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A Teacher’s Guide
Vietnam War in the Classroom
Contrasts, Comparisons
War Literature
War Films
Developed by
D Hideo Maruyama
El Camino College
Compton Educational Center
Fulbright Hays GPA 2010
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Introduction
This is a byproduct of a study of
Vietnam and Cambodia as result of
a Fulbright Hays Group Project
Abroad grant in 2010. All of the
materials were generated from
research conducted both in
Vietnam and also in the USA.
The goal of this package is to help
instructors to develop their own
essay topics focusing around the
topic of the Vietnam War. The
materials are generally for
developmental and transfer levels
courses. More specifically, the
sample topics in this package are
designed to meet the SLO
requirements for the relevant
literature and writing courses.
However, the topics can be
adapted accordingly for whichever
course that you decide to use this
with. Many of the novels and
films would work in a psychology
class for example. Post Traumatic
Stress disorder is also something
that can be a part of the
assignments. The goal is to
stimulate critical thinking and
analysis of the content.
1. Tim O’Brien’s The Things They
Carried.
2. Duong Thu Huong’s Novel
Without a Name.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
American Films
Apocalypse Now
Rambo First Blood
Platoon
Full Metal Jacket
Casualties of War.
Born on the Fourth of July
The Green Berets
The Deer Hunter
Vietnamese Films
1. Three Seasons by Tony Bui
2. Scent of Green Papaya
Literary Theory
The core critical theory ideas in
this project are Edward Said’s
concept of Orientalism and Roland
Barthes “Myth Today” from
Mythologies. Although not
essential, it will help to make the
content more digestible with a
ready made theory to use as a form
of analysis and critical thought.
Thematic elements: War, Ethics,
Cultural Relativism, Semotics
There is a corresponding blog as
well. Tonal Influences
Maruinseasia.blogspot.com
Rhetorical modes:
comparison/contrast, cause &
effect, definition, process.
Novels
The more easily accessible
resources are the following:
I hope this finds you well.
D Hideo Maruyama
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Index
3.
Vietnam Today
5.
Why bother with the Vietnam War?
8.
Sample assignment. Apocalypse Now and Joseph Conrad.
11.
English 1B. Literature and Writing. Comparison Contrast of Novels
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Bibliography
14.
English 1C Critical Thinking
15.
Film Based general assignment samples
16.
Filmography of War and Vietnam
20.
Uncle Ho Chi Minh in paintings.
21.
Sculpture of Uncle Ho Chi Minh in his museum.
22.
The Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum.
24.
Timeline from American Modern Poetry
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Vietnam Today
Vietnam today is rapidly growing. It’s not all jungle. Everyone is not
running around wearing the same clothes. Much of the overall population
was born well after what they call “The American War.” Primarily
Communist in government, they are taking the Chinese approach of
incorporating a market economy into their system. Because of this, Vietnam
is experiencing rapid economic growth and the quality of life has improved
significantly. A visit to Vietnam yields very little in terms of animosity
towards Americans. In fact, it was one of the more pleasant countries to
visit.
After President Bill Clinton normalized relations with Vietnam, it has
become a destination for many Americans and Europeans. A visit to the
country reveals several things. None of the devastation of the war is left.
The country has rebuilt itself. Uncle Ho Chi Minh is everywhere. His
image is everywhere.
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My impressions of the country are more thoroughly documented in my blog
called Tonal Influences. The title is a pun about the languages in this part of
the world are tonal in nature. If you use the wrong tone, you got the wrong
word.
There are still lingering problems. Agent Orange is still an issue in Vietnam.
Vietnam is still transitioning into a market economy, but occasionally the
Communist central planning thing reemerges periodically. Actually, if you
look at this part of the world, everyone doesn’t get along. Social services
are not exactly the best in all areas. Education is a closed system, as you
must test to get into the “right” university. Even their community colleges
are not open enrollment.
Things are renamed. The former location for the President of South
Vietnam is now called Reunification Palace.
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Why bother with the Vietnam War?
Context and Potential for Writing Across the Curriculum Using Semiotics.
So it is said that if you know your enemies and know yourself, you can win a hundred
battles without a single loss.
If you only know yourself, but not your opponent, you may win or may lose.
If you know neither yourself nor your enemy, you will always endanger yourself.
The Art of War, Sun Tzu.
A science that studies the life of signs within society is conceivable; it would be a part of
social psychology and consequently of general psychology; I shall call it semiology (from
the Greek semeion 'sign'). Semiology would show what constitutes signs, what laws
govern them. Since the science does not yet exist, no one can say what it would be; but it
has a right to existence, a place staked out in advance. Linguistics is only a part of the
general science of semiology; the laws discovered by semiology will be applicable to
linguistics, and the latter will circumscribe a well-defined area within the mass of
anthropological facts. (Saussure, cited in Hawkes 1977, 123)
Writing across the curriculum is the current mantra of education in America
today. In fact there are a number of website that focus purely on the
discussion and presentation of ideas on how to implement writing across the
curriculum in the classroom today. This guide is very specific in focus. I
believe the Vietnam War is a good gateway topic for a number of subject
areas for writing assignments and critical thinking exercises. In addition, it
also forces the student to think more in terms of a global perspective. The
primary theoretical approach that I prefer to use with the Vietnam War is the
semiotic method as developed by UCLA professors, Sonia Maasik and Jack
Solomon in their text, Signs of Life in the USA.
Why? The Vietnam War has evolved into a cultural sign. American
Vietnam War films are quite suitable to semiotic analysis in terms of
analyzing the mythology that now defines this war in American culture. The
topic also automatically requires writing across the curriculum in the
assignment. To get behind the sign, you must study the history of the event
to define the signifier. There is a lack of general knowledge in America, and
more importantly a lack of historical knowledge. Many students today do
not know the relationship between the Vietnam War and the Cold War.
Many were born after the end of the Cold War so they don’t know the fear
of mutual assured destruction. The problem with this lack of knowledge is
that America has again gotten involved in world conflicts in the new
millennium with the 2nd Persian Gulf War, the Afghanistan/NATO War, as
well as the Libyan Civil War 2011. War now dominates the 2000 decade
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and potentially a large portion of the 2010 decade. The Vietnam War is a
gateway to a number of critical thinking exercises and critical.
All English classes to a certain extent deal with a variety of topic areas like
sociology, psychology and history. It can be a way to connect the
contemporary American student with the global perspective. Essentially
what you can do is use what Jack Soloman calls Six Principles of Semiotics:
1. Always question the "commonsense" view of things, because
"common sense" is really "communal sense": the habitual opinions and
perspectives of [what Solomon terms] the tribe.
