А.П. МИНЬЯР-БЕЛОРУЧЕВА
ИСТОРИЯ ИСКУССТВА
ЗАПАДНАЯ ЕВРОПА
И РОССИЯ
учебное пособие по
английскому языку
МОСКВА
А.П. МИНЬЯР-БЕЛОРУЧЕВА
ИСТОРИЯ ИСКУССТВА
ЗАПАДНАЯ ЕВРОПА
И РОССИЯ
учебное пособие
по английскому языку
Рекомендовано УМО по классическому университетскому
образованию в качестве учебного пособия для студентов
вузов, обучающихся по специальности
020900 Искусствоведение
МОСКВА
2
М62
УДК 8111.111+7.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ.
Рецензенты:
кафедра Межкультурной коммуникации факультета иностранных
языков МГУ имени М.В. Ломоносова
(зав. кафедрой д-р истор. наук, проф. А.В. Павловская);
д-р филол. наук, проф. О.Л. Каменская
М62 Миньяр-Белоручева А.П.
История искусства. Западная Европа и Россия. Учебное
пособие по английскому языку. Флинта: Наука, 2009. – 160
с.
Предлагаемое учебное пособие по английскому языку предназначено для
студентов-искусствоведов старших курсов вузов и ориентировано на усвоение
ими специализированного языка искусствоведов. На материале оригинальных
работ англоязычных ученых-искусствоведов студенты отрабатывают лексикограмматический материал и развивают языковую, речевую, культурную и
профессиональную компетенцию, что оптимизирует обучение английскому
языку для специальных целей.
© Составление, упражнения Миньяр-Белоручева А.П.
ISBN 978-5-9765-0758-6 (Флинта)
© А.П. Миньяр-Белоручева, 2009
© Издательство «Флинта», 2009
ISBN 978-5-02-034545-4 (Наука)
3
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Предлагаемое учебное пособие по английскому языку
предназначено для студентов-искусствоведов старших курсов
вузов и ориентировано на усвоение ими специализированного
языка искусствоведов. На материале оригинальных работ
англоязычных ученых-искусствоведов студенты отрабатывают
лексико-грамматический материал и развивают языковую,
речевую, культурную и профессиональную компетенцию, что
оптимизирует обучение английскому языку для специальных
целей студентов-искусствоведов.
Данное учебное пособие выполнено в соответствии с
требованиями государственных образовательных стандартов
высшего профессионального образования, предъявляемых к
преподаванию иностранного языка в неязыковых вузах с учетом
профессиональной направленности обучения.
Учебное пособие состоит из двух частей. Первая часть
включает тексты, посвященные развитию живописи XIV–XVI вв.
в Италии и северной Европе. Вторая часть содержит тексты,
посвященные архитектуре Северо-Восточной Руси XI–XIII вв.
Первая часть состоит из двенадцати уроков, вторая часть – из
семи. Каждый урок включает текст и упражнения, позволяющие
проверить общее понимание прочитанного, усвоить лексику и
грамматику английского языка в пределах данной специальности.
При работе с лексикой особое внимание уделяется терминологии
языка искусствоведов.
Предлагаемые в данном учебном пособии тексты являются
аутентичными. Учебное пособие ориентировано, прежде всего, на
студентов-искусствоведов, обучающихся в высших учебных
заведениях, однако оно также может быть использовано самым
широким кругом читателей, интересующихся историей
западноевропейской живописи и древнерусской архитектурой.
4
PART I
UNIT I
MELCHIOR BROEDERLAM
From the beginning of the fourteenth century the representational
arts in Italy were linked, on the one hand with the heritage of Roman
art, particularly sculpture, and on the other hand with the dramatic
possibilities inherent in Christian subject-matter. The Black Death of
1348 cut short the movement initiated by Giotto, and it was not until the
early fifteenth century that his ideas were taken up once more. Late
fourteenth-century art tended to be reactionary in the extreme, partly as
a result of the Black Death itself, and partly, possibly, because no major
artist seems to have survived it. At the very end of the century the cloud
lifted somewhat, and a new note of joy in living and in the vanities of
this world made its appearance at the Court of Burgundy, centred on
Dijon. From the standpoint of style this art made few innovations, but it
marks a new approach to the world, gayer, more sophisticated,
deliberately elegant and even precious, and it very rapidly became
fashionable, spreading quickly into France and Italy.
Of this so-called International Gothic style, characteristic example
is to be seen in the work made for the Court of Burgundy. This is an
altarpiece which is probably the sole survivor of a series of works
commissioned from Melchior Broederlam in the early 1390s for the
Charterhouse at Champmol, near Dijon. Broederlam's work consists of
a pair of oddly shaped painted wings enclosing a carved wooden altarpiece; the inside of each wing contains a pair of scenes–on the left the
Annunciation and the Visitation, on the right the Presentation and the
Flight into Egypt. Delicate, fragile almost, in clear, bright colours, they
have the sensitiveness of a newly awakened feeling for natural detail,
for the play of light on rocks and flowers, for the picturesqueness of
flights of birds and spiky little castles crowning jagged pinnacles, for
the patterns of tiled pavings within the tiny buildings in which the Virgin
sits to receive her angelic visitor, or in which the Infant Christ is
presented to Simeon. Not much is known about Broederlam. He came
from Ypres, and is mentioned several times in the accounts of Duke
Philip the Bold of Burgundy as his painter from 1385 onwards, as
employed on all manner of jobs from decorating rooms in the castle at
Hesdin to designing tiled floors and painting altarpieces. Nothing is
known of his training, and little else of his life except for his patronage,
that he was in Paris in 1390/95, and that he died about 1409 or later. But
the resemblance between his surviving work and the products of the
Giottesques and of Sienese painters such as Simone Martini and the
Lorenzetti brothers cannot be dismissed merely as one of those
5
instances of what appear to be coincidences in the arts, but which are in
fact the results of the pervasive influence of a widespread trend in
thought and culture. In this case it indicates rather the spread of ideas
from Italy to Avignon, which, as the seat of the Papacy for over seventy
years, was a centre for the dissemination of Italian ideas, and hence the
permeation of the Gothic North with influence from Italy, a permeation
which eventually bore its fullest fruit in the conjunction of North and
South in International Gothic.
The domed building next to the little room in which the Virgin
Annunciate sits, the recession of one room space behind another, the
delicate tracery, the thin colonnettes, the central space in which the
Presentation takes place, and even the coulisse system of the landscape,
where the sense of recession is achieved by winding the pathway
between the rocky masses in a series of diagonals, all suggest that at
some point in his career Broederlam had been in contact with Italian
forms. He had transmuted them into something more Northern by
including picturesque details taken from the Apocryphal Gospels– that
favourite compendium of amusing stories and fantastic additions to the
strict Gospel narrative, which, while they enliven a picture with
charming details, also weaken its impact by substituting decorative
incidents for the simple dogmatic themes of the New Testament.
Among the assessors who valued the Broederlam wings was the
sculptor Claus Sluter. For the same Charterhouse at Champmol he made
its main portico sculpture representing Duke Philip and his Duchess
presented by their patron saints to the Virgin standing on the trumeau
between the double doors of the entrance. Lifelike, realistic, vivid in
their portraiture, enveloped in the bulky folds of flowing garments, the
four figures of the ducal donors and their patron saints flank the doors,
filling the splays. On the trumeau the Virgin gazes at the Child, her
heavy robe swirling about her in deep rhythmic folds, and her whole
body turned to develop the fullest frontality of pose, while her outspread
arm and the movement with which she supports the Christ Child on her
hip achieve at the same time a monumental splendour and the most
tender grace.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Wherein lay the peculiarities of Roman art at the beginning of the
14th century? What did the Court of Burgundy become noted for?
2. How are the Annunciation and the Visitation, the Presentation and the
6
Flight into Egypt described? Where are the scenes painted?
3. What is known about Melchior Broederlam?
4. What is implied under the International Gothic style?
5. Why is it said that Broederlam was in contact with Italian forms?
6. What do you know about Claus Sluter?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
the representational arts, the heritage of Roman art, inherent in
Christian subject-matter, to cut short the movement initiated by Giotto,
from the standpoint of style, sophisticated, deliberately elegant style, the
sole survivor, delicate, fragile, clear, bright colours, jagged pinnacles,
the surviving work, coincidences in the arts, the dissemination of Italian
ideas, oddly shaped painted wings, a carved wooden altar-piece, the
bulky folds of flowing garments, the domed building, picturesque
details, Charterhouse at Champmol, the New Testament, lifelike,
realistic portraiture.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
запрестольный образ, заказанные работы, внутренние створки,
остроконечная башенка, игра света, яркие цвета, с точки зрения стиля,
крайне реакционный, знаменовать новое отношение к миру,
выложенная плитками мостовая, тема, монументальное величие,
распространение идей, оживить картину, простертая рука,
колоритные детали, герцог бургундский Филипп II Смелый,
изобразительное искусство, чума, святые покровители, монастыря
Шанмоль, распространение готики, прервать направление, крупный
художник.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down all the proper names given in the text. Prepare a
report about each mentioned person.
V. Comment on the following:
Humanism in the Renaissance was humanitas, a word adapted by
Leonardo Bruni from Cicero and Aulus Gellius to mean those studies
which are 'humane'–worthy of the dignity of man.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
arts, 'rebirth', touchstone, style, Renaissance, superior, century,
fall, period, define
…. is a word which is very generally understood, but which few
7
people would care to …. very closely. The Early …. was the time of
the formation of the …. in the …. which, culminating in Leonardo
da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, is still used as a …. of
aesthetic quality. The …. is usually considered to begin in Italy
earlier than elsewhere, in the fifteenth …. or point in the fourteenth
…., perhaps as early as Giotto (died 1337), and to end in the sixteenth
…., at any time after the death of Raphael (1520) and before that of
Tintoretto (1594). The word itself means …., and there can be no
doubt that the Italians of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
regarded their own times as immensely …. to all the ages since the
…. of the Roman Empire, and in this opinion posterity has largely
concurred. The idea of the …. of the …. after a sleep of a thousand
years is an Italian one.
VII. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
It is …. no means unusual …. a new style …. the arts to exist
alongside an older one which it subsequently replaces. What is
peculiarly interesting …. the history …. the arts …. Florence …. the
first quarter …. the fifteenth century is that not one but two new
styles were seeking to assert themselves …. the face …. traditional
forms. Giotto made tremendous advances …. the technique ….
representing the human body …. a more realistic way than any
practised …. classical antiquity; he took much …. his inspiration ….
sculpture, and …. his truth …. nature he had been preceded ….
Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, whose sculpture was itself inspired ….
antique art.
VIII. Translate the following text:
The manuscript known as the Tres Riches Heures is the product of
a Court art. The thin and elegant figures have no real weight and the
artist has been more concerned with the rich and elaborate costumes
than with any attempt to represent figures in three dimensions.
Moreover, the dresses, and especially the hats of the ladies, are in the
height of fashion–Burgundy at this time set the fashions for the whole
of Europe. The horses and dogs are drawn with great realism of detail,
but figures and animals areset against a tapestry-like background, rather
than in a three-dimensional space, and it is precisely this which
distinguishes International Gothic from the heroic style which is
associated with the great Florentine artists of the early fifteenth century.
It is easy to understand that works displaying these decorative
characteristics would be appreciated by wealthy patrons who knew little
and cared less about the nobler qualities of painting and sculpture, and
this ready appeal explains the speed with which the style spread across
8
Europe.
IX. Translate the following text:
Картезианский монастырь Шанмоль был основан герцогом
бургундским Филиппом II Смелым в 1383 г., чтобы служить
усыпальницей бургундских герцогов династии Валуа. Согласно
проекту, комплекс должен был включать церковь и монастырские
здания с просторными кельями, с центральным фонтаном в виде
голгофы. Строительством руководил Друэ де Даммартэн. В 1388
году после освящения монастырской церкови в монастыре
поселяются монахи. Для украшения монастыря Филипп пригласил
знаменитых художников и скульпторов, среди которых был
великий фламандец Клаус Слутер – основатель бургундской
школы и первый скульптор, работавший в стилистике реализма.
Мельхиор Брудерлам был приглашен для росписи двух
монастырских алтарей, украшенных резьбой Якова де Берзе.
Несмотря на то что створки были задуманы как часть алтарной
композиции, их можно рассматривать как первые «картины» в
западноевропейском искусстве. Стремясь придерживаться
традиционной иконографии, Брудерлам, тем не менее, ввел много
нововведений. Так, фоном, изображенных событий, служит не
нейтральный тон, не золотистый, принятый в Средние века, а
архитектура или пейзаж, что считается новаторством Брудерлама.
До тех пор условные изображения пейзажа часто встречались в
книжной миниатюре, но не были свойственны алтарным
композициям, в которых сохранялась консервативная традиция.
Дижонские створки изображают благовещение, встречу Марии с
Елизаветой, сретение и бегство в Египет. Сцены выполнены в
соотвествии с традицией средневековья, когда разновременные
изображения объединены в одной пространственной композиции.
Картины Брудерлама наполнены условностью. Архитектурные
строения, символизирующие иерусалимский храм и дом Марии,
являются простыми готическими интерьерами. Брудерлам
действует в соответствии с обычаем переносить действие
религиозных
композиций
в
современную
художникам
действительность, чтобы произвести большее впечатление на
зрителя. Интерьер построен по правилам «обратной перспективы»,
которая, вовлекая зрителя во внутреннее пространство, заставляет
его быть сопричастным происходящему событию. Условность
9
проявляется и в пейзаже. Реалистически выписанные деревья и
горы совершенно не соответствуют друг другу в масштабе, что
считается недопустимым с точки зрения реалистического видения.
Однако все в этих работах подчинено масштабу духовному.
Цветовое решение картин Брудерлама также отличается
новаторством. Глубина и интенсивность цвета, которые не
достигал ни один живописец до него, позволяют рассматривать
Брудерлама как предвестника расцвета масляной живописи начала
XV века.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
XII. Topics for discussion and essay writing.
1. The the Court of Burgundy as the centre of European art of the
14th century.
2. Melchior Broederlam and his altarpiece.
3. Claus Sluter as the first realist sculptor of Burgundy.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
altarpiece – запрестольный
образ
bulky
–
1)
большой,
объемистый. Syn: voluminous; 2)
тучный. Syn: massive, heavy,
corpulent
carve – вырезать; гравировать;
высекать (из камня); to carve a
statue out of wood – вырезать
статую из дерева; carved wooden
altar-piece – резной деревянный
запрестольный образ
compendium
–
сборник;
краткое
руководство;
data
compendium – компендиум данных
conjunction – 1) соединение.
Syn: combination; 2) совпадение (во
времени). Syn: concurrence
coulisse – выемка, желобок
cut short – 1) прерывать,
обрывать; 2) прекращать разговор.
Syn: break short
delicate tracery – изысканный
узор
dissemination
–
распространение; dissemination
of ideas – распространение идей
flowing – 1) мягкий (о
линиях,
контуре);
2)
ниспадающий; flowing draperies –
ниспадающая
свободными
складками драпировка. Syn:
waving, streaming.
fragile – ломкий, хрупкий.
Syn: brittle, frail, frangible, friable,
transient delicate. Ant: elastic,
flexible, strong, tough
gaze – 1) пристальный
взгляд; an admiring gaze –
восхищенный взгляд; intense,
steady, unblinking gaze
–
пристальный взгляд; wistful gaze
– задумчивый взгляд; stand at
gaze – смотреть пристально; be
at gaze – находиться в состоянии
замешательства; 2) пристально
глядеть (at, on, upon – на). Syn:
look
10
Gospel – 1) Евангелие, to
preach the gospel – проповедовать;
читать наставления; to spread the
gospel – проповедовать евангелие;
2) назидание, проповедь; 3)
взгляды, убеждения; to take for
gospel – принимать (слепо) за
истину; gospel truth – истинная
правда
heritage – наследство; наследие;
to cherish one's heritage – хранить
наследство; to repudiate one's heritage
– отрекаться от наследства; proud
heritage – наследие, которым
гордятся
inherent – свойственный (in,
to); врожденный. Syn: peculiar,
integral, essential, innate
jagged pinnacles – зубчатая,
остроконечная башенка
painted wings – расписанные
створки
patron – покровитель, патрон,
заступник, patron saints – святые
покровители.
Syn:
protector,
sponsor
patronage – покровительство,
заступничество. Syn: protection,
trusteeship,
guardianship;
б)
патронаж
permeation – проникание,
распространение. Syn: penetration,
pervasion
pervasive – распространяющийся; pervasive influence –
повсеместно
распространяющееся влияние
representational arts –
изобразительное искусство
spiky – остроконечный
standpoint – позиция, точка
зрения. Syn: point of view; from
the standpoint of style – с точки
зрения стиля
subject-matter
–
тема,
содержание;
предмет
(обсуждения) Syn: topic
swirl – 1) кружить(ся) в
водовороте (about, around); 2)
обвивать. Syn: wind round
tapestry – гобелен; to weave
a tapestry – ткать гобелен;
three dimension – объем
tiled floor – кафельный пол;
пол, выложенный плитками
touchstone – краеугольный
камень
transmute – изменять(ся),
преобразовывать(ся);
transmute into – превращать. Syn:
change
winding – извилистый,
петляющий; winding staircase –
винтовая лестница; winding
pathway – извилистые тропинки.
Syn: sinuous, tortuous
11
UNIT II
DONATELLO
Donatello Donate di Niccold Bardi (1386–1466), to give the great
sculptor his full name, scion of an impoverished branch of the Bardi
banking family, was recognized in his twenties as one of the two or three
leading sculptors in Italy and had established himself as one of the
founders of the new Renaissance style. His first work in which his style
is clearly evident is the Saint Mark, executed from 1411 to 1413, for
Orsanmichele. Although each of the guilds of merchants and artisans
that dominated the government of the republic of Florence had
possessed since 1339 the responsibility of filling its niche at
Orsanmichele with a statue, only two of these were completed before
the opening of the fifteenth century. Donatello's Saint Mark is one of a
series of statues commissioned of him and of his rivals Lorenzo Ghiberti
and Nanni di Banco in a sudden rush by the guilds to fulfill their
obligations.
In contradistinction to all medieval statues, the position and
function of each limb of the Saint Mark and its relation to the next and
to the body as a whole are visible under the voluminous drapery. Vasari,
the Late Renaissance painter, architect, and first art historian, described
how a sculptor, in making a clothed statue, first models it in clay in the
nude, then drapes about it actual cloth soaked in a thin slip of diluted
clay, arranging the folds to cling or to fall as he wishes. There is
evidence to show that Donatello was the first to use this method, so
suggestive of the "wet drapery" of fifth-century Greek sculpture, and
one must presuppose such a draped clay model for the marble Saint
Mark. Appropriately enough, the statue was ordered by the guild of
linen drapers. Donatello has represented not only a figure whose
physical being is fully articulated, but also a complex personality
summoning up all his psychological sources to confront an external
situation. "The depth and passion of earnest glance," to borrow a phrase
from Robert Browning, the anxiety so brilliantly depicted in every detail
of the lined face, the beauty of the free and sketchy treatment of the
curling hair and beard place the statue in the forefront of the battle for
the depiction of the whole human being.
Donatello's next commission for Orsanmichele, the famous Saint
George, carved about 1415–16 for the guild of armorers and
swordmakers, crucial for beleaguered Florence, gave him no
opportunity to display the movements of the body. But the energetic
stance of the young warrior saint, feet apart, both hands resting on the
shield balanced on its point, shows the tension characteristic of all the
great sculptor's works, down to the tautness of the folds converging on
12
the knot that fastens the cloak about Saint George's shoulders. The
sensitively modeled face is hardly that of a conventional hero, but rather
that of one who knows fear, yet can marshal the strength to overcome
it. The head was once helmeted and the right hand carried a sword,
jutting out of the niche and into the street.
Perhaps more important historically than the statue itself is the relief
presenting Saint George and the Dragon on the base of the niche. Here
Donatello abandoned the time-honored concept of a background treated
as a continuous flat surface, which the sculptor either carved down as
he cut away the original block. Donatello's innovation was to cut into
the slab to any desired depth, counting on protrusions and depressions,
as they reflect light or accumulate shadow, to produce on the eye the
effect of nearness or distance. He has, so to speak, dissolved the slab,
using it as a substance to paint or draw with, relying for his effects on
what the eye to be there rather than what the mind knows to be there.
This point marks, as sharply as any event can mark, the separation
between ancient medieval ideal art and Renaissance and modern optical
art. From Donotello's discovery, adopted with varying rapidity by most
sculptors and painters of his own day, spring all the other optical
advances of later times, not excluding Impressionism.
In the relief St George on horseback slays the dragon, while the
princess, praying watchfully, stands before an arcade on the right, and
this arcade and the dragon's rocky lair on the opposite side are treated
realistically and with an infinitely sensitive use of the gradations of relief,
so as to confer upon the marble plaque the pictorial qualities of recession
into space and an imaginative feeling for an actual setting. Moreover,
the architectural framework is proportioned to the figures, so that the
three-dimensional space is related to them, making the pictorial illusion
complete.
Donatello's series of prophet statues for the niches of the Campanile
of the Cathedral of Florence are conceived in optical terms, cut in brutal
masses with the features barely sketched in so that they could produсe
powerful effect of light and shade from the street about thirty feet below.
The most striking of these, possibly representing Habakkuk was
nicknamed Lo Zuccone (Big Squash, i.e., "Baldy"). Fierce, like all of
Donatello's prophets has little in common with the suave, beautifully
draped and prophetic figures, courtiers of the King of Heaven, on the
portals of Gothic cathedrals. Swathed in a huge cloak that hangs in
deliberately ugly folds his eyes dilated, his mouth open, he denounces
spiritual wickedness in high places.
13
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What family did Donatello come from? What is Donatello’s first
work? Who commissioned this statue?
2. What was Vasari? How did Donatello make a clothed statue
according to Vasari?
3. What commission did Donatello get for Orsanmichele about
1415? What shows the tension characteristic of all the great sculptor's
works?
4. What was Donatello’s innovation?
5. What effect do Donatello's prophet statues in the niches of the
Campanile produce? What method did Alberti describe in his treatise
On Painting?
6. Do Donatello's prophets have much in common with the
prophetic figures on the portals of Gothic cathedrals?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
scion, to possess responsibility, to fill the niche with a statue, one
of a series of statues, in a sudden rush, voluminous drapery, a clothed
statue, the first art historian, to model a statue in clay, a thin slip of
diluted clay, a draped clay model, sketchy treatment of the curling hair
and beard, the guild of armorers and swordmakers, the energetic stance,
the young warrior saint, to show the tension characteristic, the great
sculptor's works; dragon's rocky lair; the tautness of the folds, to conver
on the knot, concept of a background, a continuous flat surface, girded
with a huge sword.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
средневековые статуи, один из крупнейших скульпторов
эпохи, морщинистое лицо, на переднем плане, вьющиеся волосы,
бородатое лицо, ремесленники, светотень, показать движение тела,
использовать силу, некогда на голове был шлем, а в правой руке –
меч, отказаться от освященной веками концепции, чеканная
работа, работать с глиной/ воском/ гипсом, в его эпоху,
достижения в оптике, главный вход готического собора,
керамический камень для перекрытий, закутанный в огромный
плащ, открывающий новую эру, центробежная сила,
центростремительная сила, конная статуя из бронзы.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
14
iv. Make sure you know how to pronounce the following:
Donatello [ˌdɒnə'tɛləʊ]; Campanile [ ˌkæmpəˈni:lɪ ]; Venetian
[və'niːʃ(ə)n]; artisan [ˌɑːtɪ'zæn]; Alberti [al'bɛːti]; Herod ['herəd];
Habakkuk ['habəkək]; Goliath [gəu'laɪəθ]; Jeremiah [ˌʤerɪ'maɪə]; Luke
[luːk]; Siena [sɪ'ɛnə].
IV. Put down the names of Donatello’s sculptures and reliefs
mentioned in the text. Describe each of them.
V. Expand on the following:
a) "wet drapery";
b) "The depth and passion of earnest glance";
c) Donatello's optical method.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
perspective, relief, Cathedral, spectators, recession, visual,
description, system, presentation, expressions, composition
In a gilded bronze … representing the Feast of Herod done about
1425 for the baptismal font of the … of Siena, Donatello makes, as far
as we know, the first complete … statement of the science of one-point
…, controlling the inward … and diminution of the masonry of Herod's
palace–walls, arches, and columns, down to the very floor tiles–about
ten years before Alberti wrote his … of the method of one-point … in
his treatise On Painting of 1435. But this epoch-making centripetal …
is used by Donatello as a setting for an episode of passion, a …
organized only by its inherent centrifugal force. The … of the severed
head of Saint John the Baptist at Herod's table has the effect of a bursting
grenade, scattering the … to left and right in attitudes and … of horror.
VII. Complete the sentences by using the verbs in the proper form.
Translate the text into Russian and rende rit into English:
In the early 1430s Donatello (to spend) a prolonged period in Rome,
reinforcing his knowledge of ancient art. Some time after his return he
(to make) for the Medici family his bronze David, which (to be) not only
the first nude David but also possibly the first freestanding nude statue
since ancient times. It is an astonishing work, whose beauty (to derive)
more from the sinuous grace of Donatello's line and surface than from
the physical properties of the soft and unheroic youth. The sculptor (to
exploit) the contrast between the detached, impassive stare of the victor
and the tragic expression of the severed head, with which David's left
foot lightly (to toy), and between the fluidity of the brilliant surfaces of
15
bronze and the opaque roughness of the shaggy hair. In assessing the
meaning of the statue, clothed only in open-toed leather boots and a
laurel-crowned hat, it should (to remember) that in the Middle Ages and
in the Renaissance David's conquest of Goliath (to symbolize) Christ's
victory over sin and death, and that nudity still (to mean) the nakedness
of the soul before God. So, despite its appearance the statue may (to
have) a moralistic content.
