they are perceptually similar
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

Predicting Intelligence
 Infant tests contain items related to perceptual-motor
development and include measures of social interaction rather
than
h verbal
b l ability
bili
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Language: a form of communication – whether spoken,
written, or signed – that is based on a system of symbols.
Consists of words used by a community and the rules for
varying and combining them
 Infinite Generativity: the ability to produce an endless number
of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules
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
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How Language Develops
 Recognizing language sounds
 Infants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of the
language
g g
 Babbling and other vocalizations
 Sequence of sounds
 Crying
 Cooing
 Babbling
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
How Language Develops
 Gestures are used by about 8 to 12 months
 Pointing is considered an important index of the social aspect of
language
g g
 First words:
 Children understand first words earlier than they speak them
 A child understands about 50 words by age 13 months and 200
words by 2 years of age
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How Language Develops
 First Words
 Overextension: tendency to apply a word to objects that are
inappropriate for the word’s meaning
 Underextension:
U d
t i
tendency
t d
to
t apply
l a wordd too
t narrowly
l
 Two-Word Utterances
 Occur at about 18–24 months
 Child relies on gesture, tone, and context
 Telegraphic speech: use of short and precise words without
grammatical markers
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
Biological and Environmental Influences
 Biological Influences:
 Evolution of nervous system and vocal apparatus
 Particular brain regions used for language:
 Broca’s area: language production
 Wernicke’s area: language comprehension
 Language Acquisition Device (LAD; Noam Chomsky): theory that a
biological endowment enables children to detect certain features and
rules of language
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Biological and Environmental Influences
 Environmental Influences:
 Behaviorists claim language is a complex learned skill acquired
through responses and reinforcements
 N
No llonger considered
id d a viable
i bl explanation
l ti off how
h children
hild
acquire
i
language
 Interaction view (Tomasello): children learn language in specific
contexts
 Children’s vocabulary is linked to family socioeconomic status and
the type of talk parents direct toward their children
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
Biological and Environmental Influences

Biological and Environmental Influences
 Three strategies to enhance child’s acquisition of language:
 Recasting: rephrasing something the child has said
 Environmental Influences:
 Child-Directed Speech: language spoken in a higher pitch than
normal with simple
p words and sentences
 Expanding state: repeating what the child has said but in correct
structure
 Captures infant’s attention and maintains communication
 Labeling: identifying the names of objects

An Interactionist View
 Biology and experience contribute to language development
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