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Tourismdestinationimagedevelopment:a
lessonfromMacau
ARTICLE·OCTOBER2015
DOI:10.1108/IJTC-08-2014-0016
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Tourism destination image development:
a lesson from Macau
Weng Hang Kong, Hilary du Cros and Chin Ee Ong
Dr Weng Hang Kong is
Assistant Professor at Institute
for Tourism Studies, Macau,
China.
Dr Hilary du Cros is Honorary
Research Associate at
University of New Brunswick,
Fredericton, Canada.
Dr Chin Ee Ong is Assistant
Professor at Wageningen
University, Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
Abstract
Purpose – Drawing upon an analysis of resident and visitor survey data and Macau Government Tourist
Office (MGTO) press releases in 2012, the purpose of this paper is to understand the tourism destination
image for this tourist historic city produced by these three key stakeholder groups in Macau.
Design/methodology/approach – This is achieved using a new stakeholder analysis tool, developed from
previous studies, which compares the perspective of the MGTO, the city’s destination marketing
organization, with that of its residents and visitors. This study examines the perceptions that residents and
visitors have about the general images projected and generated in Macau.
Findings – This research highlights the multiplicity of images and producers of images in Macau.
Originality/value – The lesson from this case study is that public sector agencies need to acknowledge
more clearly the tourism planning role of the host community in particular. The possibility of detecting
disconnections and misalignments of shared destination imagery by residents and visitors has implications
for the public sector in Macau and other destinations in relation to managing and developing a destination
and contributes to a greater understanding of stakeholders and sustainable tourism development overall.
Keywords Destination image, Tourism planning, Macau, Stakeholder views, Community involvement, DMO
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
A well-recognized destination image is essential to the tourism industry’s health in a destination
and it is now increasingly common for destinations to plan or manage their images accordingly.
The tourism image can be understood by the interrelationships between stakeholders and in turn
their linkages to interests in various benefits. Accordingly, to create a common purpose amongst
stakeholders in relation to their projection of images about the destination seems logical and will
assist in producing more coherent tourism planning and destination marketing to attract visitors.
Timothy (1998) suggests that participation in tourism planning by many stakeholders can help to
promote sustainable development by increasing efficiency, equity, and harmony. Therefore, it is
crucial for sustainable tourism and responsible marketing to involve various stakeholders and
consider the feasibility of marketing proposals given the local conditions and realities. It should
not all be carried out by a destination marketing organization (DMO) in isolation from the
stakeholders, particularly the community. Thus, it is suggested that the DMO should look
for more innovative approaches to the destination branding process in order to achieve
sustainable tourism development. Such initiatives, in conjunction with the images projected by
the Government and the images from visitors, would include an analysis of those images
proposed by different stakeholders in the destination as well, enabling the image issues to be
considered comprehensively in order to achieve sustainable tourism development goals.
© International Tourism Studies
Association
As such, this study is about the converging and conflicting city image produced by Macau’s
DMO, its residents and its visitors. Macau’s population in 2013 numbered around 586,300 in an
DOI 10.1108/IJTC-08-2014-0016
VOL. 1 NO. 4 2015, pp. 1-17, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 2056-5607
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area of 29.9 square kilometres, with visitor arrivals for the entire year of 2014 totalling 31,525,632.
Of these arrivals, the key countries of origin were Mainland China (67.4 per cent) followed by
Hong Kong (20.4 per cent), and Taiwan (4.5 per cent) in 2014. Mainland Chinese visitors have
become Macau’s largest tourist source market. Each visitor stays for an average of 1.0 night(s)
(Macau Statistics and Census Service, 2015). Over the years, Macau has become renowned for
its casinos and is often called the “Las Vegas of the Orient”. Macau’s gaming industry emerged
after 1975 and differed from the traditional Chinese gaming activities by including canine and
horse racing and Western table games along with traditional Chinese ones (du Cros, 2009). The
blossoming of the gaming business contributes not only to the visitor flow but also to the visitor
expenditure. The positive impact of Macau’s gaming industry is undeniable. Between 2005 and
2008, Macau’s gross gaming revenue increased from US$5.9 billion in 2005 to US$13.7 billion in
2008, with an average annual growth rate of more than 30 per cent (Macau Statistics and Census
Service, 2015). To reduce the dependence on the gaming sector, the Macau Government has
shown its desire to develop non-gaming tourism to ensure the stability of its economy and
tourism development and to capitalize more on the inscription of UNESCO World Heritage
Sites in 2005.
Tourism is a pillar industry for Macau. Therefore, its DMO is expected to take a lead role in the
destination’s marketing and recognize that different types of marketing communications, such as
the press release, are only one part of image development. The destination experience is also a
key to successful destination development (Day et al., 2012). In addition, it should be taken into
account that the residents of a destination form a fundamental view from the destination image
(Zouganeli et al., 2012) but research on Macau’s destination image commonly overlooks the
residents as stakeholders. As such, it is important to understand more about the residents’
images of their home as a tourism destination, to add to theoretical and empirical work on the
subject of visitor images. Accordingly for successful destination development, DMOs must
develop strategies to align tourism system members, particularly stakeholders such as tourists
and residents. Their images need to be aligned positively to support sustainable development
(Ong et al., 2014). This issue is one that has not received enough attention in previous tourism
management studies (Hankinson, 2004). Thus, this study aims to identify the images from DMOs
(current tourism images), local residents (desired images), and visitors (perceived images).
Then, compare and contrast them to assess the degree to which they conform to a common
understanding amongst all three groups of the city’s tourism destination images. More
specifically, the authors seek to contribute to Macau’s strategic goal of sustainable tourism
development as supported by an appropriate destination marketing strategy. Evaluating the
effect of the images projected by the government and the ways in which images are produced
and consumed by residents and visitors of Macau, to determine whether information can be
gleaned that will assist in achieving such goals.