2. The "commonsense" viewpoint is usually motivated by a cultural
interest that manipulates our consciousness for ideological reasons.
3. Cultures tend to conceal their ideologies behind the veil of "nature,"
defining what they do as "natural" and condemning contrary cultural
practices as "unnatural."
4. In evaluating any system of cultural practices, one must take into
account the interests behind it.
5. We do not perceive our world directly but view it through the filter of
a semiotic code or mythic frame.
6. A sign is a sort of cultural barometer, marking the dynamic movement
of social history
An analysis of lets say Rambo II or Missing in Action can offer a number of
semiotic readings. We are still handicapped by our own cultural relativism.
We also do not read the symbolic language of many of our cultural artifacts.
In addition to this, we are still dealing with stereotypical perceptions of the
East. Among the cultural issues is what Ronald Takaki calls the Caliban
complex between the West and the “Other.” The “Other” could mean
Vietnamese, Japanese, Mexican, Honduran, or Ethiopian.
Perceptions of Vietnam in film and novels and other artifacts stem from
earlier perceptions of Asia. Ronald Takaki states in Hiroshima: Why
America Dropped the Bomb that:
Rooted in the nineteenth century, anti-Asian prejudice
contributed to the way Americans quickly racialized the Pacific
war. When the first Chinese immigrants arrived, they were
condemned as the “yellow peril.” Then came the Japanese
immigrants. They, too, found themselves the targets of
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stereotyping, discrimination, violence, and exclusion that would
lead directly to the internment camps of World War II. (7)
Any evaluation of the Vietnam War would require a full presentation of race
and stereotypes. In addition to the race card component of the discourse is a
more complex concept such as Orientalism: an inherent dialectical conflict
between the Orient and Occidental as noted by Edward Said. Often in film,
the Viet Cong or Vietnamese in general are shown in very 2 dimensional
ways.
Semiotic readings can be extended further. As of late, there have been
Vietnamese novelists who have actually tried to address the Vietnam War or
what they call the American War in a more critical nature. Duong Huong
and Bao Ninh have both been translated into English, but there are still
censorship issues in Vietnam. Huong’s texts are largely banned in Vietnam.
In fact, most of my materials are US sourced as I could not locate adequate
materials other than books that glorified Uncle Ho, or General Giap.
Culturally in Vietnam, there still is a sense of a need to glorify the war.
What specific approaches are possible? Film and novel combinations are
easy ways to introduce students to broader themes. None of the sample
assignments are simply a summary or book review. All of the assignments
will require the use of critical thinking skills, which may require some level
of scaffolding in order to achieve the desired effect. The student will be
required to understand culture, cultural differences and to expand in the
context of global knowledge. With all of them, you will have opportunities
to incorporate deep critical readings of popular culture.
Maasik, Sonia and Jack Soloman. Signs of Life in the USA: Readings on
Popular Culture for Writers. New York: Bedford, 2002. ISBN: 9780312397845
Solomon, Jack. The Signs of Our Time: The Secret Meanings of Everyday
Life New York: Harper & Row, 1988. ISBN: 0-06-097266-1
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Sample Assignment
Essay Prompt
Apocalypse Now and Joseph Conrad’s The Heart of Darkness
Read Joseph Conrad’s The Heart of Darkness. Watch Coppola’s film
adaptation of the novel, Apocalypse Now. What are the commonalities and
differences between the two texts? Why do you think Coppola set his film
in the Vietnam War? What issues do you think are being addressed in these
two texts? Explain.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Steps
Introduce the background of Joseph Conrad.
Introduce the background of the Vietnam War and films about the
war.
Outline how Apocalypse Now was an adaptation of The Heart of
Darkness, but set in Vietnam not Africa.
Go over the history of colonialism.
Go over the history of Vietnam and the Vietnam conflict.
Have the read the novel first. Get into groups. Some sample start up
questions are as follows:
a. How is colonialism portrayed in the novel?
b. What is this obsession over “darkness” in the novel?
c. Do you think Conrad agrees with colonialism in Africa?
d. What is the significance of the river in the novel?
e. Who exactly is Kurtz?
Show the film. Again group work questions should follow.
a. How is the Vietnam War portrayed in the film?
b. What role do the songs have in the film?
c. What do you think of Captain Benjamin Willard? What is his
journey?
d. Marlon Brando reads T.S. Eliot’s poem, “The Hollow Men.”
What is the significance of this poem?
e. What does Kurtz represent in the film?
Assign the paper.
This is the most common and the most accessible assignment. A film is
linked to a challenging novel. The module will introduce to the student the
perception of the other versus an understanding of the other. A close
reading between the two texts would generally reveal a critical analysis of
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colonialism, but inherently, with both texts, contact with the other instantly
will corrupt the Westerner. There are other discussion points that you can
incorporate into this assignment.
1. Mythology. In many ways, the Vietnam War has created its own
mythological aura in America. Vietnam is has taken a mythical element in
American discourse. “America would have won if we let the generals
handle it all.” Underlying this discourse is an inherent belief that America
can win when it uses a bigger hammer. What America failed to realize was
that they were in fact fighting their own shadow as the Revolutionary Army
under General Washington was an army of insurrection using guerilla
tactics. It seems that the Vietnam War coincided with the collapse of the
1950s self-image of America. We have become Kurtz talking about, “The
Horror. The Horror.”
2. Past Present pattern recognition. In the Conrad’s novel, we are dealing
with the darkness of the Congo, the darkness of colonialism and the darkness
of humanity’s ability to be inhumane to their fellow human beings. The
novella will allow you to set up the context for the Vietnam War—
colonialism and global politics. One of the things that will be important to
set up is a proper reading of The Heart of Darkness. Many will not find this
novel to be very accessible, in favor of less difficult texts. You have to
introduce to the students the colonialism in Africa. This will allow you to
introduce history into a writing class. Show them the pattern, and then
compare it with something contemporary. The political/colonial pattern is
just as relevant today as it was when Joseph Conrad was composing it during
the Victorian Era. We have gone up the rivers of the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers. We have instead of being hit by spears, been hit by IED (Improvised
Explosive Devices). Some of it might be based on our desire to secure the
oil reserves of the Middle East, just as Kurtz was trying to secure the ivory
in Africa.
3. Reading visual language and the language of film. Next, you must break
the entertainment tendency of watching film. With Apocalypse Now, the
portrayal of the Vietnam War can allow you to integrate a rich palate of
academic opportunities especially with concepts of visual language. Why
did Coppola show the sacrifice of the cow during the murder of Kurtz?