VIII. Translate the following text:
In 1443 Donatello was called to Padua to create a colossal
equestrian statue in bronze representing the Venetian general Erasmo da
Narni, nicknamed Gattamelata (Calico Cat), which still stands on its
original pedestal before the Basilica of Sant' Antonio. Donatello was
impressed by the Roman statue of Marcus Aurelius, but the differences
are instructive. The emperor appears unarmed, astride a horse reduced
in scale as throughout ancient art. Donatello shows the general clad in a
hybrid of Roman and contemporary armor, girded with a huge sword,
wielding a baton as if marshaling his troops and guiding his gigantic
charger by sheer force of will (the spurs do not touch the flanks and the
bridle is slack). Throughout the statue the shapes are simplified to
increase their apparent volume. A unifying diagonal axis runs from the
lifted baton to the tip of the scabbard. Typical of Donatello's tension are
the tail tied so as to describe an arc and the left forehoof toying with a
cannonball, as David's left foot does with the head of Goliath. The
general is a powerful portrait, but an ideal image of command rather
than a likeness; Donatello could never have seen Gattamelata, who died
years before the sculptor's arrival in Padua.
On Donatello's return to Florence in 1454 the city was in the throes
of a religious reaction dominated by its archbishop, later canonized as
Saint Antonine. Donatello in his later years seems to have been swept
along by this antihumanist current, whose effects are evident in his Mary
Magdalen of about 1454–55. This polychromed wooden statue shows
the Magdalene in penitent old age, clothed only in her own matted hair,
which a recent cleaning has revealed to be lighted by streaks of gold.
Horrifying in its extreme emaciation, but even more because of the air
of spiritual desolation that radiates from the ravaged features, this work
seems the negation of the Renaissance faith in the nobility of man and
the beauty of the human body. Writing about the Magdalene, Saint
Antonine quotes from Saint Augustine, "O body, mass of corruption,
what have I to do with thee?"
IX. Translate the following text:
В 1412 Донателло был принят в гильдию Св. Луки, гильдию
16
живописцев, как живописец, скульптор и золотых дел мастер. В 1411–
1412 он создает мраморную статую Св. Марка для церкви Ор Сан
Микеле. Это первое подлинное скульптурное произведение эпохи
Ренессанса. Перед нами предстает новый герой эпохи Возрождения.
Скульптура Евангелист Иоанн была создана для украшения
фасада Собора Санта Мария дель Фьоре во Флоренции. Если
в эпоху средневековья скульптуры представляли собой
бестелесные образы, то Донателло делает их реалистичными,
земными. В скульптуре Св. Георгий, покровителе цеха
оружейников, сделанной для церкви Ор Сан Микеле, Донателло
создает образ активного защитника отечества, образ
мужественного и отважного победителя, идеал сильной личности.
Юноша в рыцарском вооружении стоит в твердой, спокойной позе,
опирается на узкий, высокий щит с изображением креста. В его
напряженном взгляде чувствуется готовность к сражению,
выражение мужественной энергии. Он показан как символ победы
над врагами Флоренции. После создания этой скульптуры
утвердилась слава Донателло как величайшего скульптора.
В нишах колокольни Собора Санта Мария дель Фьоре
установлены статуи Пророк Иеремия, Пророк Аввакум,
поражающие монументальным величием и экспрессией.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
XI. XII. Topics for discussion and essay writing.
1. Donatello's early works.
2. Donatello's prophet statues in the niches.
3. Donatello's statue Saint George and the Dragon.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
arch [ɑːʧ] – арка; свод; arch
bridge – арочный мост. Syn: arc
armorer ['ɑːmərə] – оружейный
мастер, оружейник
baptismal font [bæp'tɪzm(ə)l
fɔnt] – купель для крещения
baton ['bæt(ə)n] – жезл, власть;
. Syn: rod, wand
beleaguer [bɪ'liːgə] – осаждать.
Syn: bait
cannonball – пушечное ядро
centrifugal [ˌsentrɪ'fjuːg(ə)l] –
центробежный
centripetal [ˌsentrɪ'piːt(ə)l] –
центростремительный
clay – 1) глина; diluted clay –
мягкая глина, a lump of clay –
кусок глины; to model in clay –
лепить из глины; 2) modeling
clay
–
ваяльная
глина,
формовочная глина; an idol with
feet of clay – колосс на глиняных
ногах; to have feet of clay/clay
feet – стоять на глиняных ногах
colossal
[kə'lɔs(ə)l]
–
громадный, колоссальный. Syn:
enormous, gigantic, huge
contradistinction
17
[ˌkɔntrədɪ'stɪŋkʃ(ə)n]
–
противопоставление;
in
contradistinction to (from) – в
отличие от. Syn: distinguishing,
discerning
converging [kən'vɜːʤɪŋ] –
сходящийся; converging series –
сходящиеся ряды
crucial
['kruːʃ(ə)l]
–
1)
решающий; 2) крестообразный;
crucial incision – крестообразный
надрез. Syn: cross-shaped
desolation [ˌdes(ə)'leɪʃ(ə)n] – 1)
опустошение;
одиночество;
уединение Syn: solitude, loneliness,
solitariness;
2)
безутешность,
скорбь. Syn: grief, woe
dilate [daɪ'leɪt] – расширяться
diminution [ˌdɪmɪ'njuːʃ(ə)n] –
уменьшение; сужение
dissolve
[dɪ'zɔlv]
–
ликвидировать
epoch-making – эпохальный.
Syn: epochal
equestrian [ɪ'kwestrɪən] – 1)
конный; equestrian statue – конная
статуя; 2) рыцарский
execute
['eksɪkjuːt]
–
осуществлять, выполнять, делать.
Syn: perform;
floor tile – керамический
камень для перекрытий
forefront – передний план; in
the forefront – на переднем плане
forehoof – переднее копыто
Habakkuk – Аввакум
lair [lɛə] – логовище. Syn: den
laurel ['lɔr(ə)l] – лавровые
ветви как символ победы; 3) лавры,
почести; лавровый венок; retire on
one's laurels = repose on one's laurels
= rest on one's laurels – почить на
лаврах; reap one's laurels = win
one's laurels – стяжать лавры,
достичь славы. Syn: honor
marshal the strength –
использовать силу
masonry – каменная кладка
plaster ['plɑːstə] – гипс
polychrome ['pɔlɪkrəum] –
разноцветная окраска
relief – 1) рельеф; relief work
– чеканная работа 2) рельеф,
рельефность; in relief – чеканная
работа
rush – спешка, суета; rush
work – спешная работа; in a rush
– в спешке; Syn: haste
scion ['saɪən] – потомок,
наследник. Syn: offspring, heir,
descendant
sinuous
['sɪnjuəs]
–
извилистый. Syn: sinuate
sketchy ['skeʧɪ] – эскизный,
контурный
slab – плита; пластина
slack – не натянутый
stance [stæn(t)s] – 1) поза,
положение. Syn: pose, posture; 2)
позиция,
установка.
Syn:
position, stand
suave [swɑːv] – учтивый,
вежливый Syn: urbane
swathe [sweɪð] –обматывать,
пеленать ( in )
tautness
–
натяжение;
степень натяжения
time-honoured
–
освященный веками
wield – владеть; to wield the
sceptre – править государством;
to wield power/authority –
обладать властью
18
UNIT III
LORENZO GHIBERTI
In following Donatello's long life, we have gone past the point
where he shared the glories of the Early Renaissance with his slightly
older contemporary, Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381?–1455). Also the author
of three statues at Orsanmichele, Ghiberti is important for this book on
account of his two sets of gilded bronze doors for the Baptistery of
Florence, especially the second, known as the Gates of Paradise.
Ghiberti won the commission in competition with several other Tuscan
sculptors, including Jacopo della Quercia. In the finals, in 1401, he
found himself competing only with Brunelleschi, then still a sculptor,
and their sample reliefs in bronze, with the figures and landscape
elements gilded, record the dawn of the Renaissance in the figurative
arts. The assigned subject was the Sacrifice of Isaac, and the required
shape, the quatrefoil (four-leaf clover), was a French Gothic form
previously adopted by the sculptor of the earliest set of doors for the
Baptistery in the fourteenth century. Brunelleschi's relief shows the
angel grabbing the hand of Abraham, who twists Isaac's screaming head
the better to thrust the sword into his throat. Despite Brunelleschi's close
observation of naturalistic details, especially in the boy's body, the
donkey, and the crouching attendant, his relief is lacking in just the
qualities of linear grace and harmony of proportion that we have found
essential to his architecture.
Ghiberti's relief substitutes for the jagged shapes and often abrupt
and jerky motion of Brunelleschi a marvelous smoothness and grace,
achieved by curves that move as if the figures were performing a slow
dance, following in their motions and in the flow of their drapery the
curves of the quatrefoil frame. This motion could be described as still
Gothic were it not for an ease and balance that make one wonder
whether Ghiberti had not seen Greek originals. His Isaac is surely the
first nude figure since ancient times to show real interest in the beauty
of the human body and knowledge of the interaction of its parts – a
generation before Donatello's David.
In the doors themselves, whose execution took Ghiberti more than
twenty years and whose subject was changed to the Life of Christ,
Renaissance elements enter piecemeal. Only in the Gates of Paradise,
1425–50, representing scenes from the Old Testament, did Ghiberti
absorb the spatial devices of Donatello and the architectural and
perspective discoveries of Brunelleschi and Alberti. Gone are the small
quatrefoils; instead, Ghiberti has enclosed several episodes from each
Old Testament story in single, square frames. Each entire relief is
gilded, thus unifying figures and background in a space suffused with
19
golden light into which we can look as into a picture. In comparing the
Story of Abraham as actually carried out with the competition relief, it
is easy to see the depth and extent of this spatial revolution. As in
Donatello's pictorial reliefs, the flat background is dissolved, and the
eye carried by easy stages into great distances, past the scene where
Sarah prepares a table for the three angels, beyond the rocky eminence
where Abraham is about to sacrifice Isaac, and between the trunks of
lofty trees to the mountains on the far horizon.
Especially striking in all ten scenes on the Gates of Paradise is the
sense of space, not only behind the figures–Donatello had already
achieved that–but around them. This effect is managed by keeping the
scale of the foreground figures roughly the same as in the competition
relief, within a frame whose area is quadrupled. Thus at one blow Ghiberti
has demolished the age-old convention of a double scale for figures and
setting and established a single, unified space in keeping with Albertrs
admonitions. This is evident in the Story of Jacob and Esau. The open
portico of Isaac's dwelling, Albertian in the use of pilasters as decorations
and arches as supports, is Albertian also in the accuracy of its perspective
recession, taking the observer through one arch after another into what
appears to be great depth. (The actual projections are never more than an
inch or so, and generally a mere fraction.) Renaissance art has here
achieved a cubic graph of space, in which the dimensions of every object
and every person are determined by the square on which he stands, and
therefore by his imagined distance from the spectator's eye. The last traces
of Gothicism in line and pose have been transmuted into Hellenic grace
and ease. Despite their diminutive scale, such figures as the angry Esau
standing before his perplexed father or the three beautiful female figures
at the left can be set against the masterpieces of Greek sculpture. All ten
reliefs were modeled in wax by 1437, two years after the appearance of
Alberti's On Painting. Well could Ghiberti boast that the new art of his
time had achieved values unknown to the ancients. Like Alberti, Ghiberti
was the author of a theoretical treatise, called in good Roman fashion The
Commentaries, a remarkable amalgam of optical knowledge and
Renaissance learning.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is Lorenzo Ghiberti famous for?
2. With whom did Ghiberti compete to win the competition for a new
pair of doors for the Baptistery in Florence? What was the assigned subject?
20
3. What does Brunelleschi's relief show?
4. In what way did Ghiberti’s relief differ from that of Brunelleschi?
How did Ghiberti depict Isaac?
5. What were Ghiberti’s greatest achievements and innovations?
6. What is especially striking in all ten scenes on the Gates of
Paradise? What is evident in in the Story of Jacob and Esau? In what
connection is Alberti mentioned in this text? What has Renaissance art
achieved here?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
gilded bronze doors, sample reliefs, landscape elements,
Genesis, figurative arts, assigned subject, quatrefoil, to thrust the
sword into his throat, naturalistic details, the crouching attendant,
linear grace, trunks of lofty trees, harmony of proportion, jagged
shapes, to lack the qualities of, jerky motion, a marvelous
smoothness and grace, the flow of the drapery, the curves of the
quatrefoil frame, golden light, between the trunks of lofty trees,
within a frame whose area is quadrupled, the age-old convention, the
open portico, the use of pilasters, diminutive scale, trunks of lofty
trees, a technical triumph, to achieve values unknown to the ancients,
the plunging angel, vehement gesture, heavenly visitant, sinuous use
of pattern and line, little aedicule.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
Книга Бытия, Баптистерий во Флоренции, масштаб фигур на
переднем плане, победить в конкурсе, конкурировать с
несколькими
скульпторами,
четырёхлистник,
жертвоприношение Исаака, использовать вместо чего-л.,
заостренные формы, резкое и отрывистое движение,
удивительная плавность и грациозность движений, танцевать
медленный танец, изгибы рамки в форме четырёхлистника,
знание взаимодействия частей, проявить истинный интерес к, со
времен античности, на работу ушло почти двадцать лет,
пространство
залито
золотистым
светом,
ощущение
пространства, устоявшаяся традиция, великолепное сочетание,
научный трактат, стволы высоких деревьев, знание оптики,
ковчег (в форме домика), устремляющийся вниз ангел,
разделить славу, скалистый выступ, позолоченные бронзовые
двери.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the proper names given in the text, transcribe them.
21
Prepare a report about each mentioned person.
V. Comment on the following:
a) spatial revolution;
b) the last traces of Gothicism;
c) a remarkable amalgam of optical knowledge and Renaissance
learning.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
panel(s), scene, angel, doors, gesture, workmanship, pieces,
figure, Gothic, antique, competition, knife, heavenly
In 1401 Ghiberti won the …. for a new pair of …. for the Baptistery
in Florence, his principal competitors being Brunelleschi and Jacopo
della Quercia. Both the Ghiberti and the Brunelleschi trial …. have
survived. The …. set was the Sacrifice of Abraham. In the Brunelleschi
…. the action is vehement, even violent. The allusions to the …. are
indicative of his training and the trend of his mind, but technically the
…. nowhere equals the smooth modelling and the brilliant surface of
Ghiberti's rendering of the…. . The Brunelleschi was made in a number
of …. and put together afterwards; the Ghiberti was a technical triumph
in that it was cast in one …. . In it the action flows smoothly; the ….
glides down from heaven to arrest the patriarch's knife; the beautiful,
classically inspired, nude …. of Isaac turns with relief both towards his
father and the …., where Brunellcschi's distorted and terrified Isaac
struggles against the …., and the plunging …. with vehement …. arrests
Abraham's hand at the very last second. The same qualities of grace and
charm, of brilliant …. , of sinuous use of pattern and line, of silhouette,
appear in the …. which were begun by Ghiberti in 1403 and finished in
1424. For instance, in the …. of the Annunciation the Virgin, in her little
aedicule, has the typical …. sway and with a …. of infinite delicacy both
welcomes and retreats before her …. visitant.
VII. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
…. Ghiberti's own 'Commentaries', which he wrote late …. his life
and which are one …. the main sources …. knowledge …. his career and
his contemporaries, he records triumphantly his own account …. his
success: 'The palm …. victory was conceded …. me …. all the experts
and …. all my fellow competitors; …. universal consent and …. a single
exception the glory was conceded …. me.' …. the years …. the execution
…. his first pair …. doors he also made a number …. other works, chief
…. them being the two statues …. the facade …. Orsanmichele. St John
22
the Baptist (1414), enclosed …. his highly decorated Gothic niche, still
speaks the language …. International Gothic. His draperies fall …. heavy
folds arranged …. their linear rhythm, and even the rough hair-shirt has
the same studied refinement as his locks …. hair and the graceful curls
…. his beard. The features are sharp and stylized, the whole attitude one
…. elegance and distinction. St Matthew (1419–22) shows a greater
interest …. the antique: he is the classical philosopher slightly Gothicized.
There is the same interest …. elegance, the same disposition …. the folds
…. draperies to create interesting zigzag patterns …. light and shade, but
the quality …. the head is far closer …. antique sculpture, and the pose,
though almost identical …. that …. the St John, is just sufficiently more
upright to leave it elegant …. weakening it …. the softer grace …. the
earlier statue.
VIII. Translate the following text:
The interest in the antique, the modification of his Gothic line, is
one of the first qualities which strikes one in the pair of doors which
Ghiberti executed between 1425 and 1452 and which were a
continuation of his first commission. These are the doors which
Michelangelo described as the Gates of Paradise, and in them Ghiberti
departed utterly, first from the original brief which was given him, and
secondly from the example of his first pair. Instead of the twenty
narratives and the eight single figures which fill the little quatrcfoils of
the first pair, the second pair is divided into ten large panels each
containing an Old Testament scene of great complexity and elaboration.
In the Creation and Fall of Man, for instance, five separate episodes
from Genesis are represented and the use of varying depths of relief to
suggest recession is of the utmost refinement. In the scene of Jacob and
Esau this use of the subtleties of relief allows Ghiberti to set the different
incidents of his narrative within an architectural framework receding
into an infinite distance, and yet enables him to do so without violating
the structural unity of the surface. In The Story of Joseph a huge crowd
takes part in the main action before the circular building which forms
the background, yet despite the number of actors the scene combines
coherence and unity with delicate, sinuous charm, but the new interest
in a perspective setting imparts a new logic and a new order. It is futile
to speculate how much Ghiberti was influenced in this by Donatello, for by
now Donatello had supplanted him as the major Florentine sculptor, and,
in fact, as the major force in Florentine art. During the first half of the
fifteenth century, Florentine sculpture was dominated by Ghiberti and
Donatello. During the second half, sculpture became a matter either of the
acceptance of Donatello's ideas or a reaction against them, and a reaction
entailed, largely, a continuation of Ghiberti's graceful and tender art.
23
IX. Translate the following text:
В 1401 во Флоренции был объявлен конкурс на украшение
бронзовых дверей баптистерия Сан Джованни во Флоренции.
Из представленных на конкурс семи работ на сюжет
Жертвоприношение Авраама жюри выделило две работы,
исполненные Лоренцо Гиберти и Филиппо Брунеллески (1377–
1446). Оба автора показали себя новаторами в скульптуре:
большое внимание они уделили изображению обнаженного тела,
передаче движения, использовали мотивы античной классики.
Но Брунеллески предельно драматизирует изображение,
показывая движения и жесты предельно экспрессивно. Рельефы
Гиберти спокойнее, он уделяет внимание нюансам моделировки,
отделки деталей, объединяет фигуры с окружением. Его рельефы
обладают единством всех элементов композиции, правдивостью
деталей, техническим совершенством.
Заказчики отдали предпочтение работе Гиберти. Его ворота
сегодня считаются одним из величайших шедевров итальянского
искусства эпохи кватроченто. В выполненных им северных дверях
баптистерия 28 небольших рельефов заключены в обрамления
готической формы. На 20 из них показаны сцены из Нового Завета,
на остальных – Евангелисты, Учителя церкви. Между полями
рельефов проложены декоративные гирлянды, на пересечении
которых в высоком рельефе даны головы: портреты учеников
Гиберти, его близких, среди которых и его автопортрет. В рельефах
прослеживаются черты готики: удлиненность фигур, условный
изгиб, текучая плавность складок одежд. Но эти черты сочетаются с
поисками нового пространственного решения, живостью
повествования. Работы по изготовлению дверей длились почти 25
лет.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
glory
–
1)
известность,
популярность, слава; to achieve, win
glory – добиться славы; to share glory –
разделить славу, to bring glory to –
принести славу (кому-л.); to reflect
glory on – прославлять (кого-л., чтол.); a blaze of glory – сияние славы; to
bask in smb.'s glory – греться в лучах
24
славы; to be in one's glory –
находиться в зените славы; 2)
торжество, триумф, успех. Syn:
triumph; 3) великолепие, неземная
красота;
блаженство.
Syn:
brilliance, grandeur, lordliness,
magnificence; 4) процветание;
величие; in one's glory – в расцвете
величия и славы; 5) нимб, ореол,
сияние. Syn: nimbus
baptistery
–
баптистерий
(придел церкви); baptistery doors –
двери баптестерия
competition – 1) конкурс,
конкурсное испытание. Syn: contest;
2) конкуренция. Syn: emulation,
rivalry
sculptor – скульптор, ваятель
(работающий с бронзой или
мрамором )
sample – 1) образец, образчик,
экземпляр; to distribute, hand out
samples – раздавать образцы. Syn:
pattern, specimen; 2) пример, образец.
Syn: example, illustration, instance
gilded – позолоченный; gilded
spurs – позолоченные шпоры
(эмблема рыцарства); gilded figures –
позолоченная фигуры
assigned
–
заданный;
назначенный; assigned subject –
заданная тема
sacrifice – 1) жертвоприношение
(to); animal sacrifices to the gods –
животные, приносимые в жертву
богам; at the sacrifice of smth. –
пожертвовав чем-л.; human sacrifice
– человеческое жертвоприношение.
Syn: offering, oblation; 2) приносить в
жертву
(to),
совершать
жертвоприношение
shape – 1) а) форма, очертание
б) картина, вид; образ; to give shape
to – придавать форму (чему-л.); to
take the shape of – принимать форму
(чего-л.); in no shape or form –
никоим образом. Syn: form; 2)
определенная форма; to take shape –
принять определенную форму; get
into shape – прийти в форму
quatrefoil – четырёхлистник
grab – 1) схватывать, пытаться
схватить (at, for, onto); 2) ухватиться,
использовать; to grab an opportunity –
воспользоваться
возможностью.
25
Syn: grasp
twist – 1) скручивать; 2)
вертеть, поворачивать(ся). Syn:
plait, weave, twine, wreathe
scream – пронзительно
кричать. Syn: screech
thrust –пронзать, наносить
колющий удар; протыкать Syn:
stab, pierce
observation – наблюдение;
empirical
observation
–
эмпирическое наблюдение
crouch – 1) припадать к
земле; 2) а) склониться; принять
подобострастную
позу;
б)
низкопоклонствовать,
раболепствовать. Syn: cringe; 3)
преклонить (колени, голову);
склонить,
согнуть
(с
выражением раболепия)
attendant
–
1.
a)
сопровождающее
лицо;
б)
спутник; в) слуга. Syn: servant; 2.
а)
присутствующий;
б)
обслуживающий (что-л./кого-л.
– upon)
linear – линейный; linear
perspective
–
линейная
перспектива
grace
–
1)
грация;
изящество.
Syn:
elegance,
fluidity, beauty; 2) учтивость,
такт. Syn: charming quality,
charm, refinement, tact, taste; 3)
благоволение; with bad grace –
неблагосклонно; with good grace
– благосклонно. Syn: willingness
substitute
–
заменять,
использовать вместо чего-л.
jag – 1) острый выступ,
зубец; острая вершина; 2)
зазубрина. Syn: notch
jerky – 1) двигающийся
резкими
толчками;
2)
отрывистый Syn: abrupt, staccato
marvelous – изумительный,
удивительный. Syn: amazing,
astounding
smoothness – гладкость, плавность
curve – выгиб, закругление,
загиб, кривизна. Syn: bend, turn
interaction – взаимодействие
(among, between; with) the close
interaction
between
–
тесное
взаимодействие; by interaction –
косвенно. Syn: cooperation, coordination
piecemeal – 1) по частям,
постепенно; 2) на части; 3)
постепенный, частичный; реформы.
Syn: partial, gradual
space – пространство; to save
space – оставлять свободное место;
empty space – пустота, пустое место.
Syn: room
suffuse – 1) заливать; покрывать
(краской) (with); 2) наполнять
dissolve – растворяться, исчезать
rocky eminence – скалистый
выступ
aedicule – 1) маленький домик
или комната; 2) рака, ковчег (в
форме домика)
scale – масштаб; масштабное
соотношение; on a large (grand) /
small scale – в большом/маленьком
масштабе;
natural
scale
–
натуральная величина; to draw to
scale – чертить, вычерчивать в
масштабе
recession – отступление; б)
удаление ( от – from )
wax – воск
26
amalgam – 1) амальгама; 2)
сочетание, смесь. Syn: mixture
panel – панель, филенка
surface – поверхность
gesture – 1) жест; habitual
gesture – привычный жест;
imperious
gesture
–
повелительный жест. Syn: bodily
movement;
2)
поступок,
действие; bold gesture – смелый
поступок; frantic gesture –
безумный поступок; magnificent
gesture – красивый жест; humane
/ kind gesture – доброе дело. Syn:
movement, motion; 3) мимика
(facial
gesture);
4)
жестикулировать.