Literature review
Destination images
Destination image has been a topic of discussion in tourism research for over 40 years.
Destination image is the set of associations that people have of the destination (Day et al., 2012).
Destination image is regarded as a pre-existing concept corresponding to destination branding
(Pike, 2009). Gunn (1988) suggests images that are formed at two levels: organic and induced.
The organic image is developed through an individual’s everyday assimilation of information,
which may include a wide range of mediums, from school geography readings, to mass media,
to actual visitation. The induced image is formed through the influence of tourism promotions
directed by marketers, such as advertising. This process usually occurs when an individual
begins sourcing information for a holiday. Several researchers have suggested destinations
receive competitive advantage through effectively developing destination image, there has been
little examination of how destination image should focus. Comparatively, destination marketers
should focus on modifying an induced image, since they can do little to change an organic image.
There is an image change agent involved in considering an induced image, such as, through
traditional advertising, information received from tour operators, second-party endorsement
through traditional advertising, and second-party endorsement through seemingly unbiased
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reports and newspaper articles (Gartner, 1993). It supports the proposition that it is difficult to
change peoples’ minds, with the easier marketing communication route being to reinforce
positively held images (Ries and Trout, 1982). The positive destination image can be enhanced
through distribution channel members such as inbound tour operators, tour wholesalers and
travel agents specializing in the destination (Day et al., 2012). However, the internet is increasingly
being used as a platform to launch destination images and destination marketers use the internet
to place advertisements that may or may not be shown on television at a later date (Hudson and
Ritchie, 2009). The web sites can provide the information of the destination that enables tourists
to visualize the destination and have a more accurate image of the place prior to their trip (Moura
et al., 2014). Destination images have been used in a number of different contexts, including
perceptions held by individuals, stereotypes held by groups, and images projected by DMOs
(Jenkins, 1996). A DMO is an organization responsible for the marketing of an identifiable tourism
destination with an explicit geopolitical boundary. The focus of DMO activities is designing and
implementing marketing communication strategies that match destination resources with market
opportunities (Pike and Page, 2014). DMOs are effective and influential in media content
placement and in the coordination of destination positioning (Choi et al., 2007; Govers and Go,
2003). The positive image developed during a previous visit can increase the likelihood of repeat
visits. Therefore, destination images held by consumers play a significant role in travel purchase
decisions and an understanding of the images held of the destination by consumers is important.
Furthermore, it is important to separate the images held by visitors from those of non-visitors
(Pike, 2008). García et al. (2012) reveal the risks of a traditional strategy focused only on visitors
that ignores the objectives of local people and entrepreneurs. This underlines the importance of
considering place image not only as something perceived by visitors, but also as produced,
promoted, and mediated by tourism producers and other stakeholders.
In the case of Macau, there have been numerous previous studies of tourism in Macau, but
relatively few of these have been specifically concerned with images. Very often, the “image” of
Macau is imputed from the type of tourism that Macau attracts and the activities and motivations
of visitors. As Hobson (1995) points out, “85 per cent of visitors come to Macau to gamble”.
A study by McCartney (2004) of the image of Macau among visitors to the Macau Grand Prix in
2003 indicates that the most important image elements among visitors on arrival were “gambling
city” and “unique architectural heritage”. Song and Witt (2006) mention “Macau has not been
regarded as a traditional and popular destination by Western tourists”. A study by Breitung (2009)
of visitor and resident images of Macau concentrates on the cultural aspects of image, excluding
gambling from the prompted list of image elements. Mainland Chinese travellers perceive
Macau as Asia’s Las Vegas, a view highly correlated with its gambling offerings. Macau is also
well known for its culinary culture, heritage, and historical attractions (Hsu and Song, 2013).
Destination image measurement take measure once in empirical survey studies to first, assess
how tourists currently view a destination, second, define how the destination would like to be
perceived by tourists, third, develop and implement marketing action to modify destination
image, and fourth, check if the intended change in destination image has occurred (Dolnicar and
Grün, 2013). Very few previous studies have considered the relationship between visitors’ images
and those of residents and other stakeholders. Even fewer studies of image change have actually
employed longitudinal research to measure the actual change in image among the target groups
(Boo and Busser, 2006). The authors attempt to assess the comparative validity of these different
measures of destination image and little guidance is available to researchers and data analysts on
which measure should be preferred. As a result, this paper is to investigate the images of visitors,
residents, and DMOs.
Stakeholders and tourism planning
Bryson and Crosby (1992) define a stakeholder as “any person, group, or organization that is
affected by the causes or consequences of an issue” (p. 65). Donaldson and Preston (1995)
state that the group or individual identified as a stakeholder must have a legitimate interest in the
organization. Applying those definitions in the tourism context, the stakeholders include local
businesses, employees, local government officials, competitors, entrepreneurs, tourists, activist
groups, and residents (Freeman, 1984). Without stakeholder support in the destination, it is
difficult to develop tourism in a sustainable manner (Andereck and Vogt, 2000; Andriotis, 2005).
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Thus, it is necessary to understand the attitudes and insights of stakeholders for tourism planning
and the management of sustainable tourism (Byrd et al., 2009). Furthermore, stakeholders can
be divided into supply-side and demand-side stakeholders. Supply-side stakeholders include
tourism-related businesses and government agencies, whereas on the demand side are primarily
customers (Urde, 2003). Hankinson (2004) develops four categories of stakeholders: consumers
(local people, employees of local organizations, and targeted visitors), primary services,
secondary services, and media. In this regard, the demand-side stakeholders can be further
related to residents and visitors. A successful branding strategy for a city or region is to examine
the needs of internal stakeholders, such as local businesses, government, and residents (Kemp
et al., 2011). The destination value images should be interpreted in the same way by both supplyside (DMOs) and demand-side stakeholders (residents and visitors).
