Niger Delta Journal of Education (NIDJOE) Vol. 3 No. 1
SATIRE AS A PREDOMINANT MODE OF LITERARY EXPRESSION IN AFRICA:
PERSPECTIVES FROM IJAW WAR SONGS OF OFONI CONFEDERATED
COMMUNITIES IN SAGBAMA L.G.A, BAYELSA STATE AND ESIABA IROBI'S
COTYLEDONS
By
Com Sapele O. Wilfred
Amange, B. Ephriam
And
Mrs Ajoko Laura
Abstract
This study preoccupies itself with the issue of satire as a predominant mode of iiterary
expression in Africa, using Ijaw war songs of Ofoni confederated communities in
Sagbama L.G.A, Bayelsa State and Esiaba Irobi's Cotyledons as reference points._The
study in an effort to achieve this objective begins with a review of satire, heiping us to
appreciate critics' views on it. The study also looks at Ijaw oral songs, particularly war
songs, drawing examples from those found among the people of Ofoni confederated
communities in Bayelsa State, Nigeria'. The researcher through personal interviews and
interaction with some Ijaws of Ofoni confederated communities extraction is able to get
some Ijaw war songs, which are translated in this study for the purpose of general
understanding and appreciation of their satiric role. The study also focuses attention on
Esiaba Irobi's Cotyledons^ which is a poem-coilection, employed to satirize the bad
leadership system in Africa (Nigeria). The study concludes by affirming satire as a true
literary mode of expression used in iiterary work, to bring about the reordering of our
society.
Satire is a literary technique employed by literary artists to comment on human conduct
in the society. It is used to ridicule human vices, and by so doing, help in redirecting
human action towards achieving positive goals. According to Abrams(1957), satire is:
...the iiterary art of diminishing a subject by making it ridiculous
and evoking towards it attitudes of amusement, contempt,
indignation or scorn. (169)
Stein berg (1953) notes that satire is a "... literary form designed to incite contempt,
amusement or disgust at what is ridiculous or unseemly" (501).
When Steinberg talks about inciting contempt, he means that the satirist does look at his
environment critically and anything he finds to be ridiculous, he does not waste time in
satirizing it.
From this, we notice that satire, as an aspect of iiterary style, helps the society to look
closely at itself. It is a mirror through which the society sees itself. Though much
emphasis is placed on some of those human weaknesses obtained in human conduct in
society, the central objective of satire is to change them.
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Satire also alms at purging the pent-up emotions of human beings and our society.
Beyond this, satire helps man to revolt against his human vices for the purpose or
helping the society to be better. This view Is well attested to by Smith (1978), when he
tries to create a relationship between tragedy and satire.
According to him.
Satire like tragedy takes seriously
man's condition. Satire, It has
been argued, recognizes an
unending conflict between the
greatness of man and his baseness (136).
The Implication of comparing satire with tragedy Is that It compels us to appreciate those
aspects of human conduct that require serious attention. Satire uses laughter as a
means of drawing our attention to some of the evils found In our society. A satirist
believes that human society contains evils resulting from man's Imperfect actions as he
orders and records the events of his life - situations, attention, therefore, should be
drawn to them through satire, for their eradication.
Satire provides a satisfaction quite different from what we experience with less cerebral
forms of humour, hardly would you get a pleasure like that of Inflicting Intellectual
torment on one's adversaries, proving them wrong and rendering them ridiculous.
Due to Its allusive complexity and subtlety, Satire's Insulting humour may surprise may
surprise an unsuspecting victim. The satirical blade, according to Stein (2000)
Cuts deeply, littering the field with the
sheds of an opponent's politics.
Intellect or pride. Satire Is the most
gratlfylngly bellicose of the belles
letters (1)
Although the satiric sense of humour can be vicious. Satire Is said to provide a relatively
benign emotional vent for civilization and Its malcontents. Stein observes that:
The amount and type of
emotional energy which Is
fashioned into satirical Inventive
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Niger Delta Journal of Education (NIDJOE) Vol.3 No. 1
reveals not only the splendid
literary mind of any great satirist,
but also a highly - evolved, finely
tuned and non-violent means of
discharging unisanthropic impulses (1).