Why did Coppola use The Heart of Darkness as the basis for his screenplay
about the Vietnam War? Be also aware that there is a documentary about
the making of Apocalypse Now ironically called, The Heart of Darkness.
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For film studies classes, this can quite useful. As you can see, there is an
opportunity to write across the curriculum. It can involve political science,
history, film studies and of course literary and film analysis.
Conclusion
Page length issues and journaling components can be modified depending
upon the student learning outcome of the course in which the materials are
being used. Although there are a number of good books and films available
to be used, I am going limit my list of content to specific books or films that
are easily found in American bookstores. Unfortunately, there is a lack of
translations of Vietnamese books.
In advanced classes, you can integrate more theory. One of the more
obvious theoretical candidates would be New Historicism. You can also use
examples in these texts for psychology courses and sociology courses like
PTSD in The Things They Carried, or the support system of the veterans in
America in Born on the Fourth of July. A developmental class has different
requirements than a critical thinking class. You can have them read excerpts
of a Vietnamese novel and an excerpt from Tim O’Brien’s novel and have
them compare the two.
Many of the current English courses require the instructor to follow a modal
approach. What I propose is to layer on top of the modal approach, a
thematic arc to the course. I have found that if you integrate an
approachable theme to the course, student response tends to be better. I
don’t believe a thematic arc bars you from addressing any modes of rhetoric
requirements.
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English 1B (Literature and Writing)
Comparison Contrast of Novels
At El Camino College, many of our English 1B courses require the use of at
least two novels. What is presented here is a sample of using war related
novels in such a course. The core rhetorical mode is comparison contrast,
and the core components of this exercise would be novels from different
cultures. Because of the complex nature of getting translations from
Vietnamese writers, the selection is somewhat limited. Due to rising
censorship in Vietnam, it was difficult to find novels in translation other than
the two that I have located.
Preparation
1. Run a diagnostic to see what their general knowledge level would be. Do
not assume that they have an idea about the war or the history.
Potential Gateway Discussion Prompts:
What do you know about the Vietnam War?
Do you know when it occurred and for how long?
Do you know who the key people were?
Is all of your knowledge of the war from film?
2. Depending upon their level of knowledge, you will have to tailor the
assignment accordingly. The most important part is preparation. You may
have to prepare the students for the topic with extensive background
information about the authors, the historical context, and perhaps
information about such things as post-traumatic stress disorder.
3. Have them read the novels. For many of the English 1B courses, the
textbooks contain excerpts from Tim O’Brien’s books; he writes extensively
about the war. Some sample novels are listed on the next page. It is here
that you can customize the experience. Here are some sample pairings
The Sorrow of War by Bao Ninh
For Whom The Bell Tolls by Hemingway.
You are actually dealing with people of the same political side. However,
when an American is siding against the Fascists and with Communists, the
portrayal is different than let’s say more current novels.
Novel Without a Name by Duong Huong
The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien.
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Both of these books are set in the Vietnam War, but they offer you
perceptions from the other side. You can see common themes surrounding
the issue of war, leadership and the loss of innocence.
The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane
The Sorrow of War or Novel Without a Name.
Stephen Crane’s novel is considered to be premier work on the American
Civil War. If you also view the Vietnam War as a civil war, then you can
also use this as a comparison. Both of the main characters are traumatized
by their experiences.
4. Evaluate the paper according to the El Camino College SLO Rubric or
your own evaluation criteria.
Again, the pairings above are only suggestions.
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Bibliography
Vietnam
Huong, Duong Thu. Novel Without A Name. New York: Penguin, 1995.
(ISBN: 0-14-025510-9)
Ninh, Bao. The Sorrow of War. New York: Riverhead, 1993. (ISBN:
978-1-57322-543-4)
Karlin, Wayne, ed. The Other Side of Heaven. Williemantic: Curbstone,
1995. (ISBN: 1-880684-31-4)
USA
O’Brien, Tim. The Things They Carried. New York: Broadway, 1990.
(ISBN: 978-0-7679-0289-2)
O’Brien, Tim. Going After Cacciato. New York: Broadway, 1999. (ISBN:
978-0767904421)
Hemingway, Ernest. For Whom The Bell Tolls. New York: Scribner, 1995.
(ISBN: 978-0684803357)
Crane, Stephen. The Red Badge of Courage. New York: Tor, 1990. (ISBN:
978-0812504798)
Germany
Remarque, Erich Maria. All Quiet on the Western Front. New York:
Fawcett, 1956. (ISBN: 978-0449213940)
War Poetry
Ward, Candice. Editor. World War One British Poets: Brooke, Owen,
Sassoon, Rosenberg and Others (Unabridged). New York: Dover, 1997.
(ISBN: 978-0486295688)
Website resource of Vietnam War related poetry. War-Stories.com
http://www.war-stories.com/aspprotect/warstory-vietnam-war-poetry-1.asp
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English 1C (Critical Thinking and Writing)
The Vietnam War and Contemporary Wars
As of 2010-2011, the country has now gotten involved in three war
conflicts—Iraq, Afghanistan and Libya. A study of the 2nd Iraq War
indicates an obvious failure in understanding of the adversary as noted in the
Vietnam War. The study of our War in Afghanistan exposes the same
problems. There are even more complexities that parallel the Vietnam
Experience. Given that we have a large number of veterans returning from
conflict zones, it can allow for them to relate to the materials more tangibly.
The Fog of War
The Fog of War. Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara.
(2003) Dir Errol Morris
This is a complex documentary of Robert McNamara, Secretary of Defense
during the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations. He was the man in
charge when we escalated the war in Vietnam.
Website: http://www.sonyclassics.com/fogofwar/
The website also contain a separate lesson plan which focuses on the film as
part of an overall study of why we should not go to war. It uses Flash, so be
aware that your browser may need to be updated.
The Just War
G. E. M Anscombe is often cited for her Just War Theory. Jus Ad Bellum is
often a criterion in which you justify something. In terms of an English 1C
class, the example of the Vietnam War is quite suitable as an example. You
can then discuss the current wars of the 2000s.
Internet Encyclopedia on Philosophy—Just War Entry
http://www.iep.utm.edu/justwar/
The Art of War
One of the major texts to read would be the Art of War by Sun Tzu. A
reading of this text and an analysis of what actually happened in Vietnam
would offer some good material for discussion and writing assignments.
Excerpts can be used as part of the discussion.
There is an online version of this text here.
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Film based assignments for other courses
English C, B and A
Non-Transfer Level writing courses
You can still run comparison contrast assignments using the content, but you
may have to scale back the complexity.
English 1A (Reading and Composition)
And other Transfer Level courses.
Many often use the films as a beginning point to discuss the nature of war.