Recent studies increase the emphasis on tourism planning involving multiple stakeholders
(Palmer and Bejou, 1995). These stakeholders include residents, public authorities, and
entrepreneurs. The stakeholder involvement allows the tourism planning process to include the
formulation, implementation, and adaptation of planning decisions (Yuksel et al., 1999). Tourism
planning can be ensured by stakeholder involvement, which is a key factor of tourism destination
development (Gunn and Var, 2002; Healey, 1997). The stakeholders can collaborate to develop
the same goals for the tourism industry (Jamal and Getz, 1996; Palmer and Bejou, 1995). By
understanding the goals in tourism planning, the stakeholders will have better knowledge of the
ways to improve their planning in the destinations to maximize their use of resources. The
destinations can benefit not only from the narrow financial objectives of tourism operators, but
also from the social objectives through the collaboration between the stakeholders from the
public and private sectors. One of the key components of tourism planning is the notion that in
satisfying the local needs, it may also be possible to satisfy the local needs of the tourists (Hall,
2000; Murphy, 1985). As such, it implies consideration with a particular focus on local
stakeholders and tourism planning in the destinations. Local stakeholders are the suppliers in the
destinations, such as tour operators, hotel owners/entrepreneurs, destination shareholders,
landowners, and interest groups. It is essential to establish strategic planning by understanding
those stakeholders in order to guide more sustainable tourism development for communities.
Sustainable tourism development
Sustainable tourism has become an increasingly popular field of research since the late 1980s.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (2001) has advised that sustainable tourism
development should meet the needs of present tourists and host regions, while protecting and
enhancing opportunities for the future. Four distinct stakeholder groups can be identified: the
present tourists, the present host community, the future tourists, and the future host community.
Accordingly, the Government players and the tourism industry in a destination need to agree
about the importance of incorporating sustainable development principles into their planning and
operations. It is necessary to develop cooperative and integrated control systems and provide for
the involvement of stakeholders for planning processes to be less top-down and more inclusive.
However, in some destinations, stakeholders are only consulted minimally, and usually that takes
place near the end of the process. However, cooperation alone will not foster commitment to
sustainable development without the incentive of increased mutual benefits (Hall, 2000). Byrd
(2007) suggests that DMOs must incorporate both the tangible and the intangible aspects of
tourism for all the stakeholders to feel that their views have been taken into account. Without truly
inclusive stakeholder involvement, the term sustainable development would just be a marketing
slogan and could not be implemented. In order to achieve sustainable tourism development,
more attention to applying aspects of stakeholder theory has been suggested by various
authorities on the topic. Jamal and Getz (1995) suggest that the concept of collaborative thinking
from stakeholder theory can be applied to tourism planning and management. This idea is based
on the normative approach to stakeholder theory. The approach posits that the various groups
can and should have a direct influence on managerial decision making (Jones, 1995). In addition,
Donaldson and Preston (1995) have developed three aspects from stakeholder theory that
are applicable here. One of the aspects is the concept of what or who is instrumental in a
decision-making process, and what identifies the connections or lack of connection between
stakeholder groups and the achievement of the organization or development’s objectives and
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goals. This implies that consideration should be given to each stakeholder group without one
being given priority over others (Sautter and Leisen, 1999). Importantly, it is necessary to
understand the connection between stakeholders in more detail. Donaldson and Preston (1995)
indicate that all stakeholders do not need to be involved equally in the decision-making process;
however, all interests should be identified and understood. The history of the development of
communication between tourism and heritage management stakeholder groups in a destination
about tourism development will be telling in terms of how healthy such partnerships are in terms
of managing heritage attractions sustainably (du Cros and McKercher, 2014). Therefore,
the first step towards sustainable tourism development for a destination is the identification of
stakeholders (Byrd, 2007) and then gaining an understanding of their concerns in tourism
planning and development. All the identified stakeholders should be invited to take part in the
planning process, before the theory can be applied effectively. However, it is impossible to involve
all the stakeholders in the tourism development, so it is suggested to involve particular key players
(Markwick, 2000).
Methodology
The images perceived by three stakeholder groups (DMO, visitors, and residents) are examined in
this study in relation to possible commonalities and contrasts. The traditional strategies of analysing
destination images look at assessing how tourists currently view a destination and defining how the
DMOs would like the destination to be perceived by tourists (Dolnicar and Grün, 2013). However,
García et al. (2012) suggest that DMOs should instead develop a two-stage strategy, focusing first
on the stakeholders closest to the destination (residents) and second on visitors. This is an approach
that is rarely applied in Asia. Gallarza et al. (2002) mention that the methodologies of empirical image
studies divided into two blocks including qualitative techniques and other techniques. The first block
encompasses techniques such as free elicitation and open-ended questions, focus groups, and
in-depth interviews and experts’ discussions. The second group covers essentially content analysis.
According to Choi et al. (2007), the understanding of a destination’s image representation has
become more complex with the larger spectrum of information sources and channels and so such
an approach would be worthwhile. Oppermann (2000) recommends using multiple disciplines and
mixed methods in sustainable tourism research. As a result, two different methods were conducted
in this study to gather data on destination images, please see Figure 1.