It is significant to observe that scholars differ in their views concerning the origin of
satire. It is the argument of Dryden (1962) that satire is of universal origin and began
with Adam and Eve when they turned and railed at one another after their great fall at
the Garden of Eden.
Elkin maintains that ''Satire originated from Ancient Greece" (13). He draws his
examples from the work of Aesop's Joy and Sour Grapes. This view is attested to by
Taiwo (1990) who states that "Literary history does inform us ... that satirical usages
were part of folk culture especially of course the inevitable Greek culture where satirical
usages were specifically located with Grecian fertility rites" (213).
Elements of satire include: attack detachment and indignation, humour, irony, burlesque
and Invective. Attack is an important element of Satire. According to New Standard
Encyclopedia, "The satirist writes to show his disapproval of somebody or something and
to make the reader feel annoyance, disgust, or anger against the object of attack" (146).
The object of attack may be a person, a group of people or all mankind. It may also be a
custom, philosophy, social institution or an art form. The satirist, using the mode of
attack, does not give an impartial analysis of the object balancing the good against the
bad, although he may pretend to do so for greater satirical effect.
As Nwoga(1971) rightly points out:
Whatever the correct effect of satire in
the community, the basic element or
motivating factor to satirical expression
is more the desire to attack and punish
than to correct (16).
It is noteworthy that detachment and indirection are found in all satirical works. In
making use of these satirical elements, the satirist maintains a calm, detached matterof-fact tone and avoids direct invective and simple accusation, despite the fact that he
may be furious.
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Niger Delta Journal ofEducation (N1D]0E) Vol. 3 No. 1
Humour, as an element of satire, varies in tone from the mildly amusing to the grirnly
sardonic. It helps to sustain the elements of detachment and is normally associated with
irony.
Irony, for Hans is "the presentation ofcontradictory meanings and situations to realize a
striking effect" (345). However, ironic effect, particularly In fiction, is often sustained and
maintained by the writer's preference of ignorance or naive acceptance of the views or
behaviour that he is against.
Invective is another element of satire. It is often a forthright and abusive language
directed to a person or a cause. As a formal censure. Its main pre-occupation Is to rnake
a sudden harsh revelation of a damaging truth. It is one of the simplest forms of direct
satire that the satirist makes use of in his work of art.
Satire is of a great importance to human society. This is because the object of satire, as
Taiwo (1990) rightly points out,
...has also been to censor. In this
Horace and funeral are united.
Specifically, satire was to strike
high and adventure dangerously at
the most eminent vices among the
greatest persons. The function
of satire is ... to attack and even rail
at folly and vices (26).
This not withstanding, satire is employed to restore truth and decency in our society.
This is well attested to by Kernan (1992) when he observes that
in the satirist's vision, the word decency is forever in a precarious position" (168). The
implication of this is that satire is employed to encourage decency in the society.
The satirist uses the society as his play ground. Through his satirical work, he hopes to
bring about positive changes in the society. The society consists of an individual, groups
and institutions, whose misconduct he corrects. It is In line with this that Elliot argues
that the satirist is a public servant fighting for the
good against vice and folly wherever he encounters them. He also believes that the
satirist is a morai man appailed by the evil he perceives around him, and he is mandated
by his conscience to write satire.
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Niger Delta Journal of Education (NIDJOE) Vol. 3 No. 1
Elliot quoted Swift (1704) as saying that:
Satire is a sort of glass, where in
beholders do generally discover
every body's face but their own,
which is the world and that so very
few are offended with it (153).
Most African writers employ satire in their works of art. They use it to ridicule the vices
obtainable in the society. Writing about this, Mohamadou (1973) has this to say:
... the works of recent years reflected so very clearly
... the author's satirical Intention, which
we see in impassioned writing
and fine irony (53).
The satire is a protest art. As Taiwo rightly notes, "Satire never approves.
It is indeed born of the instinct to protest. It is protest become art" (26).
This goes to say that satire is used to protest against the evil in our
society.
It is significant to note that most oral artists employ the technique of satire in their
works. Through this satire, they evaluate human conduct In the society, pointing out its
strengths and weaknesses. Since the oral artist aims at correcting the society, he
ridicules the vices in the society, and offers room for social change.