Syn:
gesticulater
workmanship
–
1)
искусство, мастерство, умение;
квалификация; delicate, fine
workmanship
–
тонкое
мастерство;
poor,
shoddy
workmanship
–
низкая
квалификация. Syn: art, skill; 2)
изделие, продукт
violence – 1) жестокость,
применение силы; to resort to
violence
–
прибегать
к
принуждению; major violence –
грубое насилие; 2) сила
vehement
–
сильный;
неистовый; страстный; Syn:
passionate
UNIT IV
FLEMISH FIFTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS
One of the great mysteries of Flémish fifteenth-century painting
concerns the identity of the Master of Flémalle and the personality of
Robert Campin. Campin is well documented. He was born about
1378/80 and died in Tournai in 1444. He may have worked in Tournai,
and had a considerable workshop with apprentices. He became Dean of
the Painters' Guild, and was swept into local politics as a result of a
revolt in the town, in 1428 he retired into private life. In 1432 he was in
a different kind of trouble because of his irregular life, but although he
was often at loggerheads with the authorities, he kept his popularity and
his position as the town's major artist, and remained prosperous until his
death. However, the tantalizing fact is that no signed, documented, or
even traditionally attributed work survives.
A considerable body of work is attributed to the Master of
Flémalle, a name derived from the belief, itself erroneous, that some
of his works came from Flémalle in the Netherlands. There is also a
large and important triptych of the Annunciation, with wings
containing on one side two donors, and on the other the enchanting
scene of St Joseph making mousetraps, attributed for want of a better
name to the Master of Merode. But the Merode altarpiece has so many
affinities with the works of the Master of Flémalle that the two are
generally considered to be by one man. The characteristics of this
man's style are a certain vivid realism and angularity of form, a
striving for emotional effect, the use of heavy draperies falling in thick
folds like crumpled blotting-paper, and an interest in the minute details
of an interior. There are also certain physical characteristics: long
faces, heavily lidded eyes, small rounded chins under straight, thinlipped mouths, rather thick-set figures, dumpy proportions, fairly
strong colour, and a gift for landscape painting. In 1427 Rogelet de le
Pasture and Jacquelotte Daret were entered in the Guild records of
Tournai as apprentices to Robert Campin, and in 1432 they both
became Masters, Jacques Daret being made Dean of the Guild on the
same day. Both were natives of Tournai, where Jacques Daret, the son
of a woodcarver, was born before 1400. In 1418 when living in
Campin's house, he entered Holy Orders, and he must have continued
working as Campin's assistant until the end of the formal
apprenticeship without which he could not practise as a Master on his
own. In 1434/5 Daret was working for the Abbey of St Vaast, in Arras,
on a fourfold altarpiece containing a Nativity, now in the Thyssen
Collection. This Nativity contains many features drawn from the
Apocryphal Gospels, particularly that of the pseudo-Matthew, which
27
recounts the story of the two midwives, Zelomi who believed in the
Virgin birth, and Salome who did not, and whose hand withered as a
result of her expressions of contemptuous incredulity. It also has the
figure of St Joseph shielding the candle with his hand, and the halfscale angels surrounding the ruined hut in which the Virgin kneels
before the naked Infant lying on the ground. All these features are to
be found in a Nativity attributed to the Master of Flémalle, and the
similarities between these two works suggest that Jacques Daret
derived his picture from the one by the Flémalle Master, which would
suggest a connexion between the well-documented Campin by whom
no pictures are known, and the considerable oeuvre of the unidentified
Master.
The interior of the room in the Merode Annunciation contains a
wealth of vividly portrayed detail: the water-pot hanging in the alcove
with the embroidered towel beside it; the latticed and shuttered window,
the long bench against, rather than upon, which the Virgin sits; the book,
the guttering candle, the lily in the vase upon the table, tipped
awkwardly in an uncertain attempt at perspective. Many of these details
reappear in another work, clearly by the same hand: these are the wings
of the Werl Altarpiece, one containing the clerical donor presented by
the Baptist and the other the Virgin seated reading before the fire in a
room at the back of which an open window looks out upon a landscape.
The interiors in the Werl Altarpiece are far more competently managed
than the gauche perspective of the Merode Annunciation. The same
device of the open door to join the two scenes is used as it was to include
the donors in the Annunciation, but behind the Baptist is a convex mirror
reflecting the scene. This is clearly a reference to the mirror image in
Jan van Eyck's Arnolfiui Marriage Group, and that this is an imitation
is borne out by the fact that the Werl wings are dated 1438; it also
suggests a development within the Master of Flémalle's works. The
patterned gold ground and the compressed frieze of figures in the
Entombment show the evolution of new forms still within the
framework of an older non-naturalistic tradition; the uncertain
perspective of the Merode Annunciation indicates an increasing concern
for realism in setting and character; both these pictures suggest an artist
who is leading rather than following, for the nearest approach to them
is in Van Eyck in the 1430s. But the Werl wings support the opposite
view: a painter who has knowledge of the Van Eyck Arnolfini portraits
of 1434, and is using that knowledge in combination with a more studied
solution of his own earlier spatial problems.
TASKS
28
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is known about Robert Campin?
2. What glorified the Masterof Flémalle? What made famous the
triptych of the Annunciation?
3. What are the characteristics of the Master of Flémalle's style?
4. Who made the Nativity? What is there depicted in the Nativity?
What features of the Nativity can attribute it to the Master of Flémalle?
5. What details of the Annunciation reappear in another work?
6. Where can the evolution of new forms be seen?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
the characteristics of the style, vivid realism, the tantalizing fact,
angularity of form, heavy draperies, thick folds, heavily lidded eyes,
thin-lipped mouths, thick-set figures, landscape painting, Dean of the
Guild, contemptuous incredulity, half-scale angels surrounding the
ruined hut, the unidentified Master, a withered hand, vividly portrayed
detail, the water-pot hanging in the alcove, the guttering candle, the
wings of the Altarpiece, gauche perspective, the clerical donor, the
compressed frieze of figures, spatial problems.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
триптих «Благовещение», много работ приписывают этому
художнику, иметь резкие разногласия с кем-либо, мятая
промокательная бумага, вытянутые лица, коренастые фигуры,
большая мастерская, быть подмастерьем знаменитого художника,
работать на крупного художника, прикрывать свечу рукой,
вышитое полотенце, решетчатое, прикрытое ставнем окно, за
окном изображен пейзаж, выпуклое зеркало, в котором отражается
место действия, золотистый фон, соединяющий два события, в
рамках традиций.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the proper names given in the text. Prepare a report
about each mentioned person.
V. Comment on the following:
The Netherlands became in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth
century a particularly lively centre for religious revival among the laity,
with a strong parallel influence among clergy.
29
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
painting, iconography, art, artistic, cycle, , sense, colour, forms
The emergence of the new …. was preceded in Germany and
Bohemia by the long aftermath of Italian Trecentro …. . Like a leaven
working through the whole lump, so the outstanding quality of Italian
…. during the fourteenth century slowly permeated the whole of
Western European …. , and the styles that emerged in the more active
…. centres such as Prague are derived from Florence and Siena. In the
process of assimilation by, for instance, the Master of the Vyssi Brod
…. , Duccio's coherent narratives and the attenuated …. of Simone
Martini's sophisticated elegance become more spiky and contorted, and
the Master of the Trebon Altarpiece achieves a slightly Expressionist
…. of Agnolo Gaddi–that is, his …. is darker and richer, his …. less
clear, and his …. of internal space more distorted, but his rather wilting
poses and his …. of pattern derive from Florentine sources.
VII. Insert the missing articles. Render the text into English:
In Master Theodoric, whose largest complex is …. Crucifixion and
Pieta surrounded by …. heads of saints in …. chapel of …. Karlstein
Castle, executed in …. second half of …. fourteenth century, …. figures
have much of …. weighty directness and solidity of …. form of ….
Lorenzetti. Later forms of …. Italianate influence are touched but
slightly by …. greater directness and naturalism of …. International
Gothic. …. Madonnas with …. curly, golden hair, small, tight features
in …. round faces with …. high bland foreheads, tenderly sweet smiles,
languid eyes, and …. long, thin, boneless fingers which seem hardly
able to bear …. weight of …. plump, sprightly Infants: these types
survive right down to …. mid-fifteenth century, becoming weaker as
…. original inspiration is more worked out. …. type-name of ….
Beautiful Madonnas adequately describes …. genre.
VIII. Translate the following text:
One of the characteristics of the change from the Soft Style current
in Germany and Bohemia, and the International Gothic which generally
succeeded it there and spread so widely over the rest of Europe, to the
realistic vision of the Master of Flémalle and Jan van Eyck, is to be
found in this treatment of drapery–in the change from soft, flowing folds
trailing gracefully around willowy bodies to angular clusters of stiff
material enveloping much more thick-set figures. This is described quite
simply as the angular style. Of the most telling examples of this new
angularity one is the small triptych, in the Courtauld Institute Galleries,
30
London, by the Master of Flémalle representing the Entombment in the
centre panel with the Resurrection on one wing, and Golgotha and a
donor in the foreground on the other. Not only are the figures extremely
realistic, and is there a coherent spatial system within the picture, so that
there is a sense of depth, of recession from the mourning women in the
foreground to the weeping woman at the back of the group round the
tomb, but there is also a new unity of feeling, of heart-rending emotion
running through the whole compact mass of figures. The angel wiping
away the tears with the back of his hand, the St John straining to support
the grieving Mother leaning over her dead Son, the stricken woman
holding the headcloth, these sound a new and urgent note of dramatic
realism. The Resurrection plunges much deeper into pictorial space than
the centre panel. The iconography is quite familiar; the angel seated on
the cover of the tomb set slantwise across the empty grave from which
the Christ steps awkwardly; the gaudily dressed soldiers about the tomb
lying in gawky attitudes, the little wattle fence which seems to have
survived from German fourteenth-century representations of the scene:
these in different arrangements remain the constant parts. What survives
from the past is the gold ground patterned in a delicate raised tracery of
tendrils; what is new is the concern to re-create the scene itself, to
stimulate the emotion of the beholder, to suggest to him the very sounds
of grief, to involve him in the suffering, so that he meditates upon the
price of his salvation.
IX. Translate the following text:
Нидерландское искусство, начало развиваться с XIII в. В конце
XIV века в больших городах возникли гильдии живописцев.
Национальные особенности нидерландского искусства наиболее
ярко выразились в живописи. Два гениальные живописца, братья
Губерт и Ян ван-Эйки, усовершенствовав технику масляной
живописи. Как в произведениях этих двух мастеров (“Поклонение
Агнцу”), так и в работах их последователей ван-дер Вейдена, Йоста
Гентского, Гуго ван-дер-Гуса, Ганса Мемлинга и других,
выступают на первый план разработка сюжетов в реалистическом
духе, экспрессивность и тщательная выделка деталей. С XVI в.
направление живописи несколько изменяется под влиянием
итальянского Ренессанса: усиливается стремление художников к
разнообразию в композиции, к сообщению фигурам большей
красоты и свободы, к усовершенствованию технических приемов.
Представителями этого направления были Квентин Массейс
(1460–1530) и Лука Лейденский (1494–1533). Начинается
паломничество художников в Италию, и произведения
итальянского Возрождения становятся образцами, подражать
31
которым стремится целый ряд художников: Ян Госсарт, Ян
Схорель, Антонис Мор и др. Но наряду с итальянским
направлением, отличавшимся в работах Ламберта Ломбарда
(1505–66) и Франса Флориса (1517–70) особым изяществом,
развивалось национальное направление, характерезующееся
натурализмом и черпавшее сюжеты из народной жизни и местной
природы. Главные живописцы этого направления – Питер
Брейгель Старший, Лукас Валькенборх, Паулус Бриль.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
workshop – мастерская; цех; a
modestly equipped workshop –
скромно оборудованная мастерская.
Syn: atelier, studio
loggerheads – be at loggerheads
иметь резкие разногласия, быть в
ссоре (with smb. – с кем-л); get to
loggerheads – поссориться
tantalizing – привлекательный,
соблазнительный, провоцирующий
attribute – 1) приписывать
авторство. Syn: ascribe; 2) считать
характерным
свойством;
3)
классифицировать. Syn: classify
derive – происходить. Syn: come
from, spring from
triptych –1) трехстворчатый
складень; 2) триптих (произведение
искусства из трех картин, рельефов,
объединенных одной темой)
donor – даритель, податель,
жертвующий, жертвователь. Syn:
giver
affinity – близость, сходство
(характера, интересов; with, between,
to); to demonstrate, show (an) affinity
– продемонстрировать сходство; to
feel
affinity
–
чувствовать
близость/родство; to have (an)
affinity – иметь сходство close
affinity – тесная близость, родство;
elective affinity – родство душ; strong
32
affinity – сильная привязанность
Syn: kinship
angularity – угловатость
blotting-paper
–
промокательная бумага
minute
–
детальный,
обстоятельный, доскональный,
подробный. Syn: circumstantial
dumpy – 1) коренастый.
Syn:
thickset,
stocky;
2)
невысокий коренастый человек
landscape painting – пейзаж
fourfold
altarpiece
–
четырехстворчатый
запрестольный образ
contemptuous
–
презрительный; высокомерный.
Syn:
audacious,
disdainful,
scornful.
Ant:
considerate,
humble, polite, respectful, reverent
incredulity
–
недоверчивость,
недоверие,
скептицизм. Syn: unbelief
feature
–
особенность,
характерная
черта,
деталь,
признак;
characteristic,
distinctive. Syn: characteristic,
quality, make, form, fashion,
shape, proportions
unidentified
Master
–
неотождествлённый художник
alcove – альков, углубление,
ниша. Syn: niche , recess
gutter – угасать (о пламени);
guttering candle –угасающая свеча
gauche – неловкий, неуклюжий,
нескладный. Syn: unpolished, clumsy,
awkward. Ant: considerate, polite
mirror – 1) зеркало; false mirror
– кривое зеркало; full-length mirror –
зеркало во весь рост; hand mirror –
ручное зеркало; convex mirror –
выпуклое зеркало; rear-view mirror –
зеркало задней обзорности. Syn:
glass,
looking-glass;
2)
воспроизводить,
отображать,
отражать. Syn: reflect, represent
33
scene – пейзаж, картина; to
depict a scene – изображать
пейзаж; beautiful scene –
красивый пейзаж; familiar scene
– знакомый пейзаж
frieze – фриз; бордюр. Syn:
border
setting – 1) окружающая
обстановка, окружение. Syn:
site; 2) декорации и костюмы;
художественное
оформление
(спектакля); 3) огранка; оправа
(камня)
spatial – пространственный;
существующий в пространстве
UNIT V
JAN VAN EYCK
A great deal is known about Jan van Eyck from 1422 onwards, but
nothing earlier. It is also possible that he may have worked on the
illumination of a Book of Hours that was later split up and finished by
several hands, and of which the part that came to be known as the
Hours of Turin. The characteristic features of the lost pages attributed
to Van Eyck are the shimmering quality of the light, a magic blend of
realism and poetry in the treatment of nature, and a use of certain
perspective devices which reappear in some of Jan's later works. In
1425 Jan van Eyck entered the service of Duke Philip the Good of
Burgundy, and served him until the end of his life. He was not only a
Court painter, but also a confidential servant, for his master sent him
on several secret diplomatic journeys to Spain and Portugal. He lived
in Lille until 1429, and then in Bruges, where he bought a house, and
where he was visited by the Duke in 1433. Jan van Eyck’s documented
life-history is supplemented by a number of signed and dated works.
Then there is a problem of Hubert. On the frame of the Ghent Altar
is a Latin quatrain stating that Hubert, Jan's elder brother began the
altarpiece. Hubert is barely documented at all, and the four exiguous
references supposed to relate to him in the Ghent city archives do not
incontrovertibly refer to him. It has therefore been advanced that Hubert
was an invention, a piece of local patriotic propaganda produced in
Ghent. But there is no overriding reason for doubting the genuineness
of the inscription, and there is, besides, a small group of works which,
while they can be related to Jan's known paintings, yet do not appear to
be entirely by him. The Three Maries at the Sepulcher has a markedly
International Gothic character. The clumsy perspective of the tomb, the
elegance of the three holy women, the caricature types of the sleeping
soldiers, the precious jewel delicacy of the angel, the undeveloped
spatial system of the composition, with the walled and towered city and
the splendid sunrise as a flat backcloth to the drama of the Resurrection–
all these are still part of the sophisticated complexity of the very early
fifteenth-century approach to naturalism, and all suggest a less factual
mind than Jan's, a richer vein of poetry and imagination. Also, the
elaborate symbolism of The Three Maries at the Sepulcher is paralleled
in the Ghent Altar, and finds many echoes in Jan, though he rarely
achieves the same depths, the same multi-layers, of meaning. But from
this and other works, in which it is reasonable to assume that he
participated, Jan's own personal style certainly developed.
The Ghent Altar is a large and complex polyptych. One of the first
things that strikes one on looking at it is the absence of coherence
34
between the various parts, although there is a medieval tradition which
justifies the arrangement of the central panels of the Deesis above with
the Paradise scenes below. When closed, the altar-piece has on the
outside of its wings a large Annunciation and, below it, the portraits of
the donors and their patron saints, while the topmost sections contain
four small figures of sibyls and prophets with texts on floating ribbons.
Another striking thing is the disparity in the scale of the various figures:
no less than four changes of scale exist between the three divisions of
the outside of the wings, and similar disparities are present between the
upper and lower parts of the inside of the altarpiece. There are also
curious disparities in approach; some parts are almost prosaically
factual, others almost visionary in their intensity. The angel and the
Virgin of the Annunciation are separated by two small panels, one with
the representation of an arched window looking out upon a city square,
and the other with a wash basin and ewer set into a niche and a white
towel hanging from a rail beside it. The symbolism of the ewer and basin
is clear, but that of the city view is not; in the same way, the lighting
system within these scenes is also odd, since both the Virgin and the
angel are lit from the right, and the open window in the centre and the
little arched windows at the back of the figures do not in any way modify
the lighting within the picture; nor does the light from these windows
fall in any logical way across the bare floor space between them, so that
they have been treated sometimes as insertions. The donor and his wife
kneel beside the figures of their patrons, the two Sts John, who are
represented as statues and painted in grisaille. This introduces not only
a disparity of scale, but also one of vision, for three orders of reality are
now present: a narrative representation of a sacred subject, two highly
factual donor portraits, and two simulated sculptures. The portraits of
the donor and his wife have the detailed approach to living form. There
is a strong attempt to impose a uniform framework on the disparate
elements through the governing factor of the light, which falls uniformly
in all the panels from the right, and also through the use in the upper
panels of a beamed ceiling running through the whole scene, and, in the
lower panels, of the same cusped trefoil arches to frame the figures. On
the inside of the altarpiece the main disparities lie in the scale and the
viewpoint. The upper row contains figures of four different scales, the
largest in the centre being that of God the Father, though this disparity
can easily be a survival from a medieval tradition of importance
indicated by size. The detail is superb in quality, but the minute handling
of jewels, crowns, brocades, never overwhelms the grasp of the
structure of the whole figure. There is also a passionate interest in facial
expression and in character; instances of this are in the open mouths of
35
the singing angels, and the difference in treatment between the
supernatural figures and those of Adam and Eve which stand on the
outside edges of the uppermost panels and appear as figures from
another world, physically as well as spiritually.
Below the Deesis is the panel of Adoration of the Lamb, the various
iconographical elements of which may be analysed almost indefinitely
in ever deepening layers of meaning and symbolism. The sacrificial
Lamb stands upon the altar, and the chalice catches the blood pouring
from its breast; the instruments of the Passion are upheld by little angels
kneeling round the altar, and in the foreground of the flowery hill-side
the pilgrims approach, both towards the altar and the Fountain of Life
which gushes in the foreground. They come in long processions–
prophets, martyrs, popes, virgins, pilgrims, judges, knights, hermits,
wending their way across a landscape of such fantastic detail and such
luxuriance that this seems to be the representation of an earthly as well
as a celestial paradise.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is known about Jan van Eyck? What are the characteristic
features of the lost pages attributed to Jan Van Eyck? What astonishes
in Van Eyck’s production?
2. What strikes one on looking at the Ghent Altar? Is it a polyptych
or triptych? How was the donor and his wife honoured by Jan Van
Eyck?
3. What is shown on the outside of the Ghent Altar’s wings when
the altar-piece is closed?
4. What are common points of the Three Maries at the Sepulcher
and the Ghent Altar?
5. What is produced on the inside of the Ghent altarpiece? What are
striking things concerning the Annunciation?
6. What does the panel Adoration of the Lamb depict?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
on canvas; on panel; in the fresco; in the picture, exiguous
references, perspective devices, to incontrovertibly refer to, flat
backcloth, sophisticated complexity; approach to naturalism, a richer
vein of poetry, to achieve the depths;multi-layers of meaning, the
elaborate symbolism, the absence of coherence between the various
parts, the portraits of the donors, patron saints, the minute handling of
jewels, curious disparities in approach, the inside of the altarpiece, to
36
justify the arrangement; central panels, in the foreground, to modify the
lighting.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
подлинность надписи, справедливо допустить, что…, работа,
приписываемая данному художнику, латинское четверостишие,
городской пейзаж, внутренние / внешние створки, на переднем
плане, никоим образом, средневековая традиция, в самой верхней
части фрески, рай земной и небесный, необычные несоответствия,
разный масштаб, окно выходит на городскую площадь, ангел
освещен с лева, символизм кувшина, таким же образом,
коленопреклоненные, детали – великолепны, балочный потолок,
выражение лица.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
a) a medieval tradition of importance indicated by size;
b) a narrative representation of a sacred subject;
с) curious disparities in approach, in scale.
V. Comment on the following:
What is complete is the sense of actuality, so that Jan van Eyck
appears to be approaching the idea of the general through a heightened
realization of the particular.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
marriage, signifying, fascinating, moment, scene, mirror, dog,
ceremony, realism, perspective, based, scientific, empirical,
reality, iconography, candle
The Arnolfini Marriage Group is one of the world's most ….and
involved pieces of …. , and can qualify for the unusual role of a painted
…. certificate, for the Italian merchant is clearly at the most solemn ….
of his vows, as is proved by the lighted …. above his head …. the
presence of God, while at the feet of his young wife stands the small ….
emblematical of marital fidelity, and behind them is the …. bed. On the
wall at the back of the room above the …. which reflects the …. the
artist has signed the work and affirmed his presence at the …. –
'Johannes de Eyck fait hie 1434'. Here again it is the …. , the minute
concentration on appearance that is so striking. The …. system of the
room, the window, the floorboards, is not …. on any of the …. theories
37
of optics which, at the same date, were current in Florence; it is purely
…. , but so perfect is the observation that the illusion of …. within the
room is complete.
VII. Insert the missing prepositions. Translate the text:
…. the thirteenth century there were two great Orders. The
Franciscans concentrated …. preaching and missions, and the
Dominicans concentrated …. education, learning, and the extirpation
…. heresy. The new direction …. religious revival led, …. the one hand,
…. practical issues resulting …. a renewal …. the social conscience,
and, …. the other, …. the rise …. a new and more popular type ….
mysticism …. religious. One …. the forms this took was the production
…. a new kind …. devotional book which amplified the Gospel and
accompanied its narrative …. comment and meditations
VIII. Translate the following text:
The tradition that the Van Eycks invented oil-painting has long
abandoned. The amazing technique of Jan's works does, however,
suggest that he must have invented or perfected a better, purer varnish
or oil medium, for his paint has a fluid quality, an absence of brushstrokes, and a jewel-like clarity of colour which give it the appearance
of being floated almost magically upon the panel. Jan's colour and the
consistency of his paint are subtle, transparent, luminous. The Flemish
technique of the oil medium is demonstrably ahead of the use of oil paint
elsewhere–in Italy, for instance– because the nature of northern painting
confined the art to easel pictures, whereas the first requirement of the
Italian patron was for fresco, so that tempera became the easel picture
medium, since it resembled fresco in its colour. Like fresco, tempera
requires promptness of hand and execution; oil permits a slow,
deliberate approach, requires time for drying thoroughly during the
phases of execution, and allows for second thoughts. Despite his
virtuoso qualities, and perhaps because of them, Jan van Eyck's
influence did not penetrate Europe widely. Lucas Moser, for instance,
in the Tiefenbronn Altarpiece stems more from Flémalle than from his
great contemporary, and Konrad Witz, in the Christ walking on the
Water, of 1444, has, it is true, the acute realism of Jan in that his
landscape background is recognizably a particular site on the Lake of
Geneva, but in its treatment it is closer to the wide and tender landscape
of the Flémalle Dijon Nativity than to the more visionary ones at the
back of either the Ghent Altar or the Rolin Madonna. In fact, the
lamentation of poor Moser, 'Cry, Art, cry and lament loudly, nobody
nowadays wants you. So, alas. 1431', painted on the frame of his
altarpiece, suggests that the new style was making but slow headway
38
against the insinuating qualities of the older Soft Style.
IX. Translate the following text:
Начало творческой деятельности Яна ван Эйка иногда
связывают с работой над миниатюрами Турино-миланского
часослова, однако в настоящее время это мнение оспаривается.
В 1432 художник завершил свое самое значительное
произведение, ознаменовавшее наступление новой эпохи в
живописи Нидерландов и всей Европы к северу от Альп, –
монументальный многочастный алтарь для одной из капелл собора
Св. Бавона в Генте. В истории мирового искусства он известен как
Гентский алтарь. На 26 створках художник в необычайно
убедительной форме воплотил современные ему представления о
мироздании; божественное и человеческое начала сливаются здесь
в нерасторжимое гармоническое единство. В верхнем ярусе
внешних створок представлена сцена Благовещения, в нижнем –
фигуры двух Иоаннов – Крестителя и Евангелиста, написанные в
технике гризайли и имеющие вид статуй. По сторонам от них –
портретные образы заказчика алтаря, гентского бюргера Иосса
Вейдта и его супруги. Колористическое решение внешней стороны
алтаря достаточно сдержанное, а в изображении фигур двух
Иоаннов – почти монохромное.