A survey questionnaire method was used to measure the images of visitors and local residents
about Macau, while a content analysis approach was used to identify the key images projected
by the MGTO from 2008 to 2012. Stakeholders’ opinions can be collected using methods such
as questionnaires, telephone surveys, focus group discussions, and interviews (de Araujo and
Bramwell, 1999). In this study, a survey was adopted in Stage 1. The ATLAS study by Richards
and Akagawa (2005) was used as a basis to design the questionnaire as it contains many relevant
questions related to destination imagery for cultural tourism and the results would be of interest to
other researchers who have also used the questionnaire in relation to this and other issues
internationally. Visitors to Macau were interviewed to examine their experiences of different types
of tourism products. The visitors were asked about the main attractions they had visited in order
to trace the links between tourism consumption and image. A total of 600 valid questionnaires
Figure 1 Research process
Phrase 1:
Visitor Survey
Phrase 2:
Content Analysis
Recommendations for
sustainable tourism
devolopment
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were collected (300 from visitors and 300 from residents). The visitors were approached using
convenience sampling technique at one attraction while the residents were contacted through
telephone interviews.
The content analysis was carried out in Stage 2. Content analysis is an approach to the analysis of
documents and texts that seek to quantify content in terms of predetermined categories and in a
systematic and replicable manner (Bryman, 2004).It is a research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication (Berelson,
1952). There are two general classes of content analysis in social science: qualitative and
quantitative. Qualitative content analysis refers to non-statistical and exploratory methods that
can be accessed only by the detailed investigation (Berg, 2001). Quantitative content analysis
refers to methods that are capable of classifying many words of text into much fewer content
categories that then can be counted for their occurrences and provide statistical inferences from
text populations (Weber, 1990). It involves a systematic process of data collection and reduction
that can be used in descriptive research to identify emergent themes from a huge data
(Krippendorff, 2004). The official web site of the Macau Government Tourist Office (MGTO) (www.
macautourism.gov.mo) was selected and only the messages under the directories of “Press
Releases” from 2008 to 2012 were investigated. Macau’s present DMO is the MGTO, which is
responsible under the Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture for destination marketing, tourism
planning and research, communication and external relations, licensing, tourism products, and
events (Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), 2012). Hall (2000) mentions that press releases
make reference to the images the DMOs would like to project at the government level. The
rationale behind this sample selection was that the survey of visitors was conducted in 2010, and
so the messages from two years before and two years after 2010 would be of relevance. Press
releases serve as a direct means of communication between the DMO and the general public.
Particularly, those press releases with the images that the DMO would like to project.
Using a face-to-face questionnaire survey and an analysis of press release reports, the study
investigated the different images to reveal some surprising collaboration as well as conflicts
in the common understanding of Macau’s destination image. The implantation of sustainable
development of a destination is connected to the images of different stakeholders in the
redevelopment of destinations’ images. Besides being a useful marketing tool, understanding the
images of different stakeholders is an analytical tool of potential value to academics. Analysis of
stakeholders’ views may provide a means of moving towards an understanding of sustainable
tourism development. Because of the complexities of the sustainable tourism planning, it cannot
just focus on one type of benefit, but aims to bring holistic benefits to the environment, society, and
the economy (Dwyer, 2005; Lane, 2009). Such mix-method approaches and multiple perspectives
may result in a better understanding and provide the comprehensive perspectives in the issues.
Findings: images from visitor and resident surveys and the DMO’s press releases
This section presents an overview of the main themes and images of Macau as analysed from the
surveys of residents and visitors and the MGTO’s press releases. The primary aim of the visitor
and resident surveys was to assess the image that residents and visitors have of Macau.
Because the surveys were conducted in Macau, we could measure the image developed by
residents and visitors.
Results of Stage 1 – images from residents and visitors
For the visitor survey, the sample surveyed for this study was reasonably evenly distributed by
gender, with 47.7 per cent of female respondents and 52.3 per cent of male respondents. The
respondents tended to be relatively young, with 77 per cent aged less than 35 years of age and
30 per cent being students. The majority of respondents had either a high school educational
qualification (31.3 per cent) or a Bachelor’s degree (47.9 per cent). The respondents tended to be
employed (68.3 per cent) and the most common occupational levels were clerical/administrative
(22.3 per cent) or professional (16.7 per cent) positions. Looking at the data in more detail,
they show that 53.7 per cent of the respondents were employees, followed by students (30.0 per
cent) and self-employed (10.0 per cent). A relatively high proportion of respondents indicated that
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their occupation was connected to culture (41.0 per cent). The income levels varied considerably
according to visitor origin. Over 40 per cent of Mainland Chinese visitors had a monthly income of
USD$1,000 or less, while 27.4 per cent earned between USD$1,001 and 2,000. For the Hong
Kong visitors, 33.7 per cent earned between USD$3,001 and 4,000. Almost 50 per cent of the
visitors (not including visitors from Hong Kong and Mainland China) earned between USD$2,001
and 4,000. Overall, 50 per cent of the respondents earned under US$2,000.
Of the respondents in resident survey, 57.3 per cent were female, while 42.7 per cent were male,
perhaps reflecting the tendency for women to be at home during the day. The age profile of the
respondents tended to be young; almost 56 per cent of the respondents were under the age of
40, while 33 per cent of the respondents were under the age of 25. Almost half of the
respondents had completed junior high school and high school and around 24.7 per cent had
completed a university education. This seems to conform to the general educational profile in
Macau, as well as previous resident surveys. Due to the relatively young profile of the
respondents, there were a high proportion of students among the respondents (26.7 per cent)
and in total less than half the sample came from the working population. This distribution may
relate to the female bias in the surveys. In terms of those respondents who were working, the
largest groups were drawn from service and technical professional occupations. Relatively few
respondents fell into the higher occupational categories, such as managerial or professional jobs.
In total, almost 23.0 per cent said that their job was linked to tourism. This is not surprising given
the high share of tourism in the economy. Far fewer respondents, 9.3 per cent, indicated that their
occupation was linked to culture. In total, 32.3 per cent of the respondents were linked to either
tourism or culture. The respondents with occupations connected to tourism tended to have lower
occupational levels than the other respondents, and were mainly employed in service-level jobs.