You would have to tailor the assignment accordingly.
Sample prompts:
1. What were the causes of Ron Kovic’s problems in Born on the Fourth
of July? Did he properly resolve his problems by the end of the film?
How?
2. The Hurt Locker and The Deer Hunter both portray soldiers who have
an inability to adjust to life after their war experience. How do
Michael, Steven and Stan adjust in the Deer Hunter? In the Hurt
Locker, why does Sergeant First Class William James have a problem
adjusting to mainstream American life versus the life as a combat
soldier? Compare the two films and explain your character analysis.
3. Portrayals of War. What is the difference between The Green Berets
versus The Hurt Locker? Explain.
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Filmography of War and Vietnam
There are obviously many films focusing on the Vietnam War. Many of the
book references or sources are autobiographical in nature. The most
common literary connections would be with Joseph Conrad’s The Heart of
Darkness and Graham Greene’s The Quiet American. You can actually
compare films portraying the ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan with
some of these texts. Behind Enemy Lines and Bat 21 are somewhat close,
down to having the same actor, Gene Hackman involved. Any of these films
might work with the classic film, All Quiet on the Western Front.
Apocalypse Now (1979) Dir. Francis Ford Coppola
Book Reference: The Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad.
This is considered to be one of the key Vietnam War films that populated
American popular culture. It is based upon Joseph Conrad’s The Heart of
Darkness. Some of the lines in the novel are echoed in the film, such as the
reference to being killed by a spear. You can’t interpret the film without a
clear understanding of the Conrad novel. It is a good alternative to the
comparison contrast of novels.
The War Trilogy of Oliver Stone
Platoon (1986) Dir. Oliver Stone
Book Reference: None.
Born on the Fourth of July. (1989) Dir. Oliver Stone
Book Reference: Born on the Fourth of July by Ronald Kovic
(autobiography)
Heaven and Earth (1993) Dir. Oliver Stone.
Book References: When Heaven and Earth Changed Places and Child of
War, Woman of Peace, by Le Ly Hayslip
Both of these films are Oliver Stone projects. The reason that I have lumped
them together is that they have a common theme about the loss of innocence
and the complexities of war and society. Platoon has a mythic component to
the storyline, which often lends itself to a mythological/hero analysis. Born
on the Fourth of July focuses on a real person named Ron Kovic. He is
paralyzed and then through a number of events becomes an anti-war activist.
You can interpret this film in many ways, but you can make connections to
the Veterans of the Gulf Wars, Afghanistan. Heaven and Earth was less
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successful in terms of recognition. It also portrays the post-traumatic stress
disorder of Gunnery Sergeant Steve Butler.
Full Metal Jacket (1987) Dir Stanley Kubrick
This is a Kubrick film, which can be broken down into two halves. Like all
Kubrick films the scenery and visuals are amazing. The beginning of the
film focuses on the turning of men into soldiers. Many former soldiers
consider R Lee Ermey’s Drill Sergeant character to be true to life. The
second half of the film focuses on the war in Vietnam and the experiences
that they have.
The Green Berets (1968) Dir. John Wayne
Book Reference: The Green Berets by Robert Lowell "Robin" Moore, Jr.
(Screenplay apparently is very different than the book.)
This is a John Wayne film. When this film was first produced, it was the
Duke’s attempt to spin a more patriotic idea about the war in Vietnam.
Largely based upon a popular song, it portrays how the Green Berets work
in the theater. Some might interpret this film to be nothing more than any
other John Wayne film with the exception of changing the American Indian
into VC.
Bat 21 (1988) Dir. Peter Markel.
Book Reference: Bat 21 by William Charles Anderson
This is a film about Lt. Col. Iceal "Ham" Hambleton. He was rescued from
enemy capture, but there is a historical reference to this event. Bat 21 was
the radio call sign. One of the dubious distinctions of this event is that it
took many people’s lives to save him. Ultimately it was Lt. Tom Norris of
US Navy SEALs and Nguyen Van Kiet of South Vietnamese Armed Forces
that actually rescued this soldier.
Hamburger Hill (1987) Dir. John Irvin
Book Reference: None.
This is a film that portrays the US Army’s 101st Airborne taking hill 937 in
May of 1969. It is very violent, but it also portrays the difficulty of war and
the illogical nature of taking a hill that would not be held afterwards.
We Were Soldiers (2007) Dir. Randall Wallace
Book Reference: We Were Soldiers Once… And Young by Lt. Gen. Harold
G. Moore (Ret.) and war journalist Joseph L. Galloway
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This is a Mel Gibson film. It is actually based upon an autobiography by
Lieutenant Colonel Hal Moore with a little help of a war journalist named
Galloway. The autobiography gives significantly more detail to the battle of
La Drang, but the 2nd part of the battle outlined in the autobiography is not
noted in the film. It portrays the development of the 7th Calvary into the 7th
Air Calvary relying on helicopters to engage the enemy. November 14,
1965 was the first time the US Military engaged the Vietnamese in force.
The Deer Hunter (1978) Dir. Michael Cimino
Book Reference: None.
This is a classic Robert DeNiro film. It is a film that portrays the
Vietnamese almost as wooden sadists. What it does attempt to portray is the
complexities of sending young men into war. In some ways, it would be a
good film to review post-traumatic stress disorder as portrayed in film.
Good Morning Vietnam (1987) Dir. Barry Levinson
Book Reference: None.
It is also based on true events of the DJ, Adrian Cronauer, who would run
into trouble with the Armed forces Radio Network leadership. It outlines the
sarcastic analysis of the war and the reasons behind it. Robin Williams does
a good comic job in this film. What it does have is the strange tendency of
the soldier trying to hook up with the cute Vietnamese girl.
MASH (1970) Dir. Robert Altman
Book Reference: MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors by Richard
Hooker
Technically, this film is about the Korean War, but many have interpreted
this film as director, Robert Altman’s critique of the Vietnam War. What is
interesting is the title of the theme song, “Suicide is Painless.”
Rambo (1982) Dir. Ted Kotcheff
Book Reference: First Blood by David Morrell
This was the first of several films to be developed by Sylvester Stallone. In
this film, you see how the former Special Forces soldier has difficulty
adjusting to returning home. Many of his friends have died. Elements of
post-traumatic stress disorder are portrayed in the film. The later films are
fantasy exercises. One of them, Rambo III (1988) portrays him helping the
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Mujahedeen in Afghanistan. This is sort of ironic in the context of the war
against the Taliban and Al Qaida.
The Quiet American (1958) Dir Joseph Mankiewicz
Starring Audie Murphy and Michael Redgrave
The Quiet American (2002) Dir. Phillip Noyce
Starring Michael Caine, Brendan Fraser, Do Thi Hai Yen.