Своеобразным мистическим реализмом отличаются две
наиболее известные картины Яна ван Эйка – Мадонна канцлера
Ролена и Мадонна каноника ван дер Пале. Творчество Яна ван
Эйка оказало огромное влияние на дальнейшее развитие искусства
не только его родины, но и других стран Европы.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
devices – метод, способ. Syn:
method, means, procedure, technique
works – работы; signed and dated
works
–
подписанные
и
датированные работы
frame – рама, рамка; picture
frame – рама для картины
quatrain – четверостишие
references – 1) ссылка (на);
упоминание (о). Syn: allusion,
mention; 2) сноска, ссылка; oblique
reference – непрямая, косвенная
39
ссылка. Syn: foot-note
incontrovertibly
–
неоспоримо, неопровержимо,
бесспорно
overriding – основной,
доминирующий;
overriding
reason – главная причина. Syn:
paramount
genuineness – подлинность,
истинность; genuineness of the
inscription
–
подлинность
надписи. Syn: reality, authenticity
flat backcloth – плоский фон
exiguous
–
малый,
незначительный, скудный. Syn:
scanty
sophisticated
complexity
–
замысловатая сложность
vein – стиль, тон
elaborate
–
детально
разработанный;
продуманный;
законченный; доскональный
complex polyptych – сложный
полиптих
topmost sections – самая верхняя
часть
disparity – несоответствие;
несоразмерность (between, in) a
great, wide disparity – значительное
несоответствие
scale – масштаб, масштабное
соотношение; on a large(grand)/small
scale – в большом/маленьком
масштабе;
natural
scale
–
натуральная величина; to draw to
scale – чертить, вычерчивать в
масштабе
visionary – воображаемый,
иллюзорный. Syn: ghostly, spectral,
imaginary, fictitious, visional
wash basin – раковина
ewer – кувшин. Syn: jug, pitcher
modify – 1) видоизменять,
трансформировать, модифицировать;
подправлять. Syn: change, alter; 2)
смягчать; ослаблять, умерять. Syn:
moderate, abate
insertion – вставка (слова,
текста, страницы в рукописи, в
40
корректуре)
grisaille – гризайль
simulated
sculptures
–
ложные скульптуры
upper row – верхний ряд
minute
handling
–
тщательно выписанные детали
brocade – парча
facial
expression
–
выражение лица
supernatural
–
сверхъестественный.
Syn:
miraculous,
preternatural,
superhuman, magical Ant: earthly,
normal, standard, usual, worldly
superhuman
–
сверхчеловеческий.
Syn:
supernatural
sacrificial
Lamb
–
жертвенный агнец
chalice – потир
altar – 1) престол, алтарь; 2)
жертвенник
prophets – пророки
martyrs – мученики
pilgrims
–
паломники,
пилигримы, странники. Syn:
palmers, wanderers
knights – рыцари
hermits – отшельники,
пустынники. Syn: anchorites,
recluses
wending
–
идти,
направляться; путешествовать;
to wend one's way – держать
путь, направляться ( to )
UNIT VI
FRA FUIPPO LIPPI
The Florentine artists trained in the International Gothic tradition
working at about the middle of the fifteenth century, found themselves
attracted to the new realism of Masaccio or to the aggressively dramatic
realism of Donatello. In different ways this twofold aim can be seen
working in artists varying as much in age as in accomplishments, and
best of all in the major figures of the period, Fra Filippo Lippi, Fra
Angelico, Uccello, Domenico Veneziano, and Castagno.
Masaccio exerted great influence on Fra Fuippo Lippi. Until
comparatively recently, it was customary to assume that Fra Filippo
started his career as a painter of rather sweet devotional images and that
his work became progressively more austere and more realistic. This
was due to a preconceived notion of the idea of development, according
to which it was believed that a more realistic painting was necessarily
more accomplished, and therefore necessarily later, than a less realistic
work. There is no reason in logic why this should be so, and the arts in
Florence in the period from about 1430 to 1460 show that the
development of ideas was rather more complicated.
Fra Fuippo Lippi’s Tarquinia Madonna of 1437 and the Barbadori
Akarpiece, commissioned in 1437, both show a trend away from
Masaccio and are rather nearer to Donatello. This is perhaps more
discernible in the Tarquinia Madonna, for the compactness of the
grouping, the architectural background in layers receding into the
distance, the fat and really very ugly child, suggest that Donatello's
Feast of Herod was in Fra Filippo's mind. In the Barbadori Akarpiece
the composition is easier and less compressed. The setting is still
architectural, but only a simple panelled room, containing a large,
tabernacle throne. Although the faces of the little angels leaning over
the balustrade still recall the ferocious expressions of Donatello's putti,
the inspiration seems better assimilated, and the emotional impact of
ugliness less stressed. The Barbadori Akarpiece is important for two
other reasons. It is one of the earliest datable examples of the Sacra
Conversazione, that form of the Madonna and Child group where the
saints are so placed as to suggest the intimacy of a Holy Conversation
piece. This became an increasingly popular composition, replacing
almost entirely the older types of the Virgin enthroned in majesty, or
with the saints in separate compartments flanking a central Madonna
group. The second reason is its prophetic quality in the increasing
complexity of individual forms; the draperies fall in small folds, and
many different textures are particularized–the thin gauze of the
Madonna's headcloth, the embroidered copes, the finely feathered
41
angel's wings, the marbled panelling and floor, the carvings on the
throne–until there is barely a square inch of the picture surface that is
not broken up into a different form and colour. The effect of this can
be seen in the Coronation of the Virgin, commissioned in 1441 but
probably not finished until 1447. The concept of internal space has
been abandoned in order to achieve the maximum richness of surface,
and even the rational ordering of scale has also gone: the central
figures of God and the Virgin, and the two angels flanking them, are
relatively larger, taking the effects of perspective into account, than
any of the angels in the groups on cither side, and even than the
kneeling figures in the foreground. Also the multiplicity of detail is
more pronounced.
The frescoes in the choir of Prato Cathedral, begun in 1452, bear
the date 1460, although it is unlikely that they were finished before
1464. He was extremely dilatory over the work, perhaps because the
delays furthered his romance with Lucrezia Buti, a nun in a convent of
which he was chaplain, who became the mother of his son Filippino in
1457 or 1458. The Feast of Herod which forms part of the series shows
the artist concentrating on movement and dramatic narrative at the
expense of coherence. The Funeral of St Stephen contains a bold
perspective vista of the interior of a church, a type of setting which was
by now common, since it provided an opportunity for the display of
knowledge and ability in what was now a sine qua nоn of any up-todate artist's repertory, and in the Feast of Herod the use of continuous
representation–the device of several successive incidents being shown
as occurring simultaneously so as to make the narrative plain–is pushed
almost beyond the limits of reason, so that the naturalism of revolution
the perspective setting and the telling contrast of Herod's horror and
Herodias's impassivity is vanquished by the unreality of the
presentation. Donatello's relief of the same subject is the source, but it
also shows by how much a superficial acceptance of his influence is
detrimental to internal coherence.
A similar development can be found in the Madonna and Child
groups. The Madonna of Humility, a very early one, has a strong
emphasis on light and shadow derived from Masaccio, and the ugly
faces, the rather outre realism taken from Donatello; the late ones–the
Pitti Tondo of 1452 with the Madonna and Child against a background
of the story of St Anne, and with the famous figure of the Maenad
striding purposefully with her basket upon her head, and the enchanting
one of about 1455–57 with the tender Madonna adoring a Child upheld
by a grinning imp of mischief– describe the change in his style resulting
from the sweetening and softening of his realism in favour of a poetry
42
derived ultimately from an entirely different inspiration. The Nativities
are also evidence of this change. One was the altarpiece for the chapel
in the Medici Palace frescoed by Fra Angelico's assistant Benozzo
Gozzoli with the famous procession of the Magi in which the younger
members of the Medici family figure. These Nativities have a poetic
quality, being more meditations upon, rather than representations of the
scene. The gloomy background, the shadowy witnesses, the
insubstantial angels, the soft beauty of the Madonna and the rather
cloying sweetness of the Child, are the measure of the transition in the
mid-century from the realism of Masaccio and the emotion of Donatello
to that tenderness and grace which characterized the sculptors of the
second generation. The surprising thing is to find Fra Filippo as the
herald of this change.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Whose works attracted the Florentine artists trained in the
International Gothic tradition working at about the middle of the
fifteenth century? Who exerted great influence on Fra Fuippo Lippi?
2. How did Fra Fuippo Lippi’s style develop?
3. What is more discernible in the Tarquinia Madonna? What work
was in Fra Filippo's mind when he was creating his Tarquinia
Madonna? Why is the Barbadori Akarpiece so important?
4. The effect of what can be seen in the Coronation of the Virgin,
commissioned in 1441?
5. Why was Fra Fuippo Lippi extremely dilatory over the frescoes
in the choir of Prato Cathedral?
6. What development is noticed in the Madonna and Child groups?
What transformation can be seen in the Nativities? What change did Fra
Fuippo Lippi herald?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
aggressively dramatic realism, twofold aim, the major figures, to
exert great influence on, it was customary to assume that, sweet
devotional images, more austere, the architectural background, a large,
tabernacle throne, the compactness of the grouping, panelled room,
layers receding into the distance, ferocious expressions, to lean over the
balustrade, prophetic quality, thin gauze of the Madonna's headcloth, to
be extremely dilatory over the work, the measure of the transition, have
a poetic quality, the insubstantial angels.
43
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
cравнительно недавно, стать более реалистичным, идея
развития, работа более завершена, работа, заказанная работа, быть
более заметным в, композиция легкая, архитектурный фон,
фланкировать центральную группу, резьба на престоле, крылатые
ангелы, украшенные вышивкой ризы, форма и цвет, учитывать
перспективу, коленопрклоненные фигуры, множество деталей,
концепция
внутреннего
пространства,
несколько
последовательных событий, поверхностное влияние, процессия
волхвов.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the titles of the paintings mentioned in this text,
translate them and say some words about each painting.
V. Comment on the following:
According to the idea of development it was believed that a more
realistic painting was necessarily more accomplished, and therefore
necessarily later, than a less realistic work.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
art, artist , stream, contact, major, signed, subtle, period,
International Gothic, painting, assistant, play of light, colour,
development, important, fragments, panel, certainly
The other great Sacra Conversazione of the …. is the St Lucy
Altarpiece by Domenico Veneziano. Very little is known about this ….,
and he seems to stand slightly outside the main …. of Florentine …. .
On the other hand, the St Lucy Altarpiece is clearly one of the …. works
of the middle of the century, and in some ways is more …. than any of
those by Lippi or Angelico. It is not known when Domenico Veneziano
was born, and he …. himself as a Venetian. The very problematic tondo
of the Adoration of the Magi is often held to be evidence of an …. ….
phase dating from the late 1420s or early 1430s. The most …. thing is
the fact that he had as an …. Piero della Francesca, who must then have
been making his first …. with Florentine works. It is certain that
Domenico's unique interests in …. and in the …. …. were of
fundamental importance in the …. of Piero's style, and therefore on all
…. outside Florence itself. Only two works are quite …. by Domenico;
both are signed. They are the Madonna with …. of two saints, and the St
Lucy Altarpiece, the main …. of which is in the Uffizi.
44
VII. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
Fra Filippo's development can be plotted fairly precisely …. the
rediscovery … the cloister…. the Carmelite church …. Florence ….
some fragments …. frescoes which can be dated …. 1432. Fra Filippo
was an orphan who was put …. the Carmelite monastery …. Florence
…. 1421, when he was still a child, …. his aunt, presumably to get him
…. her hands. …. the mid 1420s Masaccio was painting the Brancacci
Chapel …. the church; …. 1430 Fra Filippo is recorded …. a document
as a painter. Since the Carmelites were an enclosed Order, it seems
probable that Filippo was Masaccio's pupil, and the battered fresco
fragments, which were mentioned …. Vasari but later covered ….
whitewash and rediscovered only …. 1860, confirm this impression
entirely.
VIII. Translate the following text:
The St Lucy Altarpiece is more clearly organized spatially, with as
much care given to the perspective of the architecture, and to the
proportions of the figures within it, as any of the Sacre Conversazioni that
preceded it; the light is paler, cooler, the colour more limpid. St Lucy's pink
gown, St Zenobius's green cope, the Baptist's red shirt, and St Francis's
greenish-brown habit, the pink and green tiles in the pavement, the green
shadows under the vaulting of the pink arcade, or in the shell-niches behind
the throne, all these alternations, picked out with the sharp black marble
inlays, and set off by the gentle blues of the sky, the robes of the Madonna,
St Lucy, and the Baptist's cloak, give for the first time the impression of a
man starting with a composition in colour as much as in form or spatial
geometry, and organizing his picture, not for its richness of effect or its
variety of movement or emotion, but purely in visual terms, with all else
subordinated to that end. In Domenico's work, the organization of masses,
and the blond and limpid colour that becomes the hall-mark of Piero is
plainly to be seen, but the kind of calm and deliberation they represent had
little appeal for the Florentines, since Domenico ended in the workhouse,
where he died in 1461. The only other important picture attributed to him
is the fresco of Stjolui the Baptist and St Francis in Sta Croce, which is
totally unlike the early attributed Adoration and is very similar to the work
of Castagno. It is possible, therefore, that he developed from the
International Gothic Adoration in the 1420s, through the two signed
pictures in the 1440s and 1450s to the harsher, linear realism of the St John
and St Francis very shortly before 1461. It used to be believed that
Domenico was murdered by Castagno, but one of the very few things
known with certainty about him is that this is untrue. The colour and the
light effects of Domenico Veneziano were totally ignored.
45
IX. Translate the following text:
Знаменитый итальянский художник эпохи Возрождения
Филиппо Липпи родился во Флоренции. В пятнадцатилетнем
возрасте он принял монашеский сан и прожил в кармелитском
монастыре во Флоренции десять лет. Наиболее ранним
из дошедших до нас произведений Филиппо Липпи является
Мадонна из Тарквинии, написанная в 1437. Спустя год он все еще
продолжал работать над начатым в 1437 Алтарем Барбадори для
церкви Санто Спирито. В 1442 Филиппо стал священником в Сан
Кирико близ Флоренции. К 1447 он закончил композицию
Коронование Марии для капеллы каноника Мариньи во
флорентийской церкви Сант Амброджо. Когда мастер начал
работу над фресками в хоре собора в Прато, его тондо Мадонна
еще не было закончено.
Поведение Филиппо Липпи не подобало его сану, но, несмотря
на это, ему покровительствовала семья Медичи, от которых он
получал заказы на протяжении всей своей творческой жизни. В
1457 он выполнил алтарный образ Св. Михаил. В 1466 Филиппо
поручили украсить фресками апсиду собора в Сполето, которая
была завершена уже после смерти мастера.
Испытав в начальный период своего творчества сильное
влияние Мазаччо, фра Филиппо стал последовательным
приверженцем ренессансного натурализма. Совершенствуя свой
стиль, делая его все более утонченным, он смог создать такие
нежные образы, как Саломея и Богоматерь в Поклонении младенцу
Христу.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
twofold – двойной; парный,
сдвоенный, удвоенный, twofold
aim – двойная цель. Syn: double,
dual
accomplishments
–
произведения
image
–
1)
образ;
изображение; sweet devotional
images –слащавые благочестивые
образы; отражение (в зеркале).
Syn: reflection; 2) а) изваяние,
статуя (святого). Syn: statue; б)
идол, 3) а) сходство, схожесть,
подобие; б) копия; нечто похожее,
повторяющее в точности какой-л.
предмет
austere – 1) строгий; 2)
аскетический, суровый. Syn:
ascetic, 3) строгий, простой
trend –1) направление; 2)
тенденция; to create, set, start a trend
– задавать направление; artistic
trend – направление в искусстве;
general trend – общее направление
46
growing trend – развивающаяся
тенденция; marked trend – ярко
выраженная тенденция; recent
trend – недавняя, новая тенденция.
Syn: vogue
background – задний план,
фон; in the background – на заднем
плане; architectural background –
на фоне зданий; against the
background – на фоне. Syn. setting
foreground – передний план
(картины); in the foreground – на
переднем плане
composition – структура,
композиция. The composition of
the painting is very graceful. –
Композиция картины весьма
изящна. Syn: structure, design,
configuration, arrangement, form,
organization, framework, layout
panelled
–
обшитый
панелями; a panelled room –
обшитая панелями комната. Syn:
paneled
panelling
–
панельная
обшивка; marbled paneling –
панельная обшивка под мрамор
tabernacle – 1. a) палатка,
шатер; б) обитель; жилище. Syn:
dwelling-place; 2. а) храм;
молельня; б) скиния; 3) а) нечто,
вмещающее
нечто
духовно
ценное;
б)
сосуд;
в)
дарохранительница;
г)
рака
(мощеный ящик); Feast of
Tabernacles – праздник кущей; 3.
а) жить в шатре, палатке, в любом
временном жилище; б) временно
пребывать где-л.; в) помещать в
раку. Syn: enshrine
balustrade – балюстрада.
Syn: banisters
datable –
поддающийся
датировке
compartment
–
отсек;
separate compartment – отдельный
отсек
flanking – фланкирующийa
prophetic – пророческий;
предсказывающий;
prophetic
words – пророческие слова. Syn:
fateful,
oracular,
fatidical,
predictive, sibylline, vaticquality
drapery – 1) драпировка. Syn:
curtain, hangings; 2) занавес
gauze – 1) газ (материя); 2)
марля; в) проволочная ткань; 3)
дымка, легкий туман (в воздухе,
голове, мыслях). Syn: haze
cope – 1. a) риза; церковное
одеяние служителя церкви; б)
покров; свод; embroidered copes –
украшенный вышивкой одеяние;
the cope of heaven – небесный
свод; the cope of night – покров
ночи; 2) а) накрывать, покрывать;
б) обхватывать. Syn: clasp,
embrace
commission
–
поручать,
давать, делать заказ; выписывать.
Syn: order
pronounced – 1) резко
выраженный;
определенный,
отчетливый,
четкий,
явный,
ясный. Syn: clear, lucid, distinct,
plain, evident; 2) произнесённый,
выговоренный;
выраженный
словами. Syn: spoken, uttered,
articulated
dilatory – 1) медлящий,
выжидательный,; dilatory tactics –
выжидательная
тактика;
2)
медленный. Syn: slow, sluggish; 3)
запоздалый, поздний. Syn: tardy
vista – 1) перспектива, вид; 2)
аллея, просека; 3) вереница; 4)
возможности, виды на будущее
sine qua non – обязательное,
непременное условие; то, без чего
нельзя обойтись; sine qua non
condition – необходимое условие
repertory – 1) хранилище;
архив; Syn: depository, depot
repository; 2) ассортимент. Syn:
47
repertoire; 3) театральная труппа с
подготовленным
для
сезона
репертуаром.
Syn:
repertory
theatre
representation
–
образ,
картина. Syn: image, likeness
impassivity – бесстрастие,
невозмутимость.
Syn:
imperturbability , dispassionateness
vanquish – 1) побеждать; to
vanquish enemies – побеждать
врагов;
2)
преодолевать,
подавлять; to vanquish fear –
подавить страх. Syn: conquer,
overcome, overpower, overthrow.
Ant: capitulate, escape, lose
detrimental – приносящий
убыток; причиняющий ущерб;
пагубный,
(to);
detrimental
impurities – вредные примеси.
Syn: harmful, injurious, hurtful
coherence – 1) связь,
сцепление, internal coherence –
внутренняя связь; 2) логичность.
Syn:
connectedness;
3)
слаженность. Syn: co-ordination.
Syn: coherency
outre – 1) эксцентричный,
необычный; outre realism –
странный реализм, outre garb –
эксцентричное
одеяние;
2)
преувеличенный
enchanting
–
очаровательный,
прелестный.
Syn:
appealing,
attractive,
charming, delightful. Ant: dull,
repulsive, ugly
adoring – поклоняющийся;
преклоняющийся; любящий Syn:
loving, affectionate
chapel – капелла, часовня,
молельня, придел; military chapel
– полковая церковь; wedding
chapel – свадебная часовня; lady
chapel – капелла, посвященная
деве Марии. Syn: oratory
cloying – пресыщать. Syn:
surfeit
48
UNIT VII
FRA ANGELICO
Fra Angelico’s early career is obscure, and he probably did not start
painting until late in the 1420s. He became a Dominican at a
comparatively early age, but, unlike Fra Filippo, he did so from
conviction, and as a member of the Order of Preachers he deliberately
used his art for didactic purposes. For this reason, his style is always
simple and direct, and possibly also somewhat conservative. The little
reliquaries that are usually ascribed to him, and which are all known in
coloured reproductions, may be early works by him, and the triptych of
the Madonna and Child, with St Peter Martyr and other Saints, now in
the S. Marco Museum, is almost certainly of 1425/8, but the first firmly
datable work is the Linaiuoli Madonna, commissioned in 1433. It is best
looked at in relation to the Madonna and Child with St Anne by
Masaccio, and the Madonna of Humility by Fra Filippo. The Masaccio
and the Fra Filippo are both naturalistic in vision, but the Masaccio is
infused with classical grandeur, and the Fra Filippo with emotional
feeling. Fra Angelico retains much of the hieratic quality of the
Masaccio, its solidity and three-dimensional form, but in some ways he
is closer to the International Gothic ideal of the beautiful Madonna
while the Child is straight out of a medieval or Byzantine model.
The Madonna and Child with Saints and Angels, the altar-piece of
the Monastery of S. Marco in Florence, where Fra Angelico spent most
of his working life, and was in charge of the workshop, was painted
probably between 1438 and 1440. It is therefore comparable, as a Sacra
Conversazione, with the Barbadori Altarpiece; the composition is more
open, less cluttered in internal space than Fra Filippo's, and it uses the
same type of compositional devices –the antithesis of the kneeling
figures, the exact balance of the standing saints and angels, the plants,
garlands, and hangings–but the throne is more classical in shape,
derived ultimately from the niche by Michelozzo on Orsanmichele,
made to contain Donatello's St Louis, and now containing Verrocchio's
Incredulity of St Thomas. As a general rule, however, Fra Angelico's
works can be dated from the progress of the works in the Monastery of
S. Marco, which is decorated with a large number of frescoes, one in
each cell, and larger, more ambitious ones in the chapter house, on the
landings, and in the passageways. The ones in the more public places,
like the Madonna and Child with Eight Saints in the upper corridor, or
the Annunciation facing the stairs, are quite direct in their treatment of
the subject. The Madonna fresco is probably fairly late in execution, and
may not have been painted until after Fra Angelico returned from Rome
in 1449, which would mean that he continued to work in his old convent
49
after he had been appointed Prior at S. Domenico in Fiesole. Compared
with the altarpiece, the frescoed Madonna and Child group is much
simpler in composition, even rather bare. Four saints stand in each group
on either side; four pilasters decorate the wall which flanks the simple
niche-throne, the Madonna is a formal, yet tender, hieratic figure,
holding an equally formal, yet very beautiful, Child, one hand raised in
blessing, the other holding an orb. The lighting is curiously illogical: the
pilasters cast long, spiky shadows on the plain wall, the niche is
shadowed inside and has a shallow cast shadow on the wall, the faces
also indicate the light coming from the left–the true direction of light in
the corridor. But none of the groups casts any shadow on the ground, so
that despite the effect of recession created by the figures of the saints in
echelon, the picture remains a flat composition. The same irrational, but
artistically sound, solution is used in the Annunciation, where the
interior of the arcaded loggia is evenly illuminated, despite the fairly
strong light coming from the left. In the frescoes in the cells, the
iconography is less direct and the subjects arc not entirely realistic: the
Mocking of Christ takes place on a dais above unseeing contemplatives,
and the hands of the buffeters, the head of the sleeping soldier, the slave
forcing the crown of thorns on to Christ's head, are represented as
apparitions beside His blindfolded face. In the Noli me tangere the
brilliance of the early morning is real enough, but the irradiating light,
the floating rather than walking figure of Christ, the wealth of natural
detail in the garden, arc for devotional reasons and intended to stimulate
the meditation of the monk who lived in the cell. In this huge series the
workshop played a large part.
In 1447, or perhaps earlier, Fra Angelico was in Rome, where he
painted the private chapel of Nicolas V with scenes from the Lives of
Sts Lawrence and Stephen, frescoes which sum up the whole trend of
his work. They possess a logical realism in their perspective settings,
clarity of scale and narrative content, and restraint in their vigour. The
colour is limpid, but with sufficient use of chiaroscuro to give substance
to the figures; the use of continuous representation is kept to a minimum
by the division of the scenes through differences in their architectural
setting, but nowhere is the search for realism in the use of lighting
effects allowed to destroy the unity of the whole, or the sense of the
plane of the wall. The stories are told with a wealth of circumstantial
and colourful detail: for instance, the allusion to the Pope's decision to
declare 1450 a Jubilee Year is shown by the two soldiers about to break
down the walled-up door on the left but even a detail of this kind is
never intrusive or merely included for decorative richness, but is at the
heart of the narrative. Compared with Fra Filippo's late frescoes, the
50
difference is striking, and it is striking because it is the man who started
in a backward-looking style who finally understood what Masaccio was
really driving at, and not the man who began as his pupil.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. When did Fra Angelico start painting? When did Fra Angelico
become a Dominican monk? What is usually ascribed to him?
2. What is the first firmly datable Fra Angelico’s work?
3. What does Fra Angelico retain of the Masaccio?
4. What trends can be detected in Fra Angelico’s works? What are
his frescoes comparable to?