This means that there is a mutual relationship between the oral artist and the society
that produces him. The society expects the oral artist, for instance an oral singer, to
recreate it (society) through the use of fine talents. The oral singer, according to Jasper
Onuekwusi,
is regarded as a visionary as well as a
technician especially in apt use of verbal
resources available to him and the
society, he is expected to keep the
repertoire of society's verbal image
available and in addition invent and add
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Niger Delta Journal of Education (NIDJOE) Vol. 3 No. 1
to it, emphasizing at each point, its
aesthetic qualities that make it a tool for
communication that can lift man from
the drudgery of everyday life (18).
Again, as a visionary, the poet-singer is seen as some one who sees far ahead the way
society will go. He exposes societal problems through his compositions. In these
compositions, he reflects the nature of his society in all of its ramifications. He evaluates
the tradition, ideas and works of his society.
Significantly, the oral poet who recreates the society through his songs, is also being
constantly formed or shaped by the realities of time, in fact, by his society, of which he
is a member.
He inherits and contributes to its dynamism. He partakes in a common
linguistic and cultural heritage with the other members of his society. Some of the things
he shares with them include: proverbs, riddles, folktales, legend, myth, metaphor and
other profound resources of language for expressing feelings, knowledge and experience.
In addition to this, he partakes in his society's value system, history prejudices, and
preferences. It is basically these values that he shares with members of his society that
empower him to rebuild the society, based on his personal vision of what the society
should be like. As he does this, the society sees him as someone who can see far ahead,
a person who sees the problems of society, and formulates ways of evading these
problems, so that the quality of life in society might be improved. The society also sees
him as a person who preserves the resources of language available to him and
emphasizes the aesthetic qualities of his language as a tool for composition.
Thus satire is a very important lever, which the Ijaw oral poet must lay the bulk of his
artistic weight on, if he should be committed to his society. He must give vent to his
feelings in songs either of happiness or sorrow, correct his erring companions through
satire and ridicule, and point the right way to follow.
Again, the Ijaw oral poet should play the dual roles of a cultural nationalist as well as a
teacher. As the custodian of his people's tradition, he should, the same time, as a
teacher, point to his people through his song the new way they can follow to improve on
their lives.
For purposes of illustration, we shall consider some Ijaw oral songs that centre on war.
They are generally referred to as war songs. The songs are basically found from among
the Ofoni-Tarakiri people of Sagbama in Bayeisa State, Nigeria. Our Interest here is to
isolate some indices of satire in the war songs, and to indicate how the Ijaw war singers
used them to transform their society.
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Niger Delta journal of Education (NIDJOE) Vol. 3 No.1
War songs according to Onuekwusi (2001)are ''short repetitive lots of
warriors with confidence and ensure coiiective violent action" (100).
saying that war songs help warriors to have courage whenever they
war. It helps them to have that conviction that they would fight as a
songs that fill the
This is a way of
are preparing for
group and at the
same time, win as a group.
War songs are usually fast, racy, and brief. Again, they have fixed modes of utterances
that sometimes allow very little room for improvisation. Their forms and manners of
delivery are fairly rigid. War songs are normally built on the desire for achievements and
heroism. According to Awoonor (1975), a war song is "calculated to frighten the enemy,
to instill the spirit of bravery into the hearts of warriors, and to recall the heroic deeds of
the past" (88).
This means that war songs are used to put fear into the lives of the enemy force. They
are used to make the enemy force shiver and lose control of their strategies. It is as a
result of this that war songs are normally followed by a chorus or yells. Chukwuma
(1994) notes that a war song has three parts, these are:
1.
Prayer to the deities of war for protection and guidance
2.
The rallying song, urging warriors to assemble for the fight and inciting
them to more action
3.
Either the victory song when success is scored and booty is shared or
lament when the fallen are carried home (35).
Warriors are usually encouraged to put the welfare of the entire members of the society
before their own. They are shown through songs the positive side of the war. They are
reminded that they are brave men and as such need not fear. The songs contain images
of animals associated with strength. An example of this song is found among the Ofoni
people in Sagbama Local Government Area of Bayeisa State, and is rendered thus:
LEADER: "Agadagba - Oporu"
Agagakuwo, Agagakuwo
Agadagba gaga-kuwo
CHOROUS: Woyo woyo woyo woyo
Agaga-kuwo-eni
Translation
LEADER: The god with the greatest power
CHOROUS: Power that is insurmountable
Power of the leopard
Who can challenge the leopard to a halt?