Table I highlighted the demographic profile of survey respondents. Also, the images of Macau
among residents and visitors were measured by several questions. The results suggest that the
visitors’ and residents’ images of Macau are similar. The details are as follows.
According to Table II, the most important induced information sources were guidebooks, Macau
web sites, and travel agencies. Guidebooks tended to be less important prior to arrival than in
Table I Source of information
Frequency
%
122
113
105
77
54
46
44
34
15
14
19.6
18.1
16.8
12.3
8.7
7.4
7.1
5.4
2.4
2.2
Other web sites
Family/friends
Previous visit
Guidebooks
TV/ radio
Newspapers/ Magazines
Macau web sites
Travel agency
Tour operator brochures
Tourist broad
Table II What type of city is Macau?
Asian city
European city
Multicultural city
Chinese city
Portuguese city
World city
Do not know
Hong Kong
Frequency
Mainland China
Frequency
Overseas
Frequency
Residents
Frequency
18
3
39
5
16
3
2
12
5
98
10
23
9
18
2
2
23
2
5
3
2
41
6
107
42
30
26
2
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Macau itself. Visitors were also less likely to consult the information from DMOs before or during
the trips. Visitors from Hong Kong were more likely to have visited Macau before and therefore
drew much more often on personal experience. Information from friends and relatives was most
likely to be used by Mainland Chinese visitors, whereas other visitors had consulted more web
sites and guidebooks.
In terms of the type of city visitors associated with Macau, according to Table III, there was a clear
preference for a “multicultural city”, followed by a “Portuguese city” and an “Asian city”. However,
Hong Kong and other visitors were more likely prefer the image of Macau as a “Portuguese city”,
whereas the visitors from Mainland China were more likely to see Macau as a “multicultural city”.
Looking at the data in detail, 16.1 per cent of the visitors considered that Macau is a historic city,
followed by a multicultural city (14.3 per cent) and a gastronomic city (12.0 per cent). Interestingly,
the residents in Macau considered Macau as a multicultural city (35.7 per cent), followed by a
Chinese city (14.0 per cent) and an Asian city (13.7 per cent). Since most of the populations in
Macau are Chinese, it seems that the Chinese were more likely to consider Macau as a
“multicultural city”. It is clear that the residents and visitors identified Macau as a city related to
culture and heritage. That is, it is primarily a historic and multicultural city the dominant culture of
which is not perceived in any one way by either residents or visitors.
Table IV provides positive support that residents and visitors identified Macau with culture and
heritage. The identification of cultural elements varied by visitor origin and residents. Although
Portuguese architecture was the aspect most commonly identified by all the groups, visitors
from Hong Kong and Mainland China were more likely to mention Portuguese architecture
and Macanese cuisine. This probably relates to some of the most noticeable dif
ferences between Macau as a former Portuguese colony and the British colonial heritage of
Hong Kong. For other visitors, the Cantonese language did not feature at all as an aspect of the
Macau image. In contrast, they were more likely to notice Chinese architecture. The general
pattern that emerges is that Macau has a specific Portuguese heritage for Hong Kong,
a more general Western culture for visitors from Mainland China, and a more Chinese image for
other visitors.
Table III Image element
Elements
Hong Kong
Frequency
Mainland China
Frequency
Overseas
Frequency
All Visitors
Frequency
Resident
Frequency
59
52
29
23
21
10
9
11
7
1
86
78
33
36
39
41
33
16
11
7
29
18
13
15
13
10
6
4
5
5
174
148
75
74
73
61
48
31
23
13
240
203
169
167
183
194
169
335
155
130
Portuguese architecture
Macanese cuisine
Portuguese language
Catholic religion
Museums
Cantonese language
Many cultural activities
Monuments
Chinese architecture
Buddhism/Taoism
Table IV The first word/phase that come to residents and visitors mind about Macau
Words/Phrases
Casino/gambling
Prosperity/flourishing
Cuisine
Gaming destination/gaming city
Ruins of St Paul’s
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Hong Kong
Frequency
Mainland China
Frequency
Overseas
Frequency
Resident
Frequency
37
1
7
2
1
36
11
3
8
9
19
0
1
1
1
96
16
1
16
4
According to Table V, the identification of unique image elements indicated that the image of
Macau as a gambling city came across very strongly. It is clear that the gaming industry is not just
something that visitors associate strongly with Macau, but the same applies to local residents.
They also see gaming in Macau as being distinctive. The other aspects of Macau that visitors
see as unique are related to its cultural attractions, including the Ruins of St Paul’s and the
architectural style. Interestingly, many respondents saw the cuisine in Macau as unique. In terms
of first associations, in general, visitors considered an image of Macau as a gambling destination.
However, visitors from Mainland China were much more likely to have an image of Macau as
prosperous and flourishing, while the Macanese cuisine is important for visitors from Hong Kong.
Results of Stage 2 – press releases from the MGTO
Stage 2 adopted a qualitative approach to collect the data from press releases on the official
tourist web site and content analysis for analysis. The purpose was to understand the
governmental rationale behind the destination images of Macau.