5. What is depicted in the Madonna and Child group? What is used
in the Annunciation?
6. What did Fra Angelico paint in Rome? What do the frescoes
possess?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
classical grandeur, large number of frescoes, to be in charge of the
workshop, less cluttered, compositional devices, in internal space,
reliquary, in the passageways, treatment of the subject, illuminate, dais,
nun, to be late in execution, cast long, spiky shadows, to give substance
to the figures, on the ground, arcaded loggia, limpid colour, the use of
chiaroscuro, the search for realism, narrative content, lighting is
curiously illogical, circumstantial details, to hold an orb, the niche is
shadowed inside, the effect of recession.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
интерпретация темы, внутреннее пространство, классическое
великолепие, множество фресок, бросать длинные, заостренный
тени, обвинение в чем-либо, на основании, менее шумный, рака,
композиционный прием, работа было поздно выполнена, украшать
манускрипт миниатюрами, помост, монахиня и монах,
контрастное сопоставление, по существу, многосторонность,
трапезная, монастырь, несущественные детали, сводчатая галерея,
на основании, пилястр, схематически изображать, келья, держать
шар, прозрачный свет, контрастное сопоставление света и тени.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
51
IV. Put down the proper names given in the text. Prepare a report
about each mentioned person.
V. Expand on the following:
a) Fra Angelico retains much of the hieratic quality of the Masaccio
b) The lighting is curiously illogical.
c) Nowhere is the search for realism in the use of lighting effects
allowed to destroy the unity of the whole
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
known, fresco(es), painted, realism, extension, subject, light
and shadow, painter, diffused, signed
The date of Castagno's birth is not …. . He was certainly in Venice
in 1442 when he …. and dated some …. which he had …. in
collaboration with an unknown …. called Francesco de Faenza. From
the 1440s until his early death in 1457 he …. numerous works in
Florence, including the …. of the Last Supper and the Scenes from the
Passion. The Last Supper, a traditional refectory …. , is a curious
mixture of grandeur and harsh …. , simplicity and elaboration. The
room is projected as an eye-level …. of the actual room with the
interior covered with patterned marble inlays; the …. light from
windows at the end of the room and from two immediately above the
…. have caused the artist to insert a …. two-light window into the right
wall, so that he may use the strongest …. …. in delineating Christ and
the Apostles.
VII. Insert the missing articles. Render the text into English:
…. old iconography of Christ, seated centrally, slightly inclined
towards …. sorrowing St John, with …. Judas as …. only figure on ….
wrong side of …. long table, allows him …. most dramatic contrast both
visually and psychologically. …. strongly marked eyebrows, …. heavy
lids, …. dark hair, …. haloes like highly polished metal plates reflecting
…. heads they crown, …. formalized pleats and … folds of ….
draperies, all combine to create …. vivid and harsh reality. In ….
Castagno is to be found another facet of …. acceptance of ….
Masaccio's unity of form and setting that governed …. Fra Angclico's
work from …. 1440s onwards; ….Castagno uses …. Masacccsque
means only in so far as they can be made to express …. emotional
response similar to that surging in …. Donatello.
VIII. Translate the following text:
The Scenes from the Passion are vehement, even violent; the
52
lighting effects are of a kind never before realized, in that the crucified
Christ is lit from below–from the direction of light from the real
windows; the Christ of the Resurrection rises triumphantly, heroically,
from the tomb, irradiated and serene, the embodiment of victory. Never
before had such draughtsmanship been seen; no movement is too
complicated, no form too difficult, for his strong, wiry line to explore,
analyse, and define; no limb in perspective, no group of bodies
interlocked, that is not made precisely and perfectly clear; his
knowledge of anatomy is purely visual, but he sees with perfect
understanding, and his forms have an almost tangible solidity. Nor is his
colour always the dark, stormy tone of the Last Supper. The allusion to
Dante and Petrarch cannot be accidental, and in his last dated work, the
frescoed equestrian figure of Niccolo da Tolentino, painted in 1456 in
the cathedral as a pendant to Uccello's painted memorial to Sir John
Hawkwood, is both obvious and intended to be so. More flamboyant
than Donatello's statue–it had to be to make an impact despite its being
a monchrome painting–eccentric in its, it remains in every sense of the
term painted sculpture.
The most difficult of Castagno's works is the Assumption, known
from documents to have been painted by him in 1449–50, but it is not
impossible that the strange composition of the Virgin rising from her
rose-filled tomb in a niandorla like a brilliant sunset borne by four halfsized angels, and flanked by the easy, even nonchalant, figures of St
Julian and St Miniato, was partly dictated by the commissioner, for the
tiny angels are highly reminiscent of International Gothic, while the
drawing of their bodies and draperies is Castagno at his most energetic
and uncompromisingly modern.
IX. Translate the following text:
Мало что известно о жизни великого итальянского художника
Фра Анжелико. Гвидо ди Пьетро, в постриге Джованни да Фьезоле,
благодаря Вазари, который назвал его «Ангельским», прославился
как итальянский художник эпохи Раннего Возрождения под
именем Фра (брат, монах) Анджелико. Вскоре его стали называть
Беато Анджелико, то есть Блаженный Анджелико, но Ватикан
официально причислил его к лику блаженных только в 1984 году.
Родившись в 1400 году, Гвидо ди Пьетро вступил в доминиканский
монастырь восемнадцать лет спустя. Художник начал свою
творческую деятельность с иллюстраций религиозных книг.
Работа с крупными формами началась с росписи алтарей
десятилетие спустя, когда несколько монахов из Фьезоле
переехали во Флоренцию, чтобы расписывать отстроенный
Миккелоццо монастырь. В 1445 году Анжелико вызвал в Рим папа
53
Евгений IV расписывать фрески ныне не существующей церкви
Крещения в Ватикане.
В 1447 году со своим учеником Беноццо Гоццоли Фра
Анджелико расписывал фрески церкви в Орвието. Другим его
учеником был Антониаццо Романо – крупная фигура итальянской
живописи XV века. Фра Анджелико умер в 1455 году, в Риме.
Похоронен в церкви Святой Марии над Минервой, где его могила
существует до нынешнего времени. Память блаженного Фра
Анжелико празднуется 18 февраля.
Для творчества Фра Анджелико характерна простота цветовых
решений, граничащая с наивностью, мягкий лиризм, свойственный
многим мастерам кватроченто, использование золота.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
grandeur – грандиозность;
великолепие;
роскошь.
Syn:
brilliance, glory, magnificence, pomp
clutter – 1) суматоха, суета. Syn:
turmoil, fuss, confusion, disarray; 2)
беспорядок, хаос; неразбериха. Syn:
mess, chaos, confusion, disorder. Ant:
neatness, order
obscure – неопределенный,
неотчетливый, неясный, смутный
Syn: indistinct, unclear, vague, faint ,
hardly perceptible to the eye
conviction – 1) убеждение,
уверение;
carry
conviction
–
убеждать; 2) убежденность (of – в;
that). Syn: persuasion, belief; 3)
убеждения, кредо. Syn: opinion,
creed, gospel; 4) признание грехов
reliquary – рака, гробница,
ковчег, усыпальница (для мощей)
infuse – 1) вливать (into); 2) а)
придавать (храбрость). Syn: implant;
б)
незаметно
внушать.
Syn:
introduce, insinuate; в) вдохновлять.
Syn: inspire, animate
internal space – внутреннее
пространство
compositional
device
–
54
композиционный прием
niche – 1) ниша; 2)
поместить в нишу
chiaroscuro – 1) светотень
(распределение различных по
яркости цветов и оттенков,
светлых и темных штрихов); 2)
контрастное
сопоставление
(света и тьмы)
limpid – прозрачный. Syn:
pellucid, clear, transparent
cell – келья
orb – шар; сфера. Syn:
sphere, globe
passageway – коридор,
проход; переход. Syn: corridor,
passage
delineate – 1) набрасывать,
чертить,
намечать;
2)
схематически изображать. Syn:
sketch out, outline; 3) очерчивать,
обрисовывать, изображать. Syn:
draw, portray; 4) изображать;
выражать, описывать.
Syn:
describe, to portray in words
execution – выполнение
(работ);
свершение.
Syn:
accomplishment
refectory – трапезная (в
монастыре); refectory table –
длинный узкий обеденный стол
inlay – 1) инкрустация; мозаика;
2) инкрустировать
convent – монастырь (женский)
blessing – 1) благословение; to
give, make, pronounce, say a blessing
over – благословить; to chant a
blessing
–
вознести
благодарственную молитву; to give
one's blessing to – дать свое
благословение
pilaster – пилястр
spiky – 1) усаженный шипами,
остриями; spiky helmet – шлем,
усаженный
остриями;
2)
заостренный, остроконечный. Syn:
sharp, sharp-pointed
shallow – 1) неглубокий;
плоский. Syn: flat. Ant: deep,
profound; 2) поверхностный, shallow
explanation
–
поверхностное
объяснение. Syn: superficial, obvious.
Ant: profound
echelon – уступ, ступенчатое
расположение; echelon prism –
ступенчатая призма
55
arcade – аркада; сводчатая
галерея
illuminate
–
украшать
(манускрипт,
рукопись)
миниатюрами, украшать текст
или отдельные буквы золотом,
серебром и т. п.
dais – помост
nun – монахиня
monk – монах
substance – содержание,
суть, сущность; in substance – по
существу. Syn: essence, kernel;
реальность. Syn: reality, solidity
circumstantial details –
несущественные детали
versatility
–
многосторонность;
to
demonstrate
versatility
–
показывать
всестороннее
развитие
hovering – 1) реять, парить
(hover over, hover about); 2)
нависать (об облаках)
intrusive – навязчивый,
назойливый Syn: meddle-some,
importunate
UNIT VIII
UCCELLO
The other major painter of this generation was Uccello, who was
actually the oldest, since he was born in 1396/7 and lived until 1475. He
worked on Ghiberti's first baptistery doors from 1407, and was therefore
trained in the International Gothic style which appears to have been his
true spiritual home. He is known to have entered the Painters' Guild in
1415, but no pictures by him are known for something like fifteen years
after that. In 1425 he went to Venice, and worked on the mosaics of St
Mark's for about five years, which means that he was out of Florence
during the creative years of Masaccio's life. When he returned about
1431 he seems to have worked in a somewhat Masolinesque style, but
during the 1430s he became fascinated by the new ideas in perspective
and foreshortening, although he never really mastered the full
implications of the system, which became for him, eventually, no more
than another for of elaborate pattern-making. Even when the impact of
the new ideas was fresh, his treatment of them was quite arbitrary, can
be seen in the monochrome fresco in the cathedral of equestrian figure
of the condottiere Giovanni Acuto–who was reality an English
adventurer, Sir John Hawkwood–painted 1436. This has two separate
viewpoints, one for the base and another for the horseman; a similarly
irrational approach was also used in his Four Heads of Prophets of 1443
in the roundels in the corners of the clock of Florence Cathedral.
Recent careful restoration has made it possible to see his most
famous work, the Deluge, painted largely in greenish monochrome in
the cloister of Sta Maria Novella about 1445. The importance of
monochrome, and its corollary, the very great stress on the kind of light
and shade effects that produce the extremes of relief in a painting are
not only derived from the Florentine feeling for sculptural form, but also
stem directly from Alberti's analysis of what is most desirable in
painting. In Delia Pittura, his essay on painting which circulated from
about 1435 onwards, he advocates the use of monochrome: 'But I should
like the highest level of attainment in industry and art to rest ... on
knowing how to use black and white,' and his further comment 'I almost
always consider mediocre the painter who does not understand well the
strength of every light and shade in each plane. I say the learned and the
unlearned praise those faces which, as though carved, appear to issue
out of the panel, and they criticize those faces in which is seen no other
art than perhaps that of drawing', goes a long way towards explaining
why Domenico Veneziano had so little success. Uccello takes Alberti
quite literally, not only in the use of monochrome, but in the way in
which he manages the draperies of his figures and includes the head of
56
the wind-god to explain the gale that blows among them: '. . . It would
be well to place in the picture the face of the wind, Zephyrus or Austrus,
who blows from the clouds making the draperies move in the wind.
Thus you will see with what grace the bodies, where they are struck by
the wind, show the nude under the draperies. . . .' Another of Alberti's
dicta which probably contributed towards producing the pictorial
confusion which later afflicted Florentine painting is to be found in his
commendation of abundant variety of detail: '. . . copiousness and
variety please in painting. I say that istoria is most copious in which in
their places are mixed old, young, maidens, women, youths, young
boys, fowls, small dogs, birds, horses, sheep, buildings, provinces and
all similar things.' It is true that he recommends a certain moderation,
and goes on to blame '. . . those painters who, where they wish to appear
copious, leave nothing vacant. It is not composition but dissolute
confusion which they disseminate. There the istoria does not appear to
aim to do something worth while but rather to be in tumult', but only too
often his counsels were followed and his caveats ignored, so that
eventually chaos ensued.
Uccello's three big battle pieces, painted about 1454–57, are
conceived as decorative patterns first and last. They certainly follow the
advice about copiousness, for the field is littered with horses, riders,
lances, corpses, pieces of armour, and the hill-side beyond the rose-hedge
is covered with the variegated shapes of fields dotted with little soldiers
running about. The rocking-horse chargers bear riders in superbly
patterned clothes, the lances and banners stress the tapestry effect, and the
colour is as irrational as the composition is fantastic. This becomes the
keynote of his late works: the Hunt and the extraordinary predella
commissioned by the Confraternity of the Holy Sacrament in Urbino,
which was painted between 1467 and 1468 and recounts the story of the
profanation of a Host, stand quite apart from painting of the period, and in
their fantasy parallel the marvellously complicated perspective drawings
of facetted goblets and mazzocchi (a wooden framework for supporting
the elaborate hats favoured by the dandies of the day) on which he is said
to have passed his midnight hours. In 1469, in filling in his tax return, he
declared: 'I am old, infirm, and unemployed, and my wife is ill.' Despite
the influence of Uccello's late works on the decorative painters of the
period, by the 1460s and 1470s two things had happened: firstly the
moment of gentle and rather sweet pictures like Fra Filippo's Nativities had
passed, and secondly the younger men were interested in problems of
anatomy and movement that could best be solved in terms of the rather
harsh lincarism which was the heritage of Castagno and Donatello.
TASKS
57
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. When was Uccello trained in the International Gothic style? What
else is said about Uccello’s external existence? In what style did Uccello
work?
2. How did Uccello treat new ideas? Where can the impact of the
new ideas be seen?
3. What is Uccello’s most famous work? What colour dominates in
it? Where was it painted? What is advocated in the essay on painting?
How is it connected with Uccello’s work?
4. What are Alberti's dicta?
5. What advice do Uccello’s three big battle pieces follow? What
stresses the tapestry effect?
6. What did Uccello declare in 1469? Did Uccello’s works have an
impact on the decorative painters of the period?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
to work on the mosaics, to become fascinated by the new ideas;
foreshortening, to master the full implications of the system, the impact
of the new ideas was fresh, in the monochrome fresco, equestrian figure,
an adventurer, two separate viewpoints, the roundels in the corners of
the clock, an essay on painting, cloister, painted in greenish
monochrome, feeling for sculptural form, stem directly from the
analysis of, the extremes of relief in a painting, a fantasy world,
sculptural form, to issue out of the panel, in the picture, to contribute
towards, the pictorial confusion, to recommend a certain moderation, to
disseminate dissolute confusion, to be in tumult, to ignore caveats, to
ensue chaos, facetted goblets, the rocking-horse chargers, bear riders,
the lances and banners, the tapestry effect, to recount the story of the
profanation, the field is littered with horses, perspective drawings.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
вступить в гильдию художников, годы творчества, работать в
стиле к-л., ракурс, в конечно итоге, совершенно произвольно,
конная статуя, подобный нелогичный подход, самая знаменитая
работа, монастырь, величайшая многосторонность, эффект
светотени, являться непосредственным результатом анализа,
влияние новых идей, восхищаться новыми идеями, усвоить
последние достижения, фантастический мир, трактат о живописи,
он был сторонником однокрасочного изображения, дальнейшее
комментировании, высший уровень достижений в искусстве,
посредственный художник, понимать кого-либо буквально,
58
изобразить на картине ч-л., авторитетное мнение, множество
разнообразных деталей, изобилие и разнообразие, суетиться,
пренебрегать предостережением.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the quotations given in the text. Comment on them.
V. Expand on the following:
a) Those painters who, where they wish to appear copious, leave
nothing vacant.
b) His counsels were followed and his caveats ignored, so that
eventually chaos ensued.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
strands, reflected, style, painting, transmuted, currents,
influence, fountain-head, decisivedevelopment, courtly grace,
course, across, , works, spread
Outside Florence four separate …. have to be followed: Siena,
where the main …. are derived from Florence; Central Tuscany and
Urbino with Piero della Franccsca; Padua and Mantua with Mantegna;
and Ferrara, where the line of …. ran through the Padua of Donatello
and Mantegna, and …. the influence of the lost Ferrarese …. by Piero.
During the fourteenth century, Siena had been as great a …. as
Florence itself; the …. of Duccio, of Simone, and the Lorenzetti was as
…. in Florence as it had been in Siena, and even more so, for it was their
…. that determined the …. of late fourteenth-century …. in Florence,
and that …. far and wide …. Europe to return eventually …. into the ….
…. of International Gothic.
VII. Insert the missing articles. Render the text into English:
In …. fifteenth century it was …. Florentine art that determined ….
developments in …. Siena. Domenico di Bartolo (c. 1400–47), in ….
Madonna of Humility dated …. 1433, reflects …. Masaccio and ….
Donatello, and in …. his big fresco cycle (painted …. 1441–44) in ….
Spedale della Scala, where he describes with …. wealth of ….
circumstantial detail …. succouring of …. poor and …. care of ….
destitute children, …. his development takes much …. same line as ….
Fra Filippo's did, starting from …. same premises. …. Sassetta (c. 1400–
50) and …. Giovanni di Paolo (1403–83) retain …. imaginative subtlety
of …. colour, and …. slender, elegant forms of …. Trecento masters,
59
but adopt …. Florentine perspective systems, though often with ….
distinctly wayward …. reflection of …. reality their use implies.
VIII. Translate the following text:
In Sassetta's series (1437-44) of the Life of St Francis the narrative
is really made no clearer by the attempts at a logical setting, for the
haunting loveliness of each of the scenes lies in the use of pattern, of
magical colour, of delicate detail, and of the expression of mood.
Giovanni di Paolo's realism is of the same etherealized order. His
blessed in Paradise have come straight from an elegant Burgundian
Court fete; St John entering the Wilderness, from a series painted
probably just after the mid century, goes into a fantasy world where
scale, proportion, representational form, and colour are abandoned for
the creation of a dream world more real, because more important than
the everyday world. Sano di Pietro (1406–81) modernize only slightly
the graceful, tender Madonnas of the previous century and debases their
richness of feeling into a tedious, standardized production of pious
imagery. Vecchietta (c. 1412–50) achieves, perhaps, the greatest
versatility for he was both painter and sculptor, but his painting is that
of a tardy follower of Simone Martini influenced by Fra Angelico, and
his sculpture, which displays with ability the Sienese art of woodcarving, is an offshoot of the realism Donatello, watered down by the
traditional elegance of Sienese art. Matteo di Giovanni (1435–95) closes
the century. He, too, continues the simple, pious type of Madonna
image, and he, too, looks to Florence for new ideas to bring his
traditional art up to date. His huge Assumption, probably of about 1475,
shows that he found them in an unexpected combination of the search
for movement and energy of form of Castagno and the tender colour and
grace of Angelico. What he does contribute is the beautiful idea of the
angels hovering as if in a celestial ballet while they play their musical
instruments, an idea which later develops into Botticelli's skein of
circling angels revolving with breathless speed and incomparable grace.
IX. Translate the following text:
Паоло Учелло, настоящее имя которого Паоло ди Доно,
является одним из самых интересных флорентийских живописцев
эпохи раннего Возрождения. Паоло учился ювелирному делу
у Лоренцо Гиберти и помогал ему при создании первых бронзовых
дверей флорентийского Баптистерия. Позже Уччелло жил
на севере Италии и работал над мозаикой для собора Сан Марко
в Венеции. Его первым крупным произведением был выполненный
в технике фрески конный портрет английского кондотьера сэра
Джона Хоквуда. Мастер придал подчеркнуто героическое
60
звучание своему замыслу, смело упростив формы, ограничив
колористическую гамму и приблизив ее к естественному цвету
каменной скульптуры. Сходные качества обнаруживаются в цикле
фресок История Ноя. Именно в этот период Уччелло обратился
в своем творчестве к открытой незадолго до того системе линейной
перспективы. Скульптурная очерченность контуров в его
композициях отражает влияние Донателло.
В позднем творчестве Уччелло парадоксальным образом
обнаруживаются черты поздней готики. Три картины с эпизодами
битвы при Сан Романо, заказанные Козимо Медичи (ок. 1455)
в честь победоносной для флорентийцев схватки с сиенцами,
являются наиболее значительными образцами этого стиля. В них
уже присутствует образ ренессансного героя, одним из первых
создателей которого стал Уччелло. Совершенная геометрия форм
переднего
плана
сменяется
вдали
очаровательным,
не относящимся к сюжету фоном с яркими сказочными деталями.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
generation – поколение; the
coming, next generation – следующее
поколение; older generation –
старшее
поколение;
present
generation – нынешнее поколение;
younger generation – молодое
поколение; future generations –
будущие
поколения; a
lost
generation – потерянное поколение;
a generation gap – проблема отцов и
детей. Syn: period
fascinated – очарованный;
fascinated by the new ideas –
увлеченный новыми идеями
foreshortening – 1) рисовать
или чертить в перспективе или
ракурсе; 2) укорачивать. Syn:
abridge, shorten
elaborate – 1) детально
разработанный; скрупулезный,
доскональный;
2)
искусно
сделанный; тонкой работы; 3)
улучшенный,
усовершенствованный
pattern-making
–
изготовление моделей
arbitrary – произвольный,
случайный
monochrome
–
1)
однокрасочное
изображение;
monochrome
fresco
–
однокрасочная фреска; 2) а)
монохромный, однокрасочный,
однотонный, одноцветный. Syn:
monochromatic, one-colour; б)
черно-белый (о телевидении,
кино)
stem – происходить (от –
from,
out
of);
являться
результатом (чего-л.)
master – 1) овладевать,
усваивать. Syn: grasp, learn
thoroughly, be adept in, be skilled at,
be proficient in, excel at, get the
hang of; 2) достичь вершин
мастерства (в чем-л.)
61
implication – следствие,
вывод; последствия, результаты
base – основа, основание;
базис to establish, set up a base –
создать базу; advanced, forward,
main base – главное основание
approach – подход; forthright
approach – прямой подход; holistic
approach – глобальный подход;
pragmatic
approach,
rational
approach
–
прагматичный,
прагматический подход; scholarly
/ scientific approach – научный
подход
cloister – 1) монастырь; cloister
chapel – монастырская часовня. Syn:
monastery, nunnery, convent; 2)
уединение; монашеская жизнь; the
austerity of the cloister. – аскетизм
монашеской жизни. Syn: monastic
life; 3) крытая галерея, крытая
аркада
corollary
–
1) вывод;
заключение; 2) следствие; formal
corollary – формальное следствие;
logical corollary – логическое
следствие; 3) результат, вывод,
итог, последствие. Syn: a practical
consequence, result
light and shade – светотень
sculptural
form
–
скульптурная форма
essay on painting – трактат о
живописи
circulate – распространяться,
переходить (из уст в уста). Syn:
spread
advocate
–
защищать,
поддерживать, пропагандировать
(взгляды). Syn: recommend
attainment – 1) достижение;
приобретение; Syn: achievement,
acquirement, acquisition; 2) знания.
Syn: accomplishment
mediocre
painter
–
посредственный художник
plane – уровень; on a new
plane – на новой основе
drawing – рисунок, набросок,
эскиз
(сделанный
ручкой,
карандашом или мелком); чертеж;
to do, make a drawing – рисовать;
freehand drawing – чертеж; от
руки; line drawing – чертеж. Syn:
sketch
literally
–
буквально,
дословно. Syn: verbatim, word for
word
drapery – а) драпировка. Syn:
curtain, hangings; б) занавес
dictum – (pl) dicta, dictums 1)
афоризм, изречение, максима,
сентенция. Syn: aphorism, saw,
maxim
contribute to – вносить вклад
(в);
содействовать,
способствовать.
Syn:
furthertowards
pictorial – 1) живописный;
изобразительный; pictorial art –
живопись. Syn: graphic, figurative,
decorative;
2)
графический,
сделанный в форме рисунков;
hieroglyphs or, in other words,
pictorial forms – иероглифы, или,
другими словами, графические
формы; 3) иллюстрированный.
Syn: illustrated
copious – обильный; богатый;
copious painter – плодовитый
художник. Syn: prevalent
copiousness – плодови-тость;
изобилие
moderation – сдержанность;
in moderation – умеренно;
сдержанно; do everything in
moderation – во всем проявлять
умеренность. Syn: temperance
disseminate – 1) рассеивать,
разбрасывать. Syn: scatter; 2)
распространять
(учение,
взгляды); сеять ( недовольство)
tumult – 1) а) грохот; б)
суматоха; to be in tumult –
62
суетиться. Syn: commotion; 2)
мятеж; 3) сильное душевное
волнение; a tumult indignation –
приступ негодования
caveat – 1) предупреждение,
предостережение.