Book Reference: The Quiet American by Graham Green
Both of these films are based on the novel. It is up to you to either use the
classic film or the updated film with Michael Caine. The problem with the
classic film is that some of Green’s political elements are suppressed. What
is also problematic is that the love interest is in yellow face. On the other
hand, a comparison of the two films with each other may offer some insights
into images of race in American film.
Vietnamese Films or Films about Vietnam
Many of the films listed here do not portray the war in any kind. The reason
I am including them in this list is to give you an idea about how incidental
the “American War” seems to the Vietnamese. Unlike the US film industry,
there doesn’t seem to be an obsession. Many of the films however have
French backing.
Tran Trilogy
The Scent of Green Papaya (1993) Dir Tran Anh Hung
Cyclo (1995)
Vertical Ray of the Sun (2000)
Tran Anh Hung is a Vietnamese born French director. He is considered to
be the forefront of the expat Vietnamese film industry. He is also slated to
adapt Haruki Murakami's novel Norwegian Wood into a film.
Three Seasons (1999) Dir Tony Bui
This film portrays the evolution of Ho Chi Minh City/Saigon into what it is
today, a bustling market driven city. It is the first American film to be
filmed in Vietnam after Bill Clinton normalized relations. There is a story
line of Harvey Keitel’s character, James Hager, trying to find his daughter in
Ho Chi Minh City.
The Lover (1992) Dir Jean-Jacques Annaud
Book Reference: The Lover by Marguerite Duras
20
This is a difficult film to recommend since it does portray an illicit affair
between and older man and an under-aged French girl. Care must be taken
if this film is screened in a class due to very graphic sexual situations. Critic
Roger Ebert compared it to soft porn. The novel is also controversial.
Comparison studies with Nabokov’s Lolita may be more useful.
Indochine (1992) Dir Regis Wargnier
Book Reference: None.
This film stars Catherine Deneuve, and it portrays the eventual fall of
France’s rule in Vietnam. It is a story about a French plantation owner who
adopts a Vietnamese girl. Eventually, the girl gets politicized and gets
involved with the Communists. It had won the Academy Award for best
foreign film.
21
Visual Readings
Images from Vietnam
What is the significance of this painting of Ho Chi Minh?
Uncle Ho Chi Minh Speaks to the Ethnic Minorities
22
Visual Readings
Images from Vietnam
What is the significance of this Vietnamese Sculpture? This was taken at the
Ho Chi Min Museum.
23
Visual Readings
Images from Vietnam
What is the significance of the Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum? Photographs of
the body are not allowed. You are not allowed to wear a hat. The
Vietnamese Government had actually devoted a lot of money for this. What
does this say about the role of Uncle Ho to the Vietnamese? What is the
significance of this?
24
Timeline
A Vietnam War Timeline (From American Modern Poetry)
[Note: This timeline is an abbreviated version of the more detailed timeline
posted on the Public Broadcasting System's "Vietnam Online" section of The
American Experience.]
1945
Ho Chi Minh Creates Provisional Government: Following the surrender of Japan to Allied forces, Ho
Chi Minh and his People's Congress create the National Liberation Committee of Vietnam to form a
provisional government. Japan transfers all power to Ho's Vietminh.
Ho Declares Independence of Vietnam
British Forces Land in Saigon, Return Authority to French
First American Dies in Vietnam: Lt. Col. A. Peter Dewey, head of American OSS mission, was killed
by Vietminh troops while driving a jeep to the airport. Reports later indicated that his death was due to a
case of mistaken identity -- he had been mistaken for a Frenchman.
1946
French and Vietminh Reach Accord: France recognizes Vietnam as a "free state" within the French
Union. French troops replace Chinese in the North.
Negotiations Between French and Vietminh Breakdown
Indochina War Begins: Following months of steadily deteriorating relations, the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam launches its first consorted attack against the French.
1947
Vietminh Move North of Hanoi
Valluy Fails to Defeat Vietminh: French General Etienne Valluy attempts, and fails, to wipe out the
Vietminh in one stroke.
1949
Elysee Agreement Signed:
Bao Dai and President Vincent Auriol of France sign the Elysee Agreement.
As part of the agreement the French pledge to assist in the building of a national anti-Communist army.
1950
Chinese, Soviets Offer Weapons to Vietminh
US Pledges $15M to Aid French: The United States sends $15 million dollars in military aid to the
French for the war in Indochina. Included in the aid package is a military mission and military advisors.
1953
France Grants Laos Full Independence
Vietminh Forces Push into Laos
1954
Battle of Dienbienphu Begins: A force of 40,000 heavily armed Vietminh lay seige to the French
garrison at Dienbienphu. Using Chinese artillery to shell the airstrip, the Vietminh make it impossible for
French supplies to arrive by air. It soon becomes clear that the French have met their match.
Eisenhower Cites "Domino Theory" Regarding Southeast Asia: Responding to the defeat of the
French by the Vietminh at Dienbienphu, President Eisenhower outlines the Domino Theory: "You have a
row of dominoes set up. You knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty
that it will go over very quickly."
French Defeated at Dien Bien Phu
25
Geneva Convention Begins: Delegates from nine nations convene in Geneva to start negotiations that
will lead to the end of hostilities in Indochina. The idea of partitioning Vietnam is first explored at this
forum.
Geneva Convention Agreements Announced: Vietminh General Ta Quang Buu and French General
Henri Delteil sign the Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities in Vietnam. As part of the agreement, a
provisional demarcation line is drawn at the 17th parallel which will divide Vietnam until nationwide
elections are held in 1956. The United States does not accept the agreement, neither does the government of
Bao Dai.
1955
Diem Rejects Conditions of Geneva Accords, Refuses to Participate in Nationwide Elections
China and Soviet Union Pledge Additional Financial Support to Hanoi
Diem Urged to Negotiate with North: Britain, France, and United States covertly urge Diem to respect
Geneva accords and conduct discussions with the North.
Diem Becomes President of Republic of Vietnam: Diem defeats Bao Dai in rigged election and
proclaims himself President of Republic of Vietnam.
1956
French Leave Vietnam
US Training South Vietnamese: The US Military Assistance Advisor Group (MAAG) assumes
responsibility, from French, for training South Vietnamese forces.
1957
Communist Insurgency into South Vietnam: Communist insurgent activity in South Vietnam begins.
Guerrillas assassinate more than 400 South Vietnamese officials. Thirty-seven armed companies are
organized along the Mekong Delta.
Terrorist Bombings Rock Saigon: Thirteen Americans working for MAAG and US Information
Service are wounded in terrorist bombings in Saigon.