Table VI displays and compares the phrases related to the images of Macau that are shown on
the MGTO official web site. “MICE destination”, “leisure destination”, and “world centre of tourism
and leisure” are the most frequently used words across five years. Interestingly, the Government
showed many images to the public before 2010, but since 2010 it has focused on the image of
a “world centre of tourism and leisure”. Macau is projected as an urban destination for
MICE tourism (meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions). In fact, the MGTO provides
promotional assistance and facilitation in liaison with other government authorities. However,
Table V The frequency of images projected by the Macau Government Tourist Office
2008
2009
2010
Multicultural destination
3 MICE destination
3 Leisure destination
“Must-see” destination
2 Leisure destination
3 MICE destination
East meets west destination 2 Business destination
Leisure destination
2 International
destination
Major tourist destination
2 MICE destination
Short-haul destination
1 Leisure destination
Quality travel practice
1 Business destination
Multi-destination travel
Business travel
MICE destination
vacation destination
Vibrant destination
World-class travel
destination
2011
3 Multi-destination
1 Preferred destination
3 Business destination
3 Incentive destination
3 International
destination
2012
5 World Centre of Tourism 5 World Centre of Tourism 5
and Leisure
and Leisure
4
Blend culture of East and 3
West
3
Quality Destination
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Table VI The slogans used by the Macau Tourism Tourist Office
2008
Experience Macau
Five senses: see, taste,
touch, feel and hear
Macau: a world of
difference, the
difference is Macau
Enjoy Macau
2009
12 Experience Macau
7 Five senses: see,
taste, touch, feel
and hear
5 Macau: a world of
difference, the
difference is Macau
1 Enjoy Macau
2010
21 Experience Macau
7 Five senses: see,
taste, touch, feel
and hear
4 Macau: a world of
difference, the
difference is Macau
2
2011
7 Experience Macau
3 Five senses: see, taste,
touch, feel and hear
1 Enjoy Macau
Touching moments
experiences Macau
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2012
4 Touch Moments –
7
Experience Macau
2 Experience “Enchanting”, 2
“Fascinating”, “Surprising”,
“Tasteful”
1 Touch Moments
2
Experience Macau
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from the news in the section on “Press Releases” from 2008 to 2010, it is apparent that the
Government, through the MGTO, has already projected more than ten specific brand images to
the public for Macau.
Table VII shows that destination slogans can offer an opportunity to add more meaning to that Q1
which can be achieved by the brand name or symbol (Aaker, 1991). A slogan is a short phrase
that communicates descriptive or persuasive information about a brand (Keller, 2000). It is
suggested that too many destination slogans have been less than memorable, so the best
practice in destination promotion has been limited to a few simple slogans (Pike, 2008).
According to Table II, the MGTO is attempting to highlight the slogan “Experience Macau”.
Before 2010, the visitors could experience Macau through five senses: “See”, “Taste”, Touch”,
“Feel”, and “Hear”. After 2010, visitors can experience Macau in “Enchanting”, “Fascinating”,
“Surprising”, and “Tasteful” realms and encounters.
Destination images should encapsulate residents’ sense of place and the residents need to be
aware of new tourism-related products and infrastructure developments as early as possible in
the process (Pike, 2008). However, the MGTO did not initiate such measures in any of the
development processes for destination image branding and seems to have completely ignored
the World Heritage inscription of Macau after 2006 – the year in which it appeared heavily in local
and overseas marketing efforts. Furthermore, the MGTO seldom mentions the attractions related
to casinos and gaming activities on the official web site, which implies that the Government has
been trying to downplay the image of a gaming destination. The MGTO is attempting to show the
attractions of the “Historic Centre of Macau”, “World Heritage”, and “Ruins of St. Paul’s” to the
public and highlight that Macau has many cultural heritage attractions. Those three attractions are
the most-mentioned attractions on the web site. The Government promotes the cultural heritage
destinations as well as leisure destination. On the other hand, the cultural heritage attractions in
Macau are mentioned less after 2010 due to the number of press releases decreasing after 2010
(2008: 61 press releases, 2009: 67 press releases, 2010: 49 press releases, 2011: 47 press
releases, 2012: 57 press releases). This implies the existence of a disconnection between MGTO,
resident and visitor images. The importance of understanding the difference between the
projected and the perceived image is crucial. Additionally, when these images are inconsistent
with the projected and perceived images of Macau, it could leave the way open for visitors to
express or build a negative image of the destination.
Discussions and implications
This study’s findings make a contribution to understanding existing destination image from the
theoretical, methodological, and managerial standpoints. Theoretically, this study opens up new
insights into destination development beyond that indicated by Choi et al. (2007) in that it is
crucial to understand whether the images of the government, visitors, and residents are
connected. This research highlights the multiplicity of images and producers of images in Macau.
Jamal and Stronza (2009) postulate that destination development often comprises of multiple
stakeholders who may hold diverse views on development and no individual stakeholder can fully
control tourism planning. They also pinpoint that it is a self-limiting strategy to collect the opinions
of stakeholders via a one-way consultation process that cannot provide fuller information for
public sector planners (de Araujo and Bramwell, 1999). The Government, through the MGTO’s
promotion over the last few years, has tried to build up Macau as a multicultural destination, a
MICE destination, and a leisure destination. The results of this study show that the visitors and
residents surveyed tended to agree with each other most closely that Macau is a multicultural
destination foremost. However, they differed concerning what they perceived this multiculturalism
to be. There is a disconnection in that both residents and visitors perceive a juxtaposition of the
Portuguese and Macanese cultures, while the MGTO’s promotion instead considers that
multiculturalism is present only in the juxtaposition of aspects of the Portuguese and Chinese
cultures. Such findings add to an earlier investigation into the projection of Macau’s images (Ong
and du Cros, 2012a) in which Portuguese and Chinese elements and their juxtaposition were
found to be privileged over more local ones. Further research is needed to discover whether this
is the result of Macau’s particular postcolonial trajectory or the way destination images are
developed by its DMO.
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The findings of this study also concur partly with Timur and Getz’s (2008) assertion that a
DMO, attraction stakeholders, and hotels have a particularly crucial role to play in destination
development. According to the findings, most residents and visitor’s image of Macau converge
on the multicultural city that the MGTO is promoting, the MGTO’s attempts to downplay casinos.