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Niger Delta Journal ofEducation (NID)OE) Vol. 3 No. 1
There are also some war songs that show the features of chorus complementation. An
example of these is **Eni whophara whig^ It goes like this:
L
Eni-Eni-Vudidi
CH.
Eni whophara whigb
L.
Eni ghinopuoru
CH.
Eni whophara whigb
L.
Eni Agadagba
CH.
Eni whophara whigbe
Eni whophara whigbe (continues)
Translation
L.
CH.
The great leopard that is most powerful
Leopard that kills lions with horns
cannot be threatened by antelopes
Equally, there are some war songs that contain element of satire, among the Ijaws of
Sagbama in Bayelsa State, as coilected by the researcher. These are:
''Yarhe-Ahore-Erumuo"
L.
vwa yarhe ahore
Ch
: meeche whewe Kirobo miwhewe jovwo
L.yarheahore
Ch:
miche whewe kirobo rijovwo Miche whewe kufia,
Vwa yarhe Ahorofia, Erumuo
Translation
"Now, come let us fight it out"
L.
let us fight it out for people to see
Ch.
This is not the first time of fighting
we had fought before and we defeated you
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Niger Delta Journal of Education (NIDJOE) Vol. 3 No. 1
come let us try It again
and we shall defeat you once again
we shall kill you all
L:
Ch:
let us fight It out
we shall kill you all and
render your land desolate
Through these songs, we discover that the singers of war songs are ridiculing their
enemies, seeing them as weak people they have defeated over and over again. They see
themselves as being stronger than their opponents and as such have no cause to be
afraid of them.
It Is significant to note that this satire which Is abundantly present In oral works of art Is
equally present In written works of art as could be found In Eslaba Irobl's Cotyledons.
Cotyledons, Published In 2009, Is divided Into Horizons, Landscapes, Seasons, and
Cotyledons. Each section contains poems of varying number and length.
IrobI, basically, uses Cotyledons to satirize the leadership system in Africa, particularly In
Nigeria. He ridicules the leaders that spend their countries' money recklessly abroad,
leaving their people Impoverished at home. This Is expressed In the poem ''London",
thus:
Your Excellencies: Your Excellencies!
You who were once the Tzars of
Malkontrl, our destiny which you
Diverted to great Britain, has
It ripened? Or, did It decay?
Open your suitcase! And, distinguished
Apes, when will you return to give
account of your reign of ruin? (9).
IrobI does not stop at satirizing our political leaders, he equally offers himself and his
likes as seeds that are sown on the earth and are awaiting germination, for the purpose
of directing our socio - economic and political life to Its expected end.
In "Twilight", he tells of the sojourn of this seed In the earth.
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NigerDeltaJournalof Education(NIDJOE) Vol. 3 No. 1
Beneath the breast of the earth
A buried seed holds Its breath
Against the roots of Iroko trees and
The conspiracy of grains of sand (65).
Despite the efforts of the bad leaders - 'the Iroko trees' - to frustrate the emergence of
these new leaders, there Is a sign of hope, seen In these lines:
The crust cracks. And, defiantly
Like a flag of triumph. It thrusts
A naked plumule and a pair of Cotyledons
Into the face of the squinting sun (65).
This cracking of the earth crust and the emergence of the plumule of the cotyledons Is a
sign of a new political dispensation.
This Is attested to In "Dawn".
The arrival of the early cotyledon
That sprouts at dawn. I am the early
cotyledon. I gulp the rays of the rising
sun. Digest them with dew, and eject
The dark night (66).
All through Cotyledons, IrobI uses the Image of a seed to help us to understand the need
for political change In Africa (Nigeria) and to lampoon the bad leaders who have been
making frantic efforts to frustrate the of cotyledons from sprouting.
In conclusion, It could be said that satire Is truly a predominant mode of literary
expression In Africa. Its presence and usage cut across oral and written works of arts as
we saw In the Ijaw war songs and Irobi's Cotyledons. It Is used to criticize the evil
human conduct and to pave the way to an effective development of our society.
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Niger Delta Journal of Education (NIDJOE) Vol. 3 No. 1
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