1959
Weapons Moving Along Ho Chi Minh Trail: North Vietnam forms Group 559 to begin infiltrating
cadres and weapons into South Vietnam via the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The Trail will become a strategic target
for future military attacks.
US Servicemen Killed in Guerilla Attack: Major Dale R. Buis and Master Sargeant Chester M.
Ovnand become the first Americans to die in the Vietnam War when guerillas strike at Bienhoa
Diem Orders Crackdown on Communists, Dissidents
1960
North Vietnam Imposes Universal Military Conscription
Kennedy Elected President: John F. Kennedy narrowly defeats Richard Nixon for the presidency.
Diem Survives Coup Attempt
Vietcong Formed: Hanoi forms National Liberation Front for South Vietnam. Diem government dubs
them "Vietcong."
1961
Battle of Kienhoa Province: 400 guerillas attack village in Kienhoa Province, and are defeated by
South Vietnamese troops.
Vice President Johnson Tours Saigon: During a tour of Asian countries, Vice President Lyndon
Johnson visits Diem in Saigon. Johnson assures Diem that he is crucial to US objectives in Vietnam and
calls him "the Churchill of Asia."
1962
US Military Employs Agent Orange: US Air Force begins using Agent Orange -- a defoliant that came
in metal orange containers-to expose roads and trails used by Vietcong forces.
Diem Palace Bombed in Coup Attempt
26
Mansfield Voices Doubt on Vietnam Policy: Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield reports back to
JFK from Saigon his opinion that Diem had wasted the two billion dollars America had spent there.
1963
Battle of Ap Bac: Vietcong units defeat South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) in Battle of Ap Bac
President Kennedy Assassinated in Dallas: Kennedy's death meant that the problem of how to proceed
in Vietnam fell squarely into the lap of his vice president, Lyndon Johnson.
Buddhists Protest Against Diem: Tensions between Buddhists and the Diem government are further
strained as Diem, a Catholic, removes Buddhists from several key government positions and replaces them
with Catholics. Buddhist monks protest Diem's intolerance for other religions and the measures he takes to
silence them. In a show of protest, Buddhist monks start setting themselves on fire in public places.
Diem Overthrown, Murdered: With tacit approval of the United States, operatives within the South
Vietnamese military overthrow Diem. He and his brother Nhu are shot and killed in the aftermath.
1964
General Nguyen Khanh Seizes Power in Saigon: In a bloodless coup, General Nguyen Khanh seizes
power in Saigon. South Vietnam junta leader, Major General Duong Van Minh, is placed under house
arrest, but is allowed to remain as a figurehead chief-of-state.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident: On August 2, three North Vietnamese PT boats allegedly fire torpedoes at the
USS Maddox, a destroyer located in the international waters of the Tonkin Gulf, some thirty miles off the
coast of North Vietnam. The attack comes after six months of covert US and South Vietnamese naval
operations. A second, even more highly disputed attack, is alleged to have taken place on August 4.
Debate on Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution is approved by Congress on
August 7 and authorizes President Lyndon Johnson to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed
attack against forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." The resolution passes
unanimously in the House, and by a margin of 82-2 in the Senate. The Resolution allows Johnson to wage
all out war against North Vietnam without ever securing a formal Declaration of War from Congress.
Vietcong Attack Bienhoa Air Base
LBJ Defeats Goldwater: Lyndon Johnson is elected in a landslide over Republican Barry Goldwater of
Arizona. During the campaign, Johnson's position on Vietnam appeared to lean toward de-escalation of US
involvement, and sharply contrasted the more militant views held by Goldwater.
1965
Operation "Rolling Thunder" Deployed: Sustained American bombing raids of North Vietnam,
dubbed Operation Rolling Thunder, begin in February. The nearly continuous air raids would go on for
three years.
Marines Arrive at Danang: The first American combat troops, the 9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade,
arrive in Vietnam to defend the US airfield at Danang. Scattered Vietcong gunfire is reported, but no
Marines are injured.
Heavy Fighting at Ia Drang Valley: The first conventional battle of the Vietnam war takes place as
American forces clash with North Vietnamese units in the Ia Drang Valley. The US 1st Air Cavalry
Division employs its newly enhanced technique of aerial reconnaissance to finally defeat the NVA,
although heavy casualties are reported on both sides.
US Troop Levels Top 200,000
Vietnam "Teach-In" Broadcast to Nation's Universities: The practice of protesting US policy in
Vietnam by holding "teach-ins" at colleges and universities becomes widespread. The first "teach-in" -featuring seminars, rallies, and speeches -- takes place at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor in
March. In May, a nationally broadcast "teach-in" reaches students and faculty at over 100 campuses.
1966
B-52s Bomb North Vietnam: In an effort to disrupt movement along the Mugia Pass -- the main route
used by the NVA to send personnel and supplies through Laos and into South Vietnam -- American B-52s
bomb North Vietnam for the first time.
South Vietnam Government Troops Take Hue and Danang
27
LBJ Meets With South Vietnamese Leaders: US President Lyndon Johnson meets with South
Vietnamese Premier Nguyen Cao Ky and his military advisors in Honolulu. Johnson promises to continue
to help South Vietnam fend off aggression from the North, but adds that the US will be monitoring South
Vietnam's efforts to expand democracy and improve economic conditions for its citizens.
Veterans Stage Anti-War Rally: Veterans from World Wars I and II, along with veterans from the
Korean war stage a protest rally in New York City. Discharge and separation papers are burned in protest
of US involvement in Vietnam.
CORE Cites "Burden On Minorities and Poor" in Vietnam: The Congress of Racial Equality
(CORE) issues a report claiming that the US military draft places "a heavy discriminatory burden on
minority groups and the poor." The group also calls for a withdrawal of all US troops from Vietnam.
1967
Operation Cedar Falls Begins: In a major ground war effort dubbed Operation Cedar Falls, about
16,000 US and 14,000 South Vietnamese troops set out to destroy Vietcong operations and supply sites
near Saigon. A massive system of tunnels is discovered in an area called the Iron Triangle, an apparent
headquarters for Vietcong personnel.
Bunker Replaces Cabot Lodge as South Vietnam Ambassador
Martin Luther King Speaks Out Against War: Calling the US "the greatest purveyor of violence in the
world," Martin Luther King publicly speaks out against US policy in Vietnam. King later encourages draft
evasion and suggests a merger between antiwar and civil rights groups.
Dow Recruiters Driven From Wisconsin Campus: University of Wisconsin students demand that
corporate recruiters for Dow Chemical -- producers of napalm -- not be allowed on campus.