Chinese travel magazines present a multifaceted destination image to their readers with Macau
focusing on history and heritage, places and attractions, gambling, cuisine and good, and hotels
(Hsu and Song, 2013). However, images of casinos still rank highly in the minds of residents and
visitors. It appears that the destination image is dominated by casinos and gaming and therefore
there is a need to develop a diversified image of Macau (PATA, 2012). In addition to the lack of
agreement between the MGTO and the residents and visitors, as highlighted in various instances
in this research, this could be a result of a lack of buy-in from hotels and travel companies
regarding the images the MGTO projects as well. In the existing marketing literature, a DMO, such
as the MGTO, requires an effective communication medium to project destination images and
then monitor the stakeholders’ (residents and visitors) perceptions to gauge whether they match
in any way. In fact, the positioning in Macau is about creating an image of Macau in the minds of
tourists that the destination wants to attract (PATA, 2012). Kapferer (1997) argues that the sender
creates brand identity, whereas the receiver perceives the image. The brand identity and brand
image are critical components for a successful destination. Cai (2002) asserts that a destination
needs to acquire the information to build the desired image that is consistent with the brand
identity of the destination. DMOs should be considered as the sender presenting clear and
unambiguous messages to the receiver (residents and visitors) about destination image. In this
case, the findings from this research highlight that in practice, this form of clarity and consistency
in sending messages about brand identity, as part of destination imaging, is not easy to achieve.
Macau’s MGTO appears to have difficulties in directing the residents and visitors to consume and
accept all of its preferred images.
Methodologically, this study has attempted to illustrate that a combination of two methodologies
is productive to measure destination images. Echtner and Ritchie (1993) suggest that a combination
of structured and unstructured methodologies should be used to measure destination image.
The authors combined survey (structured) and content analysis (unstructured) methodologies in
this study. The responses to image questions from the visitors’ and residents’ survey provide
the more general characteristics of their destination images, while investigating the press
releases from the MGTO can facilitate an understanding of the images projected by DMOs.
This study shows that this approach is an adequate means to gain a better understanding of the
images between DMOs, visitors, and local residents. This methodological approach is suitable
for understanding the local tourism stakeholders’ challenges regarding images. Tourism
practitioners can take this knowledge into consideration in their future practice. Monitoring the
effectiveness of the images is a critical role in tourism development. Monitoring the images will
ensure that the images are continually evolved and enriched in the destinations. The more
complete measurement of destination image provides information useful for tourism planning and
sustainable development in the destination. Importantly, this approach can provide affirmation for
the importance of understanding the residents’ images of a destination. This study illustrates the
value of the application of taking two approaches to stakeholder assessment to examine the
images in sustainable development. Based on the concurrent design strategy, quantitative and
qualitative data were used simultaneously to explain the images projected of Macau. By providing
an alternative way to increase the understanding of destination images, tourism planning is
beyond simply asking either DMOs or visitors for their images and a full understanding of the
host-guest relationships is likely to be achieved. Furthermore, the local residents could be
encouraged to become involved in tourism planning because their opinions are considered in the
planning process. The differences in images between DMOs, visitors, and local residents suggest
that it may advisable to explore the destination’s uniqueness and images as the first step in
sustainable development. Lu and Nepal (2009) mention that the methods used in tourism
studies are largely borrowed from other disciplines. Research on sustainable tourism is still very
descriptive in content as well as analysis, which may limit the choices of research methods.
Nunkoo et al. (2013) suggest that adopting mixed-method approaches is likely to improve the
rigour of tourism studies and provide new perspectives for sustainable tourism research.
Importantly, Oppermann (2000) argues that tourism researchers should engage in new types of
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research that systematically add knowledge to the file, rather than conducting further
place-specific research of limited value. As a result, this study may also be useful in improving
future research methodologies on this topic and identifying the most appropriate sustainable
tourism research.
From a managerial perspective, an important finding and implication is that there are many areas
of convergence in the image of Macau held by visitors, residents, and stakeholders. Most
importantly, the idea of Macau as a city with a dominant gaming industry is firmly fixed in the
minds of most residents and visitors. Macau is renowned for its gaming activities and is often
referred to as the “Las Vegas of the East”. A large amount of government revenue is collected
from the casinos and other gaming activities. The tourism industry is the major source
of government income. Based on the data, “casinos and gambling” clearly dominate the “top of
mind” impressions of residents of Macau. Furthermore, most residents and visitors associate
Macau’s images with “gaming” and a “gaming destination”, with which it is impossible for the
cultural appeal to compete. The gaming industry is still the dominant industry in Macau.
Therefore, it implies that there is still room for improvement in the development of other types of
tourism (Ong and du Cros, 2012b). Due to this overdependence on the gaming industry, efforts
to develop an attractive broad-based tourism product apart from the gaming industry have been
a challenge. Macau’s tourism industry therefore continues to move slowly toward diversification,
in particular by showing an increased focus on cultural tourism in the hope of making Macau a
unique world-class tourist destination.
Fortunately, both residents and visitors also recognize the essential blend of peacefulness and
liveliness that characterizes the atmosphere of the city. There is a relative level of agreement on
the unprompted image of Macau as a historic city with lots of tourism, a comfortable place in spite
of its small size and crowded population. Residents have a stronger association with the specific
landmarks of Macau, such as St Paul’s Ruins and the Guia Lighthouse. For visitors, the
architecture is far less differentiated, and they tend to view the architecture of the historic city in a
more holistic way. Residents are also much more aware of the popular culture of the city than
visitors. In addition, visitors seem to be more positive about Macau than many of its residents,
being more likely to characterize it as a friendly and relaxed place than the residents. Visitors are
also more likely to emphasize the mood of Macau as relaxed and friendly, and also seem to be
more aware of the cultural mix. Based on the data from Stage 2, the Macau Government is trying
to present Macau as a “leisure destination”; however, the results show mixed support for the
images from visitors’ and residents’ perceptions in the surveys.