Syn:
admonition, caution, warning; 2)
толкование
ensue – 1) получаться в
результате. Syn: issue, arise; 2)
следовать; последовательно. Syn:
follow, succeed; 3) стремиться
достичь (чего-л.). Syn: follow out,
follow up, pursue
piece – картина, battle piece –
батальная картина
conceive – 1) полагать,
размышлять; представлять себе.
Syn: understand, imagine; 2)
задумывать. Syn: devise; 3)
испытать; 4) дать начало чему-л.
Syn: originate
profanation – осквернение
litter – разбрасывать в
беспорядке
rocking-horse – игрушечный
конь-качалка
charger
–
(офицерская)
строевая лошадь, боевой конь
lance – пика; копье to throw a
lance прям и – метать копье. Syn:
spear
banner – знамя; флаг; стяг;
символ
tapestry – гобелен; to weave a
tapestry – ткать гобелен;
keynote – основная идея
recount
–
рассказывать,
излагать подробно. Syn: tell
facetted – многогранный;
шлифованный
goblet – бокал; кубок. Syn:
glass
63
UNIT IX
PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA
Piero della Francesca was born in the decade between 1410 and
1420, most probably round about 1416. Nowadays, he is perhaps the
most highly regarded of all the fifteenth-century painters; this was
certainly not so in his lifetime and after, and for centuries his great
masterpiece, the fresco cycle in the Church of S. Francesco at Arezzo,
was almost entirely neglected. It can be argued that the admiration now
felt for him is largely due to the conditioning of modern aesthetic
appreciation by the discipline of Cubism, for the serenity and calm of
his art, obtained by large, simple, geometrical shapes and pale, flat
colours which to earlier eyes seemed unrealistic, and a certain austerity
of sentiment, make him now far more popular than Fra Angelico or Fra
Filippo or even Botticelli, all of whom were so much admired in the
nineteenth century. Piero's lack of fame in his own generation was partly
fortuitous, since the Life by Vasari shows that he was regarded as an
important figure, and, in particular, as one who had done a great deal
towards the codification of perspective. Vasari, however, came from
Arezzo, and it is likely that he was predisposed to favour Piero as,
almost, a fellow townsman. Much of Piero's obscurity was due to the
fact that he never worked as a mature painter in Florence, that he was
hardly influenced by Florentine ideas, that he seems deliberately to have
sought to remain in the retirement of his native hill-town of Borgo San
Sepolcro, and that most of his best works were executed either there or
in Arezzo, with the great exception of the works he did for the
Montefeltro at Urbino, and the lost frescoes in Ferrara and Rome. He
was in Florence in 1439, but only as an assistant to Domenico
Veneziano on the large fresco cycle in the Hospital of Sta Maria Nuova,
the loss of which has left one of the great gaps in fifteenth-century
Florentine painting. In 1442 he was back in Borgo and was made a town
councillor, which suggests that he was better educated than one might
have expected of fifteenth-century painter. His choice of Domenico
Veneziano as master was singularly fortunate, since Domenico's study
of light and his interest in colour made him the ideal teacher for Piero,
and indeed the small predella panel of the Miracle of St Zenobius might
almost have been painted by Piero.
Moreover, when Piero came to paint the big polyptych
commissioned by the Confraternity of the Misericordia in Borgo in
1445, he designed it in the old-fashioned form of a central Madonna
flanked by saints, each in his individual panel, and very much closer to
the type of Masaccio's Pisa Polyptych, rather than in the newer form of
the Sacra Conversazione, which he must have encountered in Florence.
64
If a hint of the new type exists in what frankly a very old-fashioned
design, it is in the kneeling circle of the members of the Confraternity
sheltering under the Madonna's cloak.
Very much stronger connexions with Sienese painting can be
adduced from the Baptism of Christ, yet, equally, these links are as
much with Domenico Veneziano. The solemn nobility of the figures the
confrontation of absolute frontality with absolute profile, the stressing
of the column-like figure of Christ by its juxtaposition with the bole of
the tree, the majesty and repose of the three angels, these are Piero's own
inventions, distilled from his own temperament and his understanding
of Masaccio. The pale, bright colour, the evenness of the light which
suffuses all the forms yet casts almost no shadows, these stem surely
from Domenico, just as the neophyte struggling out of his shirt and the
detailed landscape background stem from Florentine example. The
picture probably dates from the 1440s, since the theme of the fantastic
hats worn by the robed figures in the background is derived from the
representatives of the Greek Church who came to Florence for the
Council of Florence held in 1439; the impression made by these exotic
figures and by the Byzantine Emperor himself was reflected in many
works of art produced about the middle of the century.
The frescoes which he painted in Ferrara early in the 1450s have
unfortunately not survived; the fresco portrait of Sigismondo Malatesta,
painted in S. Francesco, Rimini, is much restored; the next major work
is the cycle of frescoes which he began about 1452 in S. Francesco,
Arezzo, depicting the Story of the True Cross. The narrative is highly
complicated, since it is based on at least two different stories in the
Golden Legend, and Piero has treated it in such a way that the events
are represented out of sequence for aesthetic reasons, so that, for
instance, the two battle scenes face each other in the bottom row on
either side of the choir. This passion for symmetry can be seen many
times: in the division about a central axis of such scenes as the two with
the Queen of Sheba, those of the Finding of the True Cross, its
Restoration to Jerusalem and the Annunciation, and in the reiteration of
the contrast between figures full face and those in profile. And with this
quest for symmetry goes the insistence on stillness. Even in the plunging
angel in the Dream of Constantine, or the tightly packed chaos of the
battle scenes, the rejection of movement, and of the drama of extreme
gestures or of facial expressions, remains constant. Neither is there any
attempt to persuade the spectator to look into the depth of the wall, or
to treat the fresco as a window on to a distant pictorial space; simple flat
forms and the pale even colours stress the plane of the wall. This is in
sharpest contrast to the trend typified by Fra Filippo. In them the search
65
for movement and drama impedes the narrative, and confuses the
spectator by opening infinite perspectives within what common sense
declares must be a flat surface. There is no stylistic change in Piero's
frescoes, despite the years over which the work extended. The widening
of his artistic horizons implied by a journey to Rome, where he is
recorded in 1459 in the Vatican working on some frescoes which
disappeared without trace, is suggested only by the battle scenes which
derive from Roman battle sarcophagi; there is, however, a clear
reminiscence of Agnolo Gaddi's frescoes on the same subject in
Florence in the Dream of Constantine, where the night scenc ith the
sleeping Emperor exploits the same light effect.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. How is Piero della Francesca regarded now? Was he highly
esteemed in his day? How is Cubism connected with Piero della
Francesca’s works? What makes Piero della Francesca more popular
than Fra Angelico or Fra Filippo Lippi?
2. What was Vasari’s attitude to Piero della Francesca? Why?
3. How is Piero della Francesca's obscurity explained?
4. What did Piero della Francesca do in Florence? Where did he
create frescoes? In what form did Piero della Francesca design the big
polyptych commissioned by the Confraternity of the Misericordia in
Borgo?
5. What are Piero's own inventions? What did Piero della Francesca
borrow from other painters?
6. Where can Piero della Francesca's passion for symmetry be seen?
What remains constant in Piero's scenes? Is there any attempt to
persuade the spectator to look into the depth of the wall? What Piero's
feature contrasted with the trend typified by Fra Filippo?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
great masterpiece, be entirely neglected, modern aesthetic
appreciation, the serenity and calm of his art, quest for symmetry, pale,
flat colours, austerity of sentiment, partly fortuitous generation, to be
predisposed to, a mature painter, lost frescoes, the small predella panel,
the big polyptych, to design in the old-fashioned form, the kneeling
circle, to be adduced from, the solemn nobility, juxtaposition with the
bole of the tree, to suffuse all the forms, the bottom row, on the
reiteration of the contrast, full face figures, figures in profile, the
rejection of movement, facial expressions, trend typified by, to impede
66
the narrative, stylistic change, the widening of his artistic horizons,
battle sarcophagi, reminiscence of .
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
представители церкви, геометрические формы, цикл фресок, в
его эпоху, приблизительно около 1416, им восхищались, он не был
знаменит, согражданин, зрелый художник, подручный кого-либо,
член городского совета, на заднем плане, на переднем плане,
устаревшая композиция, экзотические фигуры, не бросаь тень, в
уединении, следующая крупная работа, по обеим сторонам
клироса, произвести впечатление, похожая на колонну фигура, по
эстетическим причинам, увлекаться цветом, значимая фигура,
фланкированный
святыми,
величие
и
безмятежность,
утремляющийся вниз ангел, батальные сцены, световой эффект,
плоская
поверхность,
равномерность
света,
создавать
произведения искусства.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the proper names given in the text. Prepare a report
about each mentioned person.
V. Expand on the following:
a) quest for symmetry;
b) the codification of perspective;
c) evenness of light.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
portraits, connected, works, chief, painted, perspective,
explanation, subject, voices, large, performed, kind, scenes,
slender
Signed …. are very few. One of them is the Flagellation, which dates
from the late 1450s or early 1460s, and which may be …. with Piero's
stay in Urbino, the …. fruits of which were the double …. of the Duke
and Duchess, the …. Madonna and Child with Saints and Angels, and his
considerable researches into …. . The Flagellation, a small panel, ….
with great richness of colour and the most painstaking technique, is
iconographically a mystery. The likeliest …. of the three figures–so much
more prominent than the actual ….– is that they are witnesses, like the
three …. singing the Passion on Good Friday, or the commentators in a
Passion Flay, such as the one …. in Florence in 1439. Pictorially, the
67
painting has the same …. of symmetrical composition as the Queen of
Sheba …. at Arezzo, and the consistent use of frontality. This also
pervades the double …. , which date more probably from about 1472 than
the 1465 formerly suggested on rather…. grounds.
VII. Complete the text by using the words in the proper part of
speech. Render the text into English:
The Duchess died in 1472, and it is possible that her portrait is a
(commemorate) one. Both portraits have a (marked) (Flanders)
character, except in so far as thee profile portrait, a descendant of the
(Rom) Portrait medal, had long been superseded in Flanders by the more
(real) type of three-quarter face view. But for Piero's hieratic purpose,
and for an artist of his temperament, the profile suited his purpose best,
not only for (style), but also for (practice) reasons: Federigo of
Montefeltro had received a serious and very (disfigure) (face) injury
which involved his right eye and had distorted his nose. (Clear), the
portraits owe something to the interest taken for some time past in
(Flanders) oil-painting technique in Italy in general, but in Urbino in
particular. It must have been here at Urbino that Piero discussed
perspective and mathematics with Alberti, and probably also
architecture; it is also possible that Bramante, born just outside Urbino
in 1444, was his pupil at this time. The (mystery) picture of a town in
elaborate perspective, still in the palace at Urbino, may be by Piero and
is (certain) inspired by Alberti's ideas.
VIII. Translate the following text:
The Brera Altarpiece –The Madonna and Child with angels, and six
saints, adored by Federigo da Montefeltro–is still more important, for
it is one of the earliest of the fully developed type of the Sacra
Conversazione with an architectural setting which is treated as a
continuation of the actual architecture of the chapel in which it was set,
thus creating a spatial setting involving the spectator within the compass
of the altarpiece. The scene is the crossing of a small church, with a
flood of light coming from a dome just beyond the upper edge of the
picture, with transepts opening out on either side, and the Madonna and
Child seen against the background of the choir, with an egg–a symbol
both of the Virgin Birth and the Holy Spirit–suspended directly over
them. The horizontals are strongly marked, from the Duke's baton and
gauntlets upwards through the line of thf dais continuing the feet on
either side, the arm and hand of the Baptist pointing to the Child and
continued through the praying hands of the Duke, the even line of heads,
the strongly marked tree; of the architrave to the final closing line of the
triple cornice mould¬ing over the coffered vault, and these are all
68
intersected by equally strong verticals running through the figures and
the panelling of the architectural setting. There is also the question of
the portrait of the Duke. It has been claimed that his hands, and to some
extent his head, are in a more minutely detailed style than the rest of the
picture, and for this reason these parts have been attributed to a Spanish
painter, Pedro Berruguete, who is supposed to have been working in
Urbino in 1477, and who is thought to have painted the twenty-eight
figures of Philosophers which at one time decorated the Duke's study in
the palace at Urbino. There seems, however, to be little reason for this
extra elaboration of authorship. At this time Piero was much interested
in mathematics and in their application to perspective. He wrote two
treatises, one on the Five Regular Bodies, a dissertation on pure
mathematics, and the other a treatise on Perspective in Fainting.
IX. Translate the following text:
Точная дата рождения Пьеро делла Франческа, итальянского
живописца и математика, одного из величайших мастеров эпохи
Раннего Возрождения, остается неизвестной. Однако известно
место рождения – Борго Сан-Сеполькро в Умбрии, где благодаря
культурному влиянию Флоренции Пьеро ознакомился с системой
линейной перспективы, изобретенной Брунеллески; скульптурой
Донателло и созданным им новым стилем; с искусством Мазаччо,
сочетавшем законы линейной перспективы с античными
традициями для создания обладающих драматической мощью
форм. Влияние Мазаччо преобладает в ранних работах Пьеро делла
Франчески, например в алтарном образе Мадонны делла
Мизерикордиа. Сохраняя тесную связь с родным городом, Пьеро
много работал при дворах правителей Пезаро, Феррары и Римини.
В то время он создал одну из прекраснейших картин – Бичевание
Христа, в которой фигуры и окружающая их архитектура
построены со строгим соблюдением пропорций и в соответствии
с законами линейной и воздушной перспективы. В картинах,
созданных в тот же период, Св. Иероним и Св. Иероним
с донатором, впервые появляется пейзаж. В этих работах
наблюдается тенденция к реализму, характерная для мастеров
северной Европы. Произведения Рогира ван дер Вейдена вызвали у
Пьеро интерес к фламандской технике масляной живописи,
к способам передачи света и импрессионистической трактовке
золотых вышивок и кружев. Подражание фламандской технике
и импрессионистическая трактовка освещенных предметов
появляются уже в Портрете Сиджизмондо Малатеста, правителя
Римини.
69
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions
WORDS TO REMEMBER
masterpiece – шедевр; to
create a masterpiece – создать
шедевр;enduring masterpiece –
бессмертный шедевр
admiration
–
восторг;
изумление, восхищение; to arouse
(win, command) admiration –
вызывать восторг, вызывать
восхищение;to
express/feel
admiration – выражать восторг,
высказывать восхищение; deep
(great, sincere, strong) admiration –
искреннее восхищение; mutual
admiration – взаимное признание;
смотреть
на
кого-л.
с
восхищением Syn: delight, rapture
2) то, чем восхищаются
aesthetic – эстетический Syn:
artistic
quest – 1) поиски; поиск in
quest of smb./smth. – в поисках
кого/чего-л. quest for symmetry –
поиск симметирии; 2) предмет
поисков, искомый предмет; в)
поиски
приключений
(в
рыцарских романах)
appreciation
–
оценка;
признание
serenity – безмятежность,
спокойствие. Syn: repose
majesty – величественность;
величие; величавость; majesty and
repose
–
величие
и
безмятежность. Syn: grandeur,
greatness
light effect – световой эффект
austerity – 1) строгость; 2)
аскетизм, суровость; the rigid
austerity of his life – суровая
простота его жизни. Syn: severity,
sternness; 3) простота, отсутствие
излишеств
battle scenes – батальные
сцены
choir – хоры (в соборе);
клирос
fortuitous
–
случайный,
неожиданный Syn: accidental,
casual
predisposed
–
предрасположенный
mature painter – зрелый
художник
evenness – равномерность;
evenness
of
the
light
–
равномерность
света.
Syn:
equability
retirement – 1) уединение;
уединенность; изолированность;
уединенная жизнь; in the retirement
–в уединении. Syn: seclusion,
privacy; 2) уединенное место Syn:
retreat
connexion = connection –
связь, связывание
adduce
–
представлять,
приводить
(в
качестве
доказательства). Syn: cite
juxtaposition
–
1)
а)
непосредственное
соседство,
соприкосновение; б) размещение
рядом;
2)
сличение,
сопоставление, сравнение (with).
Syn: comparison, confrontation
bole – ствол
suffuse
–1)
заливать;
покрывать (краской) (with); 2)
наполнять
impression – впечатление;
deep, indelible, lasting, profound,
strong impression – сильное
впечатление; fleeting impression –
мимолетное впечатление; general
impression – общее впечатление;
70
painful impression – болезненное
впечатление; personal impression –
личное
впечатление;
vivid
impression – яркое впечатление;
impression of smth. – впечатление
от чего-л.; to gain an impression –
получать впечатление; to create an
impression
–
создавать
впечатление to leave an impression
– оставлять впечатление to make
an
impression,
produce
an
impression
–
производить
впечатление на (кого-л.)
old-fashioned – устарелый,
устаревший;
несовременный,
старомодный. Syn: outdated,
antediluvian, antiquated, archaic,
obsolescent, obsolete, out-of-date,
passe, ancient, antique. Ant: avantgarde, modern, stylish, up-to-date, a
la mode; 2) старинный. Syn:
precocious, intelligent, knowing
restore – реставрировать;
реконструировать. Syn: renew,
reconstruct, repair
sequence
–
1)
а)
последовательность; следование;
sequence
of
moves
–
последовательность движений; in
sequence – последовательно. Syn:
progression, series, succession; б)
очередность,
порядок
(следования); in chronological
sequence – в хронологическом
порядке
impede
–
мешать,
препятствовать, быть помехой
чему-л., задерживать; затруднять
( общение, уличное движение,
переговоры) his load impeded him
– ноша обременяла его Syn: hinder
narrative – рассказ; повесть.
Syn: history, anecdote, legend,
myth, saga, story, tale, yarn; 2)
изложение, рассказ
sarcophagus – (pl.) sarcophagi;
саркофаг; камень для саркофага
reminiscence
–1)
припоминание;
воспоминание
(about); 2) выражение, деталь,
факт, напоминающие что-л.; 3) а)
воспоминания. Syn: recollection,
remembrance
71
UNIT X
ROGER VAN DER WEYDEN
It has been argued at great length that the Rogelet mentioned with
so diminutive a name in 1427 as Campin's apprentice could not possibly
have been the same person as the Maistre Rogier de le Pasture who, in
1426, was entertained by the city of Tournai with much honour.
Probably, the custom of nicknames or diminutives for apprentices was
a general one. It would therefore seem reasonable to suggest that Roger
received some, if not all, of his training in the Campin workshop, and
that some of the Master of Flémalle's stylistic features which have a
great deal in common with Roger's own work are due to his presence in
the Campin workshop and to his participation in his master's works.
This seems a more logical explanation than to suggest, as has been done,
that the Master of Flémalle is an early form of Roger himself. Roger van
der Weyden, to give his name its Flémish form, was born in Tournai in
1399/1400, the son of a master cutler who died in or before 1426 when
his son was absent from the town. In 1426 he was back in Tournai, and
in the same year married a Brussels woman who may have been related
to Campin's wife. Although Roger never held a Court appointment, he
enjoyed a certain amount of Court patronage and was Painter to the city
of Brussels until his death in 1464. There are no signed or dated works,
so that all the attributions to Roger rest upon the identification of a great
altarpiece, now in the Prado, which enjoyed enormous fame and of
which one of the earliest copies was made in 1443. The Escorial
Deposition, as the picture is generally known, has many points of
contact with the Master of Flémalle's Entombment, notably in the long,
hanging, heavy body of Christ, the echoing angularly of pose in the
other figures, the long features of the Virgin who has the Flémalle type
of rounded chin and heavy-lidded eyes, the deliberate realism of rich
brocades in heavy folds of thick material, and the clear but diffuse light
which does not fall from any particular direction, but spreads an even
illumination over the whole scene. The Deposition is a work full of
emotion and tenderness of feeling, close-knit in composition, formal in
the arrangement of the figures set as a massive frieze against the solid
wall–a modernization of the gold ground–with none of the airiness of
space and atmosphere characterizing so many of Roger's other works.
Round this key work may be grouped an Annunciation which has links
with the Merode Altarpiece and also with many of Jan van Eyck's
smaller Virgin and Child groups, in the naturalism of the interior; linked
with the Annunciation is a St Luke painting the Virgin which also has
the closest connexions with Jan van Eyck's Rolin Madonna, for in both
pictures the main figures are seated in a room with a colonnaded
72
window, opening on to a distant view of a city bisected by a river at
which two tiny figures are gazing from a parapet in the middle distance.
In neither is the problem of the proportions of the middle distance
solved. What makes Roger so entirely different from Jan van Eyck is
the greater elegance of his figures, and the profound pathos of his
characterizations. It is Roger's greater case and adventurousness of
composition, his tenderness of feeling, that eventually carried the
greatest weight for succeeding generations of Flemish painters.
Roger is said to have gone to Italy. The evidence for this visit lies
in a statement by Fazio that he was in Rome for the 1450 Jubilee and
there admired the frescoes by Gentile da Fabriano. There are also
connexions with Ferrara suggested by payments recorded in the Este
accounts, and for long the portrait of Francisque d'Este was held to be
evidence of a visit to Ferrara. But it is clear that some Italian association
existed, for in the Uffizi is an Entombment which is unmistakably
Roger's, and which appears to have come from the Medici Collection.
The rectangular tomb in the rock in the background, the iconography of
the Entombment with the body of Christ upheld and displayed in the
form of the Imago Pietatis is so close to an Entombment of the same
type emanating from Fra Angclico's workshop as to suggest a link, if
only in the source of inspiration. There is also a Madonna and Child
with Four Saints–Peter, the Baptist, Cosmas, and Damian–which has a
coat of arms that could be interpreted as the Medici fleur-de-lis, while
the four saints are the four Medici patrons. Other plausible
interpretations have connected the picture with a Flemish family, but,
on the other hand, the symmetrical grouping of the figures, the
composition built up into a broad-based pyramid, and the general
restraint, suggest a strong, if transient, Italian influence.
As a portrait painter he is supreme. The tenderness of
characterization that makes the Magdalen from the Braque Triptych so
memorable appears constantly in his overt portraits. The arrogance of
bearing of Charles the Bold is far clearer in his personification of one of
the Magi in the St Columba Altarpiece than it is in the direct portrait,
but generally with Roger's realism–every whit the equal of Jan's–is
blended a measure of feeling, a tincture of the vulnerability inherent in
the human condition, something of the almost fearful awareness of the
transitoriness of the human in face of the Divine: for most, if not all, his
portraits are but one-half of a diptych, the other wing of which usually
represents the Madonna and Child. Roger's sympathy rather than Jan's
impassive chill was the touchstone for the next generation, in portraits
as in religious works, for one aspect of his immense strength was in his
capacity to invent new forms to express the pathos of such religious
73
subjects as the Divine suffering, as in his various representations of the
Crucifixion–never as an actual scene, but in the form most in accord
with the new devotional current: as a meditation, or contemplation on
the theme of the Redemption.
It was not Roger's actual forms, his style, or his ideas that were so
pregnant for the next generation; his power lay in his emotional quality,
in the feeling that he himself released in his works and stimulated in
others, and his profound humanity and sensitiveness to sorrow is one of
his links with Campin, and one of the dividing factors between him and
Jan van Eyck.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Could Rogelet and the Maistre Rogier de le Pasture be one and
the same person? What is known about the former and the latter? What
is it reasonable to suggest?
2. Where did Roger receive some of his training? What was the
Campin workshop noted for? What can be suggested concerning the
Master of Flémalle?
3. What is known about the external existence of Roger van der
Weyden? Are there any signed or dated works by the painter?
4. What are the points of contact of the Escorial Deposition with the
Master of Flémalle's Entombment? What makes the Roger van der
Weyden different from the Jan van Eyck?
5. What is Roger’s key work? What emotion does it stir up? What
other works can be grouped round this key work? What are the signs of
Roger’s visit to Italy?
6. What proves that Roger was a supreme portrait painter?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
at great length, to be entertained with honour, to received some
training, stylistic features, the attributions to, to rest upon, the echoing
angularly of pose, the long features, rich brocades, the diffuse light, an
even illumination over the whole scene, tenderness of feeling, close-knit
in composition, the arrangement of the figures, a frieze set against the
solid wall, the airiness of space and atmosphere, a colonnaded window,
a distant view of a city, a city bisected by a river, to gaze from a parapet,
in the middle distance, the profound pathos, tenderness of feeling,
succeeding generations of painters, to admire the frescoes, the rock in
the background, a coat of arms, the Medici fleur-de-lis, a broad-based
pyramid, overt portraits, inherent in the human condition, fearful
74
awareness, a the touchstone for the next generation.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
уменьшительное имя, прозвище, иметь много общего с,
принимать участие в работе мастера, сын торговца ножевыми
изделиями, покровительство двора, подписанные и датированные
работы, работы, приписываемые кому-либо, пользоваться
огромной славой, иметь много общего с, хорошо продуманный
реализм, тяжелые складки, плотный материал, массивный фриз,
золотистый фон, иметь тесную связь с, главные герои, две
крошечные фигурки, на портретах, способность создать новые
формы, картины на религиозные темы, вероятная трактовка,
симметричное расположение фигур, величайший портретист, в
соответствии с, другая створка, двустворчатый складень, тяжелые
веки, округлый подбородок, искупление грехов, реальные формы,
чреватый для будущих поколений, основная работа.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the titles of the works of art given in the text. Describe
each of them.