McNamara Calls Bombing Ineffective: Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, appearing before a
Senate subcommittee, testifies that US bombing raids against North Vietnam have not achieved their
objectives. McNamara maintains that movement of supplies to South Vietnam has not been reduced, and
neither the economy nor the morale of the North Vietnamese has been broken.
1968
January
Sihanouk Allows Pursuit of Vietcong into Cambodia
North Vietnamese Launch Tet Offensive:
In a show of military might that catches the US military off
guard, North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces sweep down upon several key cities and provinces in South
Vietnam, including its capital, Saigon. Within days, American forces turn back the onslaught and recapture
most areas. From a military point of view, Tet is a huge defeat for the Communists, but turns out to be a
political and psychological victory. The US military's assessment of the war is questioned and the "end of
tunnel" seems very far off.
February
Battle for Hue: The Battle for Hue wages for 26 days as US and South Vietnamese forces try to
recapture the site seized by the Communists during the Tet Offensive. Previously, a religious retreat in the
middle of a war zone, Hue was nearly leveled in a battle that left nearly all of its population homeless.
Following the US and ARVN victory, mass graves containing the bodies of thousands of people who had
been executed during the Communist occupation are discovered.
Westmoreland Requests 206,000 More Troops
My Lai Massacre: On March 16, the angry and frustrated men of Charlie Company, 11th Brigade,
Americal Division entered the village of My Lai. "This is what you've been waiting for -- search and
destroy -- and you've got it," said their superior officers. A short time later the killing began. When news of
the atrocities surfaced, it sent shockwaves through the US political establishment, the military's chain of
command, and an already divided American public.
March
LBJ Announces He Won't Run: With his popularity plummeting and dismayed by Senator Eugene
McCarthy's strong showing in the New Hampshire primary, President Lyndon Johnson stuns the nation and
announces that he will not be a candidate for re-election.
April
MLK Slain in Memphis:
May
28
Paris Peace Talks Begin: Following a lengthy period of debate and discussion, North Vietnamese and
American negotiators agree on a location and start date of peace talks. Talks are slated to begin in Paris on
May 10 with W. Averell Harriman representing the United States, and former Foreign Minister Xuan Thuy
heading the North Vietnamese delegation.
June
Robert Kennedy Assassinated
August
Upheaval at Democratic Convention in Chicago: As the frazzled Democratic party prepares to hold its
nominating convention in Chicago, city officials gear up for a deluge of demonstrations. Mayor Richard
Daley orders police to crackdown on antiwar protests. As the nation watched on television, the area around
the convention erupts in violence.
November
Richard Nixon Elected President: Running on a platform of "law and order," Richard Nixon barely
beats out Hubert Humphrey for the presidency. Nixon takes just 43.4 percent of the popular vote, compared
to 42.7 percent for Humphrey. Third-party candidate George Wallace takes the remaining percentage of
votes.
1969
Nixon Begins Secret Bombing of Cambodia: In an effort to destroy Communist supply routes and base
camps in Cambodia, President Nixon gives the go-ahead to "Operation Breakfast." The covert bombing of
Cambodia, conducted without the knowledge of Congress or the American public, will continue for
fourteen months.
Policy of "Vietnamization" Announced: Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird describes a policy of
"Vietnamization" when discussing a diminishing role for the US military in Vietnam. The objective of the
policy is to shift the burden of defeating the Communists onto the South Vietnamese Army and away from
the United States.
Ho Chi Minh Dies at Age 79
News of My Lai Massacre Reaches US: Through the reporting of journalist Seymour Hersh, Americans
read for the first time of the atrocities committed by Lt. William Calley and his troops in the village of My
Lai. At the time the reports were made public, the Army had already charged Calley with the crime of
murder.
Massive Antiwar Demonstration in DC
1970
Sihanouk Ousted in Cambodia: Prince Sihanouk's attempt to maintain Cambodia's neutrality while war
waged in neighboring Vietnam forced him to strike opportunistic alliances with China, and then the United
States. Such vacillating weakened his government, leading to a coup orchestrated by his defense minister,
Lon Nol.
Kent State Incident: National Guardsmen open fire on a crowd of student antiwar protesters at Ohio's
Kent State University, resulting in the death of four students and the wounding of eight others. President
Nixon publicly deplores the actions of the Guardsmen, but cautions: "...when dissent turns to violence it
invites tragedy." Several of the protesters had been hurling rocks and empty tear gas canisters at the
Guardsmen.
Kissinger and Le Duc Begin Secret Talks
Number of US Troops Falls to 280K
1971
Lt. Calley Convicted of Murder
Pentagon Papers Published: A legacy of deception, concerning US policy in Vietnam, on the part of
the military and the executive branch is revealed as the New York Times publishes the Pentagon Papers.
The Nixon administration, eager to stop leaks of what they consider sensitive information, appeals to the
Supreme Court to halt the publication. The Court decides in favor the Times and allows continued
publication.
Nixon Announces Plans to Visit China: In a move that troubles the North Vietnamese, President Nixon
announces his intention to visit The People's Republic of China. Nixon's gesture toward China is seen by
the North Vietnamese as an effort to create discord between themselves and their Chinese allies.
29
Thieu Re-elected in South Vietnam
1972
Nixon Cuts Troop Levels by 70K: Responding to charges by Democratic presidential candidates that he
is not moving fast enough to end US involvement in Vietnam, President Nixon orders troop strength
reduced by seventy thousand.
Secret Peace Talks Revealed
B-52s Bomb Hanoi and Haiphong: In an attempt to force North Vietnam to make concessions in the
ongoing peace talks, the Nixon administration orders heavy bombing of supply dumps and petroleum
storage sites in and around Hanoi and Haiphong. The administration makes it clear to the North Vietnamese
that no section of Vietnam is off-limits to bombing raids.
Break-In at Watergate Hotel
Kissinger Says "Peace Is At Hand": Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho reach agreement in principle on
several key measures leading to a cease-fire in Vietnam. Kissinger's view that "peace is at hand," is
dimmed somewhat by South Vietnamese President Thieu's opposition to the agreement.
Nixon Wins Reelection
1973
Cease-fire Signed in Paris: A cease-fire agreement that, in the words of Richard Nixon, "brings peace
with honor in Vietnam and Southeast Asia," is signed in Paris by Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho. The
agreement is to go into effect on January 28.
End of Draft Announced
Last American Troops Leave Vietnam
Hearings on Secret Bombings Begin: The Senate Armed Services Committee opens hearing on the US
bombing of Cambodia. Allegations are made that the Nixon administration allowed bombing raids to be
carried out during what was supposed to be a time when Cambodia's neutrality was officially recognized.