Currently, the Government’s visions and goals regarding the promotion of images of Macau as a
“leisure destination” has remained unclear. Messages from the Government before 2010 are
cluttered as there are too many images it seeks to express including “leisure destination”, “MICE
destination”, and “world-class travel destination”. There appears little determination from the
Government to achieve more with these destination images than purely cultural-based ones or
those aligned with it being multicultural or historic city (the key image found of Macau in this
study). It is necessary to focus on one or two images, identify visitors’ and residents’ views about
these images and further motivate them to become involved and to participate in tourism
planning. The variety of different agents involved in the creation of “induced” or tourism
promotional messages about Macau, as well as the “organic” or non-tourism information sources
that may affect the image (such as the media), make it important to understand the relationships
within the image formation system. The role of a DMO becomes a challenge when it needs to
create consistent brand associations in alignment with the views of all stakeholders and
encourage continuity in their attitudes and actions to tourists these images attract. These three
stakeholder groups should also strengthen their collaboration to minimize the discrepancies in
destination images. Although visitors and local residents express similar images, they are involved
very little in the tourism planning process and even the final planning arrangement in Macau.
Various images co-exist with the conflicts, and such discrepancies can only be resolved through
a process of collaboration, negotiation, and even tourism planning partnerships. To build a better
destination, local governments need to involve local residents and other stakeholder groups in
the planning process (Choi and Murray, 2010). If the images among these three stakeholder
groups are connected and consistent, such harmony can show a commonality of purpose that
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can enhance future image appropriation and development through equitable planning and
development. The recognition of the different interests of the three tourism stakeholders is
considered a key factor differentiating sustainable tourism and maintainable tourism (Hardy
et al., 2002). Tourism in a destination may continue to operate, but not sustainably, when the
stakeholder interests are not fully recognized (Lu and Nepal, 2009). Sustainable tourism has
traditionally placed greater focus on aspects related to the economic and environment
development and more attention should be given to community involvement.
Sustainability issues are increasingly to take into account in the destination planning and
development, however, the destinations are being marketed and promoted in a way that is
different to local people’s perspectives. The tourism development cannot be successful. DMOs
have to compare the effects of the different images projected from these three groups including
DMOs, visitors, and local residents and then analyse if the images is connected or unconnected.
It is crucial to identify whether rebuilding the images and which stakeholders work needs to be
enhanced. Two-stage strategy in images is possible but DMOs should establish a clear image for
each stakeholder first, and then investigate images of visitors and local residents. The possible
differences in images could be diminished and ensure the images of these three groups are
connected. By understanding the different images in the stakeholders, the tourism practitioners
have to find the tourism planning strategies that is accepted by stakeholders. The conflicts
may be eliminated or at least minimized to the dissatisfactory levels made by the interested
stakeholders. If the images are identified, the sustainable forms of tourism are to be easier
developed, then it clearly becomes essential to develop more sustainable forms of tourist product
that are supplied to the visitors and not sacrifice the living quality of local residents.
In the case of Macau, the government has tried during the period studied to inject the images of
MICE and leisure images in the Macau without consideration of visitors and local residents
whether they have received those images. It may imply that the images are projecting from the
government that is different to what the government is doing. The various stakeholder groups
must be aligned with respect to relational orientations. While visions and perspectives of
stakeholders of tourism places are often diverse and even contradictory (Ong et al., 2014; Wong,
2013), tourism planners should be more sensitive to the images of those stakeholders in the
process. Stakeholder theory with a two-stage strategy can provide a conceptual framework of
enhancing sustainability in the tourism destinations. If tourism planners proactively consider
the images of all other stakeholders, at least for the three key stakeholders, the odds for
sustainable development is enhanced as discrepancies in destination images could be
minimized and that the synergy from a harmonious appropriation and development of tourism
resources maximized.
Conclusions and limitations
The Macau case offers a useful research direction in for studies of long-term tourism planning as
well as identifying the justification for the co-creation of destination images for sustainability by
postulating a more inclusive approach to destination marketing. Both quantitatively measurable
and qualitative items should be included in understanding the images and the messages behind
them. The key lesson from Macau’s case is in acknowledging the tourism planning role of the
host community. Such an approach is seldom used to study tourism stakeholders’ opinions of
images promoted, but it is still considered promising as it allows for a rich and detailed
examination of the images. This study can provide practical and cohesive results to guard against
such eventualities. As with other research, this study is not without its limitations. The authors
understand that one of these limitations relates to the underlying sample of study participants.
The data collection was conducted over the summer of 2010. Visitors’ characteristics and
images of Macau may vary seasonally. Thus, further study can be conducted in different seasons
in order to investigate the variations and whether they relate to source markets as well. Since the
leading market for Macau is Mainland China, followed by Hong Kong and Taiwan, the present
study is limited to tourists living in East Asia. A cross-cultural investigation of destination branding
in relation to perceptions of multiculturalism and social change in Macau could be examined
further in future research. Future studies should include a larger sample size with greater
geographic representation of various regions. In addition, undertaking qualitative research to gain
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a more in-depth understanding of the destination images from the points of view of residents
and visitors would also benefit Macau’s DMO and an academic understanding of the topic.
There is still a need in future research to address the views and constraints of Macau for the
implementation of sustainable tourism.
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Corresponding author
Dr Weng Hang Kong can be contacted at: [email protected]
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