V. Expand on the following:
a) Roger's realism;
b) overt portraits;
c) contemplation on the theme of the Redemption.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
emotion, painter, influence(d), figures, identify, treatment,
presented, scenes, perspective, devices, viewpoint, characters,
event, gift, sense, , work, colour, landscapes, symbolism, artist,
faces, vision, infinity
The …. of Dieric Bouts was more widespread than the limited
number of his works would suggest. He was a Haarlern …., born about
1415. He was to a certain extent …. by Roger in that the efforts he
makes to express a stiff and reticent …. stem from the impact of his
ideas and style. His …. have an unmistakably ramrod quality; his
poses are ungainly. But, like Roger, he has the infinite …. of so
presenting his ideas that the spectator is drawn to …. himself with
them.
The Five Mystic Meals is a rare and unusual …. of the Last Supper,
75
since it is …. as an Institution of the Eucharist, and is surrounded by
four smaller …. , each representing one of the Old Testament antitypes:
the Sacrifice of Abraham and Melchisedek, the Gathering of the Manna,
Elijah in the Desert, and the first Passover. The accurate ….
construction based on a central …. is for Bouts, part of the normal
constructional …. of picture space. The simple bourgeois setting is also
a means by which the impact of the …. is made more telling; unlike the
Easternized dresses and turbans of the Old Testament …., Christ and
the Apostles, despite the …. of separation induced by their generalized
garments and their idealized …., are seated in a monastery refectory and
waited upon by the commissioner, the …., and, in all probability, his
sons. Two things in Bouts's ….strike one with immediate force: the
tenderness of the …. and the delicate sensitiveness of its gradations, and
the beauty of the …. . The rocks and hills may be the conventional
jagged stones of …. rather than reality, but the recession into …. and
the fluid, limpid, cool light are seen with an understanding which
suggests a new kind of …. of the natural world.
VII. Insert the missing articles. Translate it into Russian:
Roger's most important follower was Hans Memlinc. He was among
…. richest burghers of Bruges. Tradition has it that he was Roger's pupil,
and tradition here must be right, for Memlinc's watered-down Rogerisms
betray their origin very clearly. More decorative, more consciously
producing …. expensive artwork, his forms thinner, …. compositions less
richly inventive, …. narrative interest triumphing always over ….
significance of …. event, it is only in his portraits that he rises to …. level
of his great predecessor. …. diptych was …. usual form, with ….
Madonna and Child on one leaf and …. intercessor on …. other, in threequarter view, against …. windowed wall or …. wide landscape with ….
limpid sky. Of this he is arguably …. greatest master in Flemish art, and
…. repercussions of his skill and happiness in this form echo as far south
as Perugino, Bellini, and Antonello da Messina. …. Donne Triptych used
to be dated before 1469. It is …. example of …. Flemish form of …. Sacra
Conversazione that had first appeared with Jan van Eyck in …. Van der
Paele Madonna of 1436. It has charm, delightful detail, lovely colour,
superlative finish; but these beauties adorn what is now …. dead end. ….
Shrine of St Ursula, which is in …. Hospital at Bruges, is usually offered
as his greatest work; it too has all …. qualities that render …. Donne
Triptych so pleasing, plus …. narrative treated with …. naive literalness
that …. coarser sophistication of …. twentieth century patronizingly
approves.
76
VIII. Translate the following text:
The last of the Bruges masters was Gerard David, who was born at
Oudewater in Holland, but settled in Bruges by 1484 and died there in
1523. With him the great saga ended, and his placidly pious pictures
were old-fashioned in his own lifetime. From l515 to 1521 he worked
in Antwerp where the new Italianate style was rapidly superseding his
antiquated repetitions of the art of the mid-century. His landscape
backgrounds are very lovely, and form, possibly, his most important
contribution, since he helps to create the attitude towards nature that is
expressed in the emergence of landscape as a genre on its own. When
faced with scenes requiring forceful expression, as he was in the grisly
story of the Justice of Cambyses, of 1498, in which the corrupt judge is
eventually flayed alive, he blends mild astonishment and ferocious
expressions with charming Italianate details such as garland-bearing
putti and the inconsequence of a little lion-dog scratching himself
almost beneath the torture-table. In his Sacra Conversazione groups no
more than a muted murmur between the participants breaks the stillness;
but the repose which, in Jan van Eyck, was the deliberate restraint of
motionlcssncss, or in Roger was the inwardness of contemplation, is in
David no more than inanition. The canals of Bruges had silted up, the
bustle and energy of trade, the excitement of large ships, the adventure
of the new sea-routes had shifted to Antwerp, and Bruges and Ghent
were now no more than backwaters.
Ghent, however, expired more gloriously. It had produced little
since Jan van Eyck, but it is presumed that Hugo van der Goes was born
there, since he entered the Ghent guild in 1467, sponsored by Joos van
Wassenhoven, who later went to Urbino and became Justus of Ghent.
About 1475 he entered the Augustinian Monastery of Roode Clooster,
near Brussels, as a lay-brother. This made no difference to his work–he
is recorded as complaining that he had enough to keep him busy for nine
years without rest–and he continued to receive patrons and visitors,
including the Emperor Maximilian, and to travel. With Hugo van der
Goes Ghent ends its history, for his only artistic progeny was the
anonymous Master of Moulins, and whether he was Flemish or French
is as yet unknown.
IX. Translate the following text:
Рогир ван дер Вейден, один из крупнейших мастеров
нидерландской живописи XV в., родился в Турнэ. Его картина
Снятие с креста считается одним из величайших произведений
мирового искусства. Этот алтарный образ был написан для
капеллы гильдии стрелков в Лувене.
77
Снятие с креста – единственное произведение, о котором
известно, что оно принадлежит Рогиру ван дер Вейдену. Вокруг
этой работы современные искусствоведы сгруппировали несколько
сходных по стилю портретов и картин на религиозные сюжеты,
которые, по их мнению, тоже могли быть выполнены Рогиром ван
дер Вейденом. Благодаря такой «реконструкции» творческого
наследия перед нами предстает художник величайшей
утонченности, способный передать самое глубокое чувство
и мельчайшие нюансы в портретах. Однако невозможно привести
перечень работ Рогира ван дер Вейдена, с которым согласились
бы все ученые. Среди приписываемых ему произведений: Св. Лука,
рисующий Мадонну, полиптих Страшный Суд, капелля Госпиталя,
Алтарь Бладелена, Молодая женщина в белом головном уборе
и Филипп де Круа.
Некоторые исследователи выделяют группу произведений,
относящихся к раннему периоду творчества Рогира ван дер
Вейдена (Алтарь Мероде). Однако большинство ученых считают,
что они принадлежат Мастеру из Флемаля. В старинных
документах сохранилось несколько разрозненных фактов о жизни
Рогира ван дер Вейдена. Известно, что он получал заказы от
городского совета Брюсселя. Один из таких заказов представлял
собой четыре аллегорические композиции для украшения Золотой
залы городской ратуши на тему Правосудия.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
nickname – уменьшительное
имя; 2) прозвище, кличка
diminutive
–
1)
уменьшительный. Ant: augmentative;
2) миниатюрный. Syn: small , tiny
diptych – диптих, складная
икона, двустворчатый складень
сutler – торговца ножевыми
изделиями
attribution – приписывание
(работы). Syn: ascription
identification – отождествление;
to make an identification –
отождествлять
points of contact with – точки
соприкосновения
78
heavy-lidded eyes – глаза с
тяжелыми веками
brocade – парча
diffused light – рассеянный свет
even
illumination
–
равномерное освещение
scene – место действия
close-knit – логичный
massive – а) тяжелый,
массивный; massive frieze –
массивный фриз. Syn: bulky,
hefty, huge, weighty, heavy,
immense
solid wall – сплошная стена
(обычно ручной кладки)
airiness – воздушность,
легкость, эфирность. Syn: ethereality,
lightness
colonnaded – имеющий колоннаду;
украшенный колоннадой; colonnaded
aisles – боковые приделы храма,
украшенные колоннадой; colonnaded
window – украшенное колоннадой окно
bisect – разрезать, делить
пополам; разветвлять(ся)
parapet – парапет, перила. Syn:
railing, hand-rail
rectangular – 1) прямоугольный.
Syn: right-angled; 2) несгибаемый,
формальный. Syn: formal, stiff, rigid
emanate – 1) исходить, истекать
(from); 2) происходить (from). Syn:
arise; 3) выпускать, испускать;
излучать; выделять. Syn: send out, emit
coat of arms – герб, щит герба
fleur-de-lis – 1) ирис (растение); 2)
а) геральдическая лилия (эмблема
напоминающая цветок ириса или
верхнюю часть скипетра); б) эмблема
французского королевского дома; 3)
клеймо преступника (во Франции)
interpretation – объяснение,
толкование, to make an interpretation
– толковать a free, liberal, loose
interpretation
–
произвольная
интерпретация. Syn: explanation,
overt – 1) открытый; очевидный,
явный. Syn: undisguised, obvious,
evident; 2) несекретный. Syn: open,
patent, public. Ant: implicit, secret
arrogance – 1) заносчивость,
высокомерие. Syn: conceit, selfsufficiency
personification
–
персонификация,
олицетворение.
Syn: incarnation, embodiment
magus (pl. magi) – волхв, маг.
Syn: soothsayer, sorcerer
tincture – 1) оттенок. Syn:
admixture,
dash;
2)
слегка
окрашивать; Syn: dye, colour, tinge
vulnerability – уязвимость;
ранимость
79
touchstone – 1) пробирный
камень; 2) критерий; пробный
камень. Syn: standard
religious works – картины
на религиозные темы
the
Redemption
–
Искупление грехов
ramrod – шомпол. Syn:
cleaning rod
Eucharist – евхаристия,
причастие; to give Eucharist –
причащать; to receive the
Eucharist – причащаться
antitypes
–
антитип;
антигерой; противоположный
тип
Passover – еврейская пасха;
пасхальный агнец
pregnant – 2) чреватый
(with); носящий в себе важные
следствия
artwork – 1) произведения
искусства; 2) скульптура, статуя.
Syn:
sculpture,
statue;
3)
иллюстрации, иллюстративный
материал
limpid – прозрачный. Syn:
pellucid, clear, transparent
sophistication
–
изощренность,
утонченность.
Syn: refinement, finesse
placid
–
безмятежный,
мирный, спокойный, тихий
pious
–
набожный,
благочестивый;
праведный,
религиозный; pious hope –
благое намерение. Syn: religious,
devout
old-fashioned – 1) устаревший.
Syn: outdated, archaic, obsolete, outof-date, ancient, antique. Ant: avantgarde, modern, stylish, up-to-date, a la
mode; 2) старинный
progeny – 1) потомство,
потомок.
Syn:
posterity,
descendants; 2) последователи,
ученики;
приверженцы,
сторонники; 3) исход, итог; плод,
продукт результат. Syn: outcome,
80
product
UNIT XI
HIERONYMUS BOSCH
The Fifteenth century comes to an unbelievable close and the
sixteenth to a fantastic beginning in the art of a lonely painter about
whose external existence we know little, not even the date of a single
picture, and whose inner life is revealed to us only in symbols of a
defeating complexity.
Hieronymus Bosch (с. 1450–1516) is one of the most puzzling
painters who ever lived. His pictures are, as works of art, beautiful in
themselves, and have always been recognized as works of genius, yet
we have really very little idea of what they are about, and as early as the
sixteenth century there must have been arguments about the devils and
fantasies, since a Spanish priest then solemnly defended Bosch's
orthodoxy, while a twentieth-century historian has evolved a theory of
more than usual silliness about Bosch's heretical leanings. Bosch was a
Dutchman, first recorded at 's Hertogenbosch in 1480/ 81, and the first
work that is known, a Crucifixion, must date from about this time, and
shows, not surprisingly, the influence of Bouts and Roger van der
Weyden. There is a group of more or less 'normal' pictures of this type,
but quite soon afterwards–Bosch's chronology is very hit-or-miss–he
seems to have developed the devil-haunted imagination which is so
characteristic of the Late Middle Ages. It is hard to understand all, or
even very much, of his symbolism; but there can be no reasonable doubt
about the general meaning of such works as The Ship of Fools, a wellknown medieval allegory on human folly, or the obsessive nature of the
Temptation of St Antony, a subject which seems to have been, in one
form or another, close to his heart. It may serve as a reminder of the
universal belief in witchcraft, but its appeal has been just as great to
Freudian psychologists. Almost any details will show how superb a
technician in oil-paint he was, and also how his imagination was fed by
the same sources as the early woodcutters.
His highly personal art is perhaps best accessible through what is
generally considered a late work, that is, one after 1500, the Crowning
with Thorns. With no setting whatever, and therefore in the space of our
own minds, Christ stands, surrounded by four tormenters whose
carefully delineated faces remind us of those seen daily in our own lives.
A shriveled old man, marked as a Muslim by the star and crescent on
his headcloth, an archer with a crossbow bolt stuck in his turban, a
soldier wearing a spiked dog collar, and an ordinary character with a
downturned lower lip surround the surprisingly red-haired Christ, as the
archer raises the crown of thorns to place it on Christ's head. Yet Christ
shows no suffering–his bright blue eyes look out at us with searching
81
yet calm accusation, as if we were the guilty ones. This look will not be
easily forgotten, nor will the transparent delicacy of Bosch's light, nor
the sensitive quality of his drawing, which in this picture at least owes
little or nothing to Netherlandish tradition.
The inexhaustible wealth of Bosch's imagination fills the enormous
triptych known as the Garden of Delights. The left panel, the Creation
of Eve, is easy enough to read. The Lord, strangely tiny and ineffectual,
presents to Adam the already perfectly formed Eve. Clearly, the trouble
starts here. In the pool below and in the one around the fountain above
move countless animals and birds, including a giraffe, an elephant, and
unicorns. All is not happy even here; at the lower left a cat stalks off
with a mouse it has caught, and a serpent more than halfway up on the
right slithers ominously around a tree–the palm tree, symbol of eternal
life, endangered from this moment. Fantastic rocks rise in the
background, from one of which emerges a dense spiral of birds.
The central panel shows a plain with rocky outcrop-pings punctuated
by pools and leading toward a lake in whose center is a monstrous
mechanism, a gigantic egg from which sprout pinnacles and fishlike forms;
round it are four more fantastic combinations of rocks and living beings. In
this landscape frolic hundreds of naked young men and women, emerging
from or hidden in eggs, a colossal mussel shell, and spheres, domes, and
cylinders of glass. All the figures are pale pink, youthful, unmuscular, and
weak. In the center the little people gaily ride not only horses but also
animals legendary for their appetites, such as pigs and goats, in a circle
around a little pool in which nude women bathe.
A full description would be endless. Obviously, Bosch is
condemning all amorous activity and yet is fascinated by it. His
ambivalence is so strong that some writers have suggested that he
belonged to a secret sect that looked forward to a Paradise not unlike
the one in this picture. This idea has not won wide acceptance,
especially since several of Bosch's major works, including this one,
were later bought by the fanatically religious Philip II of Spain. Perhaps
Bosch is saying that all people really want to do is to indulge their
fleshly desires; in the words of Saint Paul (Romans 3:10), "There is none
righteous, no, not one." The visual language Bosch uses is in itself so
fascinating that he has been claimed as one of theirs by the Surrealists
in the twentieth century. But the vocabulary should not surprise us; by
and large, it is drawn from the pagan tradition of animal symbolism
incorporated in medieval art. What renders the central picture
intoxicating is that this incredible repertory of symbols is brightly
illuminated, daintily drawn, and suffused with high, pale color.
And yet Bosch is heretical; for such a world he can see no salvation.
82
The common doom is Hell, a panorama of darkness illuminated by
firelight, shown in the right panel. Instead of Satan this kingdom is
presided over by a pathetic monster whose body is a broken egg, whose
legs are tree trunks plunged through the bottoms of boats, whose head is
crowned with a disk and bagpipe, and whose face turns toward us in
despair as tiny people crawl in and out of him like vermin. Above him
two immense ears impaled by an arrow and flanking an erect knife blade
are pushed like an engine of war across the dark plain; below, the damned
are impaled on the strings of musical instruments or eaten by a hawkheaded monster. At the top we look across the Styx to the burning city,
lost in flame and smoke. Never before had an imagination that could
conceive such things been coupled with the ability to paint them. Rather
than backward toward the Middle Ages, the imagination of Bosch leads
us in the direction of the Protestant doctrine of predestination and
eventually toward the inner world of dream symbols revealed by
psychoanalysis.
The influence of Netherlandish art was immediate and far-reaching,
more so in the fifteenth century than was that of the Italian Renaissance,
which in the sixteenth broke like a flood over Western Europe. Germany
developed a host of competent masters, more or less formed by
Netherlandish style, but only a few strong individualities.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Why is Hieronymus Bosch considered to be one of the most
puzzling painters who ever lived? What is known about Bosch’s
external existence?
2. What is the first known work by Bosch? Why is it difficult to
understand Bosch’s symbolism? Whose influence is seen in it?
3. Where is Bosch’s personal art best expressed?
4. What does Bosch's inexhaustible wealth of imagination fill?
5. What shows that Bosch is heretical? Where does Bosch’s
imagination lead us to? What made some writers suggest that Bosch
belonged to a secret sect?
6. Could you name other painters and woodcutters who glorified the
West European style?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
the most puzzling painter, to be recognized as works of genius,
solemnly defended smb’s orthodoxy, chronology is very hit-or-miss,
devil-haunted imagination, universal belief in witchcraft, a technician
83
in oil-paint, shriveled old man, a spiked dog collar, transparent delicacy
of light, Netherlandish tradition, the central panel, to win wide
acceptance, soon afterwards, the visual language, by and large,
incredible repertory of symbols, star and crescent, a superb a technician,
the crown of thorns, to slither ominously around a tree, look out at us
with searching yet calm accusation, general meaning, a host of
competent masters, lost in flame and smoke, a cat stalks off with a
mouse, fantastic rocks rise in the background, sensitive quality of his
drawing.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
произведения искусства, близкая художнику тема, гравер по
дереву, пользоваться одним источником, особое искусство,
схематически изображённый лица, пальма – символ вечной жизни,
левая
панель,
рыжеволосый,
детальное
описание,
непоследовательность, получить всеобщее признание, в общем / в
целом, потворствовать своим желаниям, языческая традиция,
бледный цвет, протестантская доктрина предопределения,
внутренний мир, внешняя жизнь, непосредственное, далеко
идущее влияние, множество символов, еретические склонности,
влияние нидерландского искусства было велико, испанские
священники.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the titles of the works of art given in the text. Say a
few words about each of them.
V. Comment on the following:
The influence of Netherlandish art was immediate and far-reaching,
more so in the fifteenth century than was that of the Italian Renaissance,
which in the sixteenth broke like a flood over Western Europe.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
master, attracted, moved, accepted, iconoclasm, personality,
work, survives, observation, scenes, altarpiece, life,
background, tradition, crags, middle, observation, transparent,
stones, fish
A very different German …., Konrad Witz (c. 1400/10 – 1445/46),
was born at Rottweil in Wtirttemburg, but …. to Basel in Switzerland,
then the center of a church council that …. princes and prelates from
throughout Europe. Witz was …. in the artists' guildin Basel in 1434
84
and bought a fine house. Much of his …. fell a victim to Protestant ….
during the Reformation, but what …. shows a vigorous and independent
…., with little patience for the niceties of perspective or anatomy but
with acute powers of …. , particularly where nature is concerned. His
Miraculous Draft of Fish, part of an …. containing a cycle of …. from
the …. of Peter installed in 1444 in the Cathedral of Geneva, displays
all his best qualities. The …. is the Lake of Geneva, a landscape
"portrait" in the …. already established by Masaccio and Fra Angelico,
exactly painted, with farms and hills in the …. distance and a glittering
array of snowcapped Alpine …. on the horizon. More surprising is
Witz's …. of water, complete not only with reflections but also with
refractions, distorting the …. on the bottom and the legs of Peter seen
through its …. surface; Witz even painted the bubbles thrown up,
apparently, by passing …. .
VII. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
An important aspect …. German art, and the means …. which
German influence spread ….. Europe, was engraving, whose most
important practitioner and innovator was Martin Schongauer (c. 1450–
91), …. Colmar …. Alsace. Schongauer was an excellent painter, …. the
tradition …. Rogier van der Weyden, but was especially known …. his
copper engravings. Engraving was well known …. the Italians and was
practiced …. distinction …. Pollaiuolo, Mantegna, and others. But
Pollaiuolo's combination …. contours and parallel hatching was simple
compared …. the elaborate refinements …. Schongauer, who stippled and
dotted the surface …. the copper to produce a veil …. shadow ranging ….
tones …. filmy lightness to concentrated darks. His engraving …. the
Temptation …. Saint Anthony shows that the demons generated ….
Northern imagination were far from being the exclusive province ….
Bosch. The saint floats …. the rocks, lifted, beaten, pulled …., mocked
…. hideous hybrid devils, their bodies prolonged and twisted …. a dense
foreground composition that recalls the persistent animal interlace ….
Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts and …. the migrations period. Schongauer's
engraving so impressed the boy Michelangelo that he copied it carefully
…. pen and watercolor …. 1488 or 1489 when he was a fourteen-yearold assistant …. Ghirlandaio's studio. The political and military chaos ….
the early fifteenth century …. France, …. which the Hundred Years' War
…. England drew …. a close, was not conducive …. the development ….
either bourgeois prosperity or local schools …. painting patronized ….
the merchant class. Nonetheless, a few artists …. great sensitivity were
active, largely …. the entourage …. royal courts; although …. combined
influences …. both Italy and the Netherlands, they were striking …. their
own individuality …. feeling.
85
VIII. Translate the following text:
The finest fifteenth-century French artist was Jean Fouquet (c. 1420
– before 1481), from the central French city of Tours. Fouquet worked
for Charles VII. Certainly before 1447 Fouquet visited Rome, while Fra
Angelico was working there. About 1450, probably in Paris, he painted
the quiet and sensitive portrait of Etienne Chevalier, finance minister to
Charles VII; this is the left wing of a diptych, whose other panel
represents the Virgin and Child. The Renaissance architecture with its
veined marble paneling is strongly Italianate, in fact Albertian, but the
treatment of light and the detailed rendering of the surface, along with
the deep inner glow of the coloring, reveal that Fouquet is still a
Northern master, well aware of what was going on in Netherlandish art.
His instinctive reticence masks great depth of feeling. Saint Stephen,
dressed in a deacon's dalmatic, holds in his left hand a book and the
jagged stone of his martyrdom, while his right rests gently on the
shoulder of his namesake.
Fouquet continued with great brilliance the art of illumination,
which was not renounced by the French in the fifteenth century,
although in Italy and the Netherlands it became increasingly relegated
to specialists. One of the approximately sixty miniatures that originally
adorned the Book of Hours he illustrated for Etienne Chevalier in 1452–
56 shows the Marriage of the Virgin. The scene takes place before a
triumphal arch that reminds us of that of Constantine, but which is
labeled Templum Salomonis and decorated with two of the four spiral
columns, apparently of Syrian origin, that the artist must have seen in
Saint Peter's, Rome, where they were believed to have come from
Solomon's Temple. In the brilliant coloring and the harmonious
grouping of the figures, the dominant influence is that of Fra Angelico,
although the portly character at the left is a meticulously rendered
portrait type seldom found outside Northern art.
IX. Translate the following text:
Босх не датировал свои произведения, так что их хронологию
строят на основании стилистического анализа. К раннему периоду
относят Извлечение камня глупости и Семь смертных грехов. Это
лукавые притчи о смысле жизни, равно как и философские
размышления об исконных принципах мироустройства. Картина
Семь смертных грехов изначально представляла собой крышку
стола. В семи секторах центральной круглой композиции мы видим
живые сценки, демонстрирующие разные грехи: Гордыню,
Скупость, Похоть, Гнев, Обжорство, Зависть, Уныние. В начале
1500х годов в произведениях Босха появляются многочисленные
86
чудища. Это происходит в основном в монументальных триптихах –
Страшный Суд, Искушение св. Антония, Воз сена, Сад земных
наслаждений. Именно подобные картины сделали особенно
популярным имя Босха в наше время, часто усматривающего в нем
далекого предтечу сюрреализма. Наряду с религиозными сюжетами
на створках, в главных частях триптихов появляются
многочисленные фантастические гротески. Композиции Босха,
особенно такие, как Искушение св. Антония и Сад земных
наслаждений, подобны каким-то невероятным алхимическим
лабораториям, полным роящихся метаморфоз. Фольклор,
алхимические и астрологические поверья, позднесредневековая
мистика в этих произведениях причудливо и парадоксально
соседствуют. Однако явственно проступают и новые, ренессансные
идеалы: они видны и в общем панорамическом охвате прекрасного в
основе своей мироздания, и в том центральном положении, которое
занимает здесь пытливая человеческая мысль.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
еxistence
–
1)
действительность. Syn: reality; 2)
жизнь; to lead a certain existence –
вести
определенное
существование.
Syn:
being,
subsistence; 3) все существующее.
Syn: totality of existent things; 4)
существо, создание
puzzling – приводящий в
замешательство; сбивающий с
толку
priest – 1) священник; to
defrock, unfrock a priest – лишить
священника духовного сана; to
ordain a priest – посвящать в
духовный сан; parish priest –
приходский священник; high priest
– первосвященник, верховный
жрец. Syn: clergyman, minister,
divine; 2) жрец
heretical – еретический
filmy
–
1)
тонкий,
просвечивающийся; filmy draperies
– прозрачные ткани. Syn: gauzy,
translucent;
2)
подернутый
дымкой, неопределенный Syn:
dim, hazy
refraction – преломление,
рефракция
lightness – а) освещенность;
яркость света. Syn: luminosity; б)
светлота, светлый оттенок,
осветленность
conducive – благоприятный,
подходящий; conducive to smth.