As a result of the hearings, Congress orders that all bombing in Cambodia cease effective at midnight,
August 14.
Kissinger and Le Duc Tho Win Peace Prize: The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded to Henry Kissinger of
the United States and Le Duc Tho of North Vietnam. Kissinger accepts the award, while Tho declines,
saying that a true peace does not yet exist in Vietnam.
1974
Thieu Announces Renewal of War
Report Cites Damage to Vietnam Ecology:
According to a report issued by The National Academy of
Science, use of chemical herbicides during the war caused long-term damage to the ecology of Vietnam.
Subsequent inquiries will focus on the connection between certain herbicides, particularly Agent Orange,
and widespread reports of cancer, skin disease, and other disorders on the part of individuals exposed to
them.
Communists Take Mekong Delta Territory
Nixon Resigns
Communists Plan Major Offensive: With North Vietnamese forces in the South believed to be at their
highest levels ever, South Vietnamese leaders gird themselves for an expected Communist offensive of
significant proportions.
1975
Communist Forces Capture Phuoc Long Province: The South Vietnamese Army loses twenty planes
in a failed effort to defend Phuoc Long, a key province just north of Saigon. North Vietnamese leaders
interpret the US's complete lack of response to the siege as an indication that they could move more
aggressively in the South.
Hue Falls to Communists
Communists Take Aim at Saigon: The North Vietnamese initiate the Ho Chi Minh Campaign -- a
concerted effort to "liberate" Saigon. Under the command of General Dung, the NVA sets out to capture
Saigon by late April, in advance of the rainy season.
30
Ford Calls Vietnam War "Finished": Anticipating the fall of Saigon to Communist forces, US
President Gerald Ford, speaking in New Orleans, announces that as far as the US is concerned, the Vietnam
War is "finished."
Last Americans Evacuate as Saigon Falls to Communists: South Vietnamese President Duong Van
Minh delivers an unconditional surrender to the Communists in the early hours of April 30. North
Vietnamese Colonel Bui Tin accepts the surrender and assures Minh that, "...Only the Americans have been
beaten. If you are patriots, consider this a moment of joy." As the few remaining Americans evacuate
Saigon, the last two US servicemen to die in Vietnam are killed when their helicopter crashes.
1976-80
Pham Van Dong Heads Socialist Republic of Vietnam: As the National Assembly meets in July of
1976, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam names Pham Van Dong its prime minister. Van Dong and his
fellow government leaders, all but one of whom are former North Vietnamese officials, take up residence
in the nation's new capital--Hanoi.
Jimmy Carter Elected US President
Carter Issues Pardon to Draft Evaders: In a bold and controversial move, newly inaugurated President
Jimmy Carter extends a full and unconditional pardon to nearly 10,000 men who evaded the Vietnam War
draft.
Vietnam Granted Admission to United Nations
Relations Between Vietnam and China Deteriorate
Vietnam Invades Cambodia: Determined to overthrow the government of Pol Pot, Vietnam invades
Cambodia. Phnompenh, Cambodia's capital, falls quickly as Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge followers flee
into the jungles.
"Boat People" Flee Vietnam: Swarms of Vietnamese refugees take to the sea in overcrowded and
unsafe boats in search of a better life. The ranks of the "boat people" include individuals deemed enemies
of the state who've been expelled from their homeland.
China Invades,Withdraws from, Vietnam
US GAO Issues Report on Agent Orange: After years of Defense Department denials, the US General
Accounting Office releases a report indicating that thousands of US troops were exposed to the herbicide
Agent Orange. Thousands of veterans had demanded a government investigation into the effect that dioxin,
a chemical found in Agent Orange, had on the human immune system.
Ronald Reagan Elected US President
1981-85
Vietnam Memorial in Washington, DC Dedicated: Designed by Maya Ying Lin, a 22 year-old Yale
architectural student, the Vietnam Veteran's Memorial opens in Washington, DC. The quiet, contemplative
structure consisting of two black granite walls forming a "V", lists the names of the 58,183 Americans
killed in the Vietnam War. The memorial itself stirred debate as some thought its presentation was too
muted and somber, lacking the familiar elements of war-time heroics found in most war memorials.
Reagan Promises to Make MIAs "Highest National Priority": For the family members of those still
listed as Missing-In-Action, the war is not over. In an address to the National League of Families of
American Prisoners and Missing in Southeast Asia, President Ronald Reagan pledges to make the finding
of these individuals one of the "highest national priority."
Dow Chemical Knowledge of Dioxin Revealed: Documents used as part of a lawsuit brought by
20,000 Vietnam veterans against several chemical companies reveal that Dow Chemical had full
knowledge of the serious health risks posed by human exposure to dioxin, a chemical found in the
herbicide Agent Orange. Evidence indicated that despite this information, Dow continued to sell herbicides
to the US military for use in Vietnam.
"Unknown Soldier" of Vietnam War Laid to Rest
US Offers Asylum to Vietnamese Political Prisoners
Vietnamese Forces Defeat Khmer Rouge Rebels: An offensive launched against refugee Khmer
Rouge rebels spills over the Thai border and eventually comes to involve Thai troops. The Vietnamese are
successful in suppressing the rebels and solidify their hold on Cambodia despite criticism from neighboring
countries and the United Nations.
31
1986-90
George Bush Elected US President
Vietnamese Troops Leave Cambodia: All Vietnamese troops exit Cambodia by September of 1989,
paving the way for UN-sponsored elections in 1993. As a result of the elections, a coalition government is
formed and work on a new constitution begins.
1991-97
Bill Clinton Elected US President
Washington Restores Diplomatic Ties with Hanoi: As Communist Vietnam inched toward market
reforms and pledged full cooperation in finding all Americans listed as still missing-in-action, the United
States restores diplomatic ties with its former enemy in 1995.
McNamara Calls Vietnam Policy "Wrong, Terribly Wrong": Former Defense Secretary Robert
McNamara, one of the key architects of the US's war policy in Vietnam, admits grave mistakes in that
policy in his 1995 memoir, In Retrospect. McNamara, in his book, says that "...We were wrong, terribly
wrong. We owe it to future generations to explain why."
US and Vietnam Exchange Ambassadors: Ushering in a new era of cooperation between the two
former enemies, the United States and Vietnam exchange ambassadors. Douglas "Pete" Peterson, a prisoner
of war for 6 years during the Vietnam War, is named US envoy to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, while
H.E. Le Van Bang assumes the position of Vietnamese ambassador to the United States.
Yes, those Cu Chi tunnels are small.
Additional Resources can be located at our Fulbright Hays GPA website at
Long Beach City College.