– ведущий к чему-л. Syn:
favorable
stipple – 1. гравирование
или
рисование
точечным
пунктиром (метод создания
изображения и полученное
таким методом изображение); 2.
гравировать
или
рисовать
пунктиром,
в
пунктирной
манере
dotted – 1) точечный; 2)
пунктирный
copper – медь (металл)
87
copper engravings – гравюры
на меди
engraving – 1) гравирование,
гравировка; engraving machine –
гравировальная машина; glass
engraving – гравирование на
стекле;
engraving
stylus
–
гравировальный резец; 2) гравюра;
эстамп copperplate ngraving –
гравюра
на
меди;
linoleum
engraving – линогравюра. Syn:
print,
etching;
3)
клише;
изготовление клише; zinc engraving
– цинковое клише
hatching
–
штриховка;
ретуширование.
Syn: shading,
retouching
contour – контур; форма;
абрис, линия, профиль; surface
contour – профиль поверхности.
Syn: form, outline, shape
witchcraft – колдовство; черная
магия; to practice witchcraft –
колдовать, заниматься черной
магией
imagination – воображение;
фантазия; to excite, fire smb.'s
imagination – возбуждать чью-л.
фантазию; to use one's imagination –
использовать воображение; to defy,
stagger, stir smb.'s imagination –
воздействовать
на
чье-л.
воображение; an active, lively, vivid
imagination – живое воображение;
feeble imagination –
слабое
воображение; wild imagi-nation –
неуемное воображение; a figment
of smb.'s imagination – плод
воображения;
productive
imagination – творческая фантазия.
Syn: fancy, fantasy, reverie. Ant:
actuality, fact, reality, truth
woodcutter – гравер по дереву
delineated faces – схематически
изображённыe лица
archer – лучник, стрелок из лука
crossbow – арбалет, самострел
Syn: arbalest , cross-bow
bolt – арбалетная стрела
stick – втыкать, вкалывать,
вонзать; насаживать (на острие).
Syn: stab
thorn – колючка, шип; crown
of thorns – терновый венец
spiked – с остриями, с
шипами; spiked dog collar –
собачий ошейник с шипами
accuse – винить, обвинять
(кого-л.; of – в чем-л. Syn: indict,
charge
accusation – обвинение,
упрек; to deny, refute an
accusation
–
опровергать
обвинение; damaging / grave
accusation – веское обвинение;
false / groundless / unfounded
accusation – необоснованное
обвинение;
sweeping
accusation – обвинение всех
без разборa
guilty – 1) виновный (of); to
plead guilty – признавать себя
виновным; 2) заслуживающий
порицания. Syn: blameworthy
transparent – прозрачный;
transparent enamel – прозрачная
эмаль; transparent glass –
прозрачное стекло; transparent
lacquer – бесцветный лак. Syn:
diaphanous
stalk – 1) подкрадываться;
выслеживать; 2) шествовать
ominous – 1) предвещающий;
2) грозный, зловещий. Syn:
sinister, ill-boding
pinnacles – остроконечная
башенка, бельведер
frolic
–
1)
шалость;
игривость.
Syn:
prank,
merriment; веселый. Syn: gay,
merry; 2) резвиться. Syn: frisk
salvation – 1) избавление,
спасение; to bring salvation –
приносить избавление; to preach
88
salvation – молиться о спасении; to
seek salvation – искать спасения; 2)
спаситель; средство спасения
stipple – 1) гравирование или
рисование точечным пунктиром
(метод создания изображения и
полученное
таким
методом
изображение); 2) гравировать или
рисовать пунктиром, в пунктирной
манере
spiral column – витая колонна,
колонна с витым стержнем
meticulously – тщательно
treatment
–
трактовка,
рассмотрение;
толкование;
treatment of light – трактовка света
adorn – украшать (with); быть
украшением. Syn: decorate,
embellish, beautify, ornament
Book of Hours – часослов
entourage – 1) окружение;
окружающая обстановка. Syn:
surroundings; environment; 2)
сопровождающие лица, свита;
entourage of royal courts –
королевская свита. Syn: retinue,
following, escort
veined
–
испещренный
жилками, прожилками. Syn:
veiny
paneling – обшивка; отделка
филёнками; exterior / interior
paneling
–
наружная
/
внутренняя обшивка
89
UNIT XII
ALBRECHT DÜRER
Incomparably the greatest artist to practise extensively as an
engraver, and the heir to all the technical advances made in Germany,
was Albrecht Dürer, who made some two hundred woodcuts and one
hundred line-engravings, as well as experimenting with both drypoint
and etching on iron. Dürer was born in Nuremberg in 1471. The son of
a goldsmith, in 1486 he was apprenticed to Michael Wolgemut, whose
large workshop produced all kinds of art, including paintings and
woodcuts for book-illustration. In 1490 Dürer left Nuremberg and
wandered round Germany. From the autumn of 1494 to the spring of
1495 he was in Venice, and perhaps also in Mantua, Padua, and
Cremona. It seems to have been after his long 'wander-year' that he first
came into contact with Italian Renaissance work of sufficient quality to
change the course of his development. In Venice he was fascinated by
local types. On his way home Dürer made water-colour paintings of the
landscape.
His first successes came rapidly after his journey. The Elector of
Saxony visited Nuremberg in 1496 and was immediately impressed
with Dürer's genius, remaining his patron and admirer for the rest of his
life. His early portraits also date from about then. He had painted a selfportrait for his betrothal in 1493 which, despite its virtuosity, remained
somewhat flat. The Self Portrait in the Prado is dated 1498. In it Dürer
wears his finest clothes and exhibits that vanity in his appearance for
which his friends twitted him.
During these years he also established his supremacy in graphic art
which for him had certain advantages over painting. A picture took too
long to execute to allow of time for uncommissioned works, whereas a
print could be finished fairly quickly. Pictures were only of two types
in Germany: religious subjects or portraits. A print could be about
anything. Compared with a painting, prints were cheap. For an artist like
Dürer, who combined great rapidity of thought with teeming
inventiveness, a medium of expression which allowed him to work out
his ideas with speed and completeness was a necessity. Also, he had a
natural bent for the linear inherited from Gothic tradition.
One of the earliest of the large woodcuts was The Men's Bath House
of 1497. The forms are very detailed, the drawing exact, and there is a
feeling for mood, and an unusualness of subject-matter unknown before
this date. Lines delineate the objects, but where two dark areas meet a
white line replaces the black, and not only are the directions of surface
fully worked out, but every effort is made to represent the object's
texture and nature. These effects are achieved more easily in engravings
90
than in woodcuts. The Prodigal Son, engraved in 1498, reaches a new
level of virtuosity. Iconographically, it is new: formerly the Prodigal
stood sorrowfully among the pigs while another swineherd knocked
down acorns. Dürer places him, not in the fields that the Bible mentions,
but in the farm-yard where barns and hovels give a vivid actuality to the
scene, and he does not look sadly at his pigs he kneels among them.
Humbling himself among his snorting hogs he lifts his eyes and hands
in prayer and deep repentance. This simple motive gives a pathos and a
humanity, an emotional overtone which brought the design immediate
fame.
In 1498 he issued the Apocalypse. This was the earliest book issued
entirely by an artist as his sole responsibility, and it set a new type for
books. Dürer used the full page for his woodcut and put the condensed
text on the back. He also condenses the action. Dürer adapted the
technique he used in the engravings to woodcuts, making them infinitely
richer and more dazzling in effect. The Apocalypse ranks with
Leonardo's Last Supper and Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling as a supreme
work of art, the fruit of spontaneous genius.
The year 1500 appears to have been a turning-point, for about then
Dürer began his move towards theory. He started to study proportion in
humans and animals and also perspective, but his natural balance, his
innate feeling for the physical quality of things, made him compensate
for the theory by becoming even more engrossed in natural detail.
Drawings like the Hare or the Piece of Turf, all dating from 1500–3, are
microscopic at a moment when he was experimenting with theories of
ideal proportion. The engravings of this period are more detailed and
delicate than ever, with two or three times as many lines to the square
inch as before. The St Eustace off c. 1501 is the largest and most
splendid of all his engravings. It is filled with minute, almost Eyckian
detail, even though the main subject is the relationship between the
proportions of man, animals, and nature. Never again did he combine so
much in so small a compass, for at the same time he produced coarser
prints in an effort to harmonize two styles, though what he lost in less
minute handling he more than made up for in increasingly complicated
iconography.
The Adam and Eve of 1504 is a case in point, for it is intended to be
read as a book, with no detail so minute that it does not contribute to the
significance, and with the complication of a basis in obscure medieval
systems of thought. The rowan tree Adam holds was once believed to
be the tree of life, the apple of sin is also that of discord, the four animals
are symbols of the four humours, and also the personifications of the
deadly sins, which all invaded Man after the Fall. Adam and Eve are
91
not only our ancestors at the moment when they became our forefathers,
but they embody ideals of classical beauty, harmony, and proportion,
since Adam is adapted from the Apollo Belvedere, which had been
discovered at the turn of the century. This conflation of the moment of
their entry into the human predicament with the timeless quality of ideal
form is also made to contain overtones of human nature and personality,
in the maximum contrast between masculine vigour and feminine
softness.
The paintings of these years are neither numerous nor very
successful, except for the Adoration of the Magi, of 1504, but in all the
painted works the extremes of iconographical and narrative detail are
abandoned. His last work before he went to Venice for the second time
was the set of woodcuts for the Life of the Virgin, but this remained
unfinished until after his return. The set was planned to have twenty
illustrations of which seventeen were done when he left, two more were
added in 1510, and in 1511 a new frontispiece was cut and the whole
issued as a book like the Apocalypse. The woodcuts fall into two types:
those in which the homely narrative and multitudinous detail recall the
earlier works in which these qualities predominated, and those in which
Dürer set himself one of the classic problems of design, and solved it by
a conscious skill in composition, a use of classical proportions, or the
adaptation of classical poses. In turn, this raises the question of his
personal work on these blocks. In Basle and Strasbourg, where he had
worked for the great printers, he had been a designer of blocks, and only
occasionally cut one himself: it is a waste of money to employ a
designer on the mechanical part of the work. In Nuremberg he began by
cutting many of his own blocks, because he was changing the whole
basis of graphic art, and the creation of a new style could only be done
by personal work. When the standard of cutting had been set and his
workmen trained to work to his wishes, then he designed and they cut.
The same happened in the engravings. First he had to establish the
fantastically high quality by example; then he could leave the actual
engraving to the journeymen he trained, and later he had no need to cut
or engrave, though this results in deader cutting than is the case with
those blocks he had worked himself. From 1500 to 1505 was a
transitional period, when it was still necessary to do much of his own
hackwork, and not until 1510 was the workshop able to cope with
anything he demanded. Most of the engravings and woodcuts are
standard in size, not for aesthetic reasons, but because of the sizes of
blocks and the size of the press.
92
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is Albrecht Dürer famous for? What family did he come
from? What did his master’s workshop produce?
2. What did Albrecht Dürer do in 1486? When did he first come into
conract with Italian Renaissance work? When did Dürer’s first
successes come? Was Dürer a good portrait painter? Why did Dürer
prefer engraving to painting?
3. What book was entirely issued by Dürer? In what way did it differ
from the previous books?
4. Why was the year 1500 a turning-point for Dürer? What
characterizes the engravings of this period? What did Dürer create in
1504? What religious symbols did Dürer depict?
5. What had Dürer produced before he went to Venice? How could
his woodcuts be classified?
6. Where and when did Dürer work out his personal style? Why is
the period from 1500 to 1505 considered to be transitional for Dürer?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
to practise as an engraver, woodcut, line-engravings, etching on
iron, large workshop, long 'wander-year', to come into contact with, to
be fascinated by, water-colour paintings, a betrothal, vanity in his
appearance, to establish supremacy in graphic art, religious subjects,
teeming inventiveness, medium of expression, to work out his ideas, to
have a natural bent for, delineate the objects, repentance, emotional
overtone, to set a new type for books, the fruit of spontaneous genius,
in an effort, to harmonize two styles, complicated iconography, case in
point, our ancestors, basis of graphic art, at the turn of the century, the
timeless quality of ideal form, basis of graphic art, journeyman.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
сын золотых дел мастера, иллюстрирование книг,
странствовать по, путь развития, всю оставшуюся жизнь, первые
портреты, автопортрет, надеть лучшее платье, средство
выражения, большое количество изобретений, разрабатывать
идеи, природная склонности к, тема, гравюра, достигнуть нового
уровня мастерства, блудный сын, поднять глаза и руки в молитве,
глубокое раскаяние, ужать текст, великолепное произведение
искусства, ошеломительный эффект, поворотный пункт,
поглощенный деталями, великий печатник, яблоко раздора, древо
93
жизни, фронтиспис.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Put down the proper names given in the text. Prepare a report
about each mentioned person.
V. Expand on the following:
a) experimenting with theories of ideal proportion;
b) to harmonize two styles;
c) the timeless quality of ideal form.
VI. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
engravings, famous, unknown student, works, workman,
influenced, developing, painters, studied, arts, woodcut, colour,
evolved, artisans, based, content, Humanist
When Dürer arrived in Venice for the second time in the summer of
1505 he was no longer the poor, …. …. he had been eleven years before.
He was rich, …. , and sought after. From the …. it is clear that the Little
Horse of 1505, that Dürer had been …. by Leonardo even if the
influence was not …. on a very wide knowledge of his …. . Dürer
returned to Nuremberg reluctantly; he was no longer …. to be merely a
good …. and he hankered after the climate of the …. in Italy. Now he
began …. the 'erudite' side to his art and personality that raised him so
much above the other …. of his period and country. He …. mathematics
and geometry, Latin and …. literature; he consorted, not with fellow ….
, but with Humanists and scholars. A new kind of engraving was ….
after his return, based on the Italian type of chiaroscuro print–that is, a
print, usually a …. , printed in more than one …. so as to give an effect
of tone.
VII. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
Dürer now began to make prints which, while still purely …. black
and white, also managed to convey the idea …. a middle tone. This was
done …. great evenness …. cutting, and …. planning the print …. zones
…. light, middle tone, and shadow. He used this manner …. the Great
Passion, finished …. 1511 and published as a book like the Apocalypse
and the Life of the Virgin, also finished …. this time. Dürer’s greatest
engravings, the Knight, Death and the Devil, St Jerome in his Study, and
Melencolia, were produced …. 1513–14 and here again the multilayers
…. thought embedded …. the iconography have to be read, …. the same
time as the aesthetic quality …. the print makes its impact. The Christian
94
knight prepared …. battle …. sin and death, riding …. the world assailed
…. temptation; the saint …. a spiritual haven …. faith and learning; the
Vita Activa and the Vita Contcmplativa contrasted …. the Melencolia
…. her twilight world, appalled …. the gulf …. her powers and her
vision, the spiritual portrait …. the artist himself overcome …. divine
discontent …. his own inadequacy …. the immensities art and
knowledge.
VIII. Translate the following text:
The paintings of this period include the painted Adam and Eve,
where Dürer made an overconscious attempt to reconcile Gothic forms
and proportions with Renaissance canons of Ideal Beauty, and the
Trinity Altar (Vienna, 1507–11) which is based on St Augustine's 'City
of God'. A medieval Seat of Mercy adored by angels and the faithful is
approached through a frame, which he also designed, representing the
Last Judgment–an imaginative and exact interpretation of the text,
dazzling in colour and with subtle spatial arrangements, designed to
draw the spectator into the picture space. In 1519 he appears to have had
a nervous breakdown. By 1520 he was settled in his Lutheran
conversion, but still continued in a religious half-world without severing
his connexion with Catholicism. Dürer had become Court Painter in
1512, and it was to get his pension and status confirmed by the new
Emperor Charles V. He made the journey to the Netherlands.
Everywhere he was feasted and feted, and his fascinating diary not only
records the things he was most impressed with, such as the Ghent Altar
and works by Roger and Hugo, but the Brussels bed for fifty people. His
sketch-book records in superb silverpoint drawings places he visited,
people he met, things he saw. Вut he returned a broken man. From about
1520 onwards he seems to have entertained the idea of painting a large
Sacra Conversazione for which many drawings exist. At the same time
he was occupied with a number of small engravings of Apostles.
Eventually, possibly because the religious climate of Nuremberg was
unsympathetic to a large religious work, he abandoned the altarpiece,
but he adapted some of the finer Apostle figures to wings for the centre
of the now non-existent triptych, and in 1526 decided to present them
to his native city as a memorial to himself. These are the two tall, narrow
panels of the Four Apostles, St John and St Peter in one and St Paul and
St Mark in the other. Each panel contains both an Apostle and an
Evangelist, and, in addition to this, the four men typify the four
humours: St John as the sanguine, St Mark as the choleric, St Paul as
the melancholic, and St Peter as the phlegmatic, and these four
temperaments are contrasted with one another so as to endow the figures
with the maximum of thoughtful interpretation. It was his last major
95
work. He died in April 1528.
IX. Translate the following text:
Дюрер освоил основы живописи и ксилографии в мастерской
художника Михаэля Вольгемута. Он провел 1492–1494 годы
в Базеле, крупнейшем центре производства иллюстрированных
книг. Здесь молодой художник увлекся ксилографией и гравюрой
на меди; однако из многочисленных гравюр, приписываемых
этому периоду творчества Дюрера, его произведением может
считаться только фронтиспис к изданию посланий св. Иеронима.
В 1494 году, после посещения Страсбурга, Дюрер вернулся
на родину, но вскоре отправился в Венецию. По дороге мастер
выполнил несколько замечательных акварельных пейзажей,
которые являются одними из первых произведений этого жанра
в западноевропейском искусстве. Вернувшись в Нюрнберг в 1495,
художник открыл собственную мастерскую и стал делать рисунки,
по которым его ученики изготавливали ксилографии. Печатая
значительное количество оттисков, Дюрер с 1497 года начал
прибегать к услугам агентов, продававших его гравюры по всей
Европе. Таким образом, он стал не только художником,
но и издателем; его славу упрочило издание в 1498 году серии
гравюр на дереве Апокалипсис. В гравюре Четыре всадника
Апокалипсиса эмоциональная напряженность достигается при
помощи противопоставления темной густой параллельной
штриховки, больших пятен чистой белой бумаги и мест, где формы
едва обозначены тонкими линиями. В это время слава Дюрера,
которому с 1496 года покровительствовал курфюрст Саксонский
Фридрих, распространилась по всей Европе.
X. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
XI. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
woodcut – гравюра на дереве;
ксилография
line-engraving – штриховая
гравюра
etching – 1) гравирование
(травлением); травление; искусство
гравировки; 2) гравюра, офорт –
etching ground – офортный грунт;
etching needle – офортная игла. Syn:
engraving, print
goldsmith – золотых дел
мастер; ювелир
wander
–
бродить,
странствовать (about, around). Syn:
meander, ramble, range, roam, rove,
stray. Ant: remain, rest, settle
water-colour – акварель
betrothal
–
обручение,
помолвка. Syn: engagement
virtuosity – 1) темперамент;
96
2) а) виртуозность; б) любовь к
искусству
exhibit – 1) выставлять(ся);
экспонировать(ся) на выставке.
Syn: show
twit – 1) укор, упрек. Syn:
reproach, blame; 2) насмешка. Syn:
mockery, sneer
vanity – тщеславие; to flatter
smb.'s vanity, tickle smb.'s vanity –
польстить чьему-л. Тщеславию;
injured vanity – уязвленное
самолюбие. Syn: conceit, egoism
graphic art – 1) графика,
графическое
искусство
2)
полиграфия
teeming – 2) плодородный; 3)
богатый; teeming treasures –
несметные сокровища
bent – склонность; to follow
one's bent – следовать своим
вкусам. Syn: inclination, genius
delineate –1) набрасывать,
чертить,
намечать;
делать
набросок. Syn: sketch out, outline; 3)
изображать. Syn: draw, portray; 4)
изображать; выражать. Syn: to
portray in words
prodigal son – блудный сын
hovel – лачуга. Syn: home,
shack, hut
prayer – молитва; to answer a
prayer – внять мольбе; to offer, utter
a prayer – молитьс
humbling – скромный. Syn:
modest, unassuming; б) покорный,
смиренный.
Syn:
obedient,
submissive
repentance
–
покаяние;
раскаяние. Syn: penitence
overtone – намек, нотка,
подтекст
condense
–
уплотнять,
уменьшать объем. Syn: contract,
compress, to increase the density, to
reduce
in
volume;
2)
конденсировать;
3)
сжато
выражать мысль. Syn: intensify,
concentrate
engrossed – 1) увлеченный
чем-л. Syn: preoccupied, absorbed.
Ant: distracted, uninvolved. 2)
беспокойный.
Syn:
active,
engaged, fussy, fidgety
printer – 1) печатник;
типограф; типографщик
case
in
point
–
рассматриваемое дело; данное
дело
rowan – 1) рябина (дерево); 2)
рябина (ягода)
ancestor
–
прародитель,
предок. Syn: forefather, progenitor,
forebear.
Ant:
descendant,
offspring, progeny
vigour – 1) сила, энергия
intellectual;
vigour
–
интеллектуальная
мощь;
2)
легальность.
Syn:
legality,
lawfulness
multitudinous
–
1)
многократный. Syn: numerous; 2)
разнообразный, 3) обширный
predicament
–
затруднительное положение
frontispiece – фронтиспис
abandon
–
покидать,
оставлять. Syn: desert, leave
graphic art – 1) графика,
графическое
искусство;
2)
полиграфия
journeyman – 1)
ремесленник; 2) а) подмастерье
(в отличие от ученика); б)
ремесленник, знающий свое
дело, но не очень талантливый
97
PART II
UNIT I
ARCHITECTURE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY
IN NOVGOROD
The oldest surviving and the most imposing monument in the city
of Novgorod is the Cathedral of St. Sophia, built between 1045 and 1050
and located in Novgorod's detinets, or citadel, on the west bank of the
Volkhov River. The cathedral was commissioned by the prince of
Novgorod, Vladimir Iaroslavich, as well as by his father, Iaroslav the
Wise, and by Archbishop Luke of Novgorod. It is fitting that Iaroslav,
whose own Sophia Cathedral in Kiev was entering its final construction
phase at this time, should have played a role in the creation of the
Novgorod St. Sophia. Novgorod had been the base of Iaroslav's power,
not only during the reign of his father, Grand Prince Vladimir, but also
until the death of his rival Mstislav of Chernigov. With the building of
large masonry cathedrals dedicated to the Divine Wisdom in both Kiev
and Novgorod, Iaroslav rendered homage to one of the most sacred
mysteries of the Orthodox Church, and established a link between the
two major cities of his realm and "Tsargrad," or Constantinople.
In addition, Iaroslav's participation would have been essential from
a very immediate and practical point of view. Masonry construction was
virtually unknown in Novgorod before the middle of the eleventh
century, and a cathedral of such size and complexity could only have
been constructed under the supervision of imported master builders,
presumably from Kiev and ultimately Byzantium. It is thought that
some of the brick (for the lower part of the central apse) was also
imported from Kiev. The basic material for the construction of the walls
and the piers, however, was obtained in Novgorod and was rougher than
that used in Kiev: fieldstone and some undressed blocks of limestone
set in a mortar of crushed brick and lime. Plinthos applied in the
recessed row technique was used for the interior arches and vaulting,
but appeared in the main walls only for detailing and occasional
stabilizing rows, as well as for the apsidal structure and the drums of the
subsidiary cupolas. On the exterior, therefore, the walls of St. Sophia in
Novgorod would have presented a highly textured appearance, even
with the spreading of mortar to reduce the unevenness of the surface.
The plans of the Novgorod and Kiev cathedrals show clear
similarities: five aisles for the main structure (but only three apses in
Novgorod), with enclosed galleries – eventually reaching a height of
two stories – attached to the north, west, and south facades. Although
originally intended to be only one story, the attached galleries evolved
during the building of the Novgorod cathedral into an integral part of
98
the structure on both levels. The north and south galleries each contain
chapels on the ground level, and the west gallery includes a round stair
tower that leads to the upper levels of all the galleries, including the
choir gallery inside the main structure. Despite its structural complexity,
the Novgorod Sophia is smaller than its Kievan counterpart, both in its
central structure and in the size of the attached galleries, which in Kiev
comprise the equivalent of two additional aisles on each side.
Yet the two cathedrals are of approximately the same height, and
therein lies an explanation for the much sharper sense of vertical
development in the Novgorod cathedral. Indeed, the proportional
relation of height to the area of the central structure in the Novgorod
cathedral is one and a half times greater than that of Kiev. The emphasis
on height is maintained in the interior, where the piers of the main aisles
soar directly to the barrel vaults without the visual impediment of
lowered arches of the type frequently suspended between the piers of
St. Sophia in Kiev. The choir gallery is 10 meters above the main floor,
and the central apse reaches the height of the east wall.
Most of the original painting of the interior has long since vanished
under centuries of renovations. Although there is some evidence of
decorative mosaics in the apse and floor, the Novgorod cathedral lacked
the elaborate mosaics characteristic of major churches in Kiev before
the middle of the twelfth century. Nonetheless, the Novgorod
chronicles, in their cryptic way, indicate that the interior was painted
with frescoes over a period of several decades. According to the
Novgorod Third chronicle, soon after the completion of construction,
"icon painters from Tsargrad" painted Christ with his hand raised in
blessing and other representations of the Savior. Fragments of the
eleventh-century work, including full-length paintings of Emperor
Constantine and Elena, have been uncovered, as well as early twelfthcentury frescoes. The exterior facade above the west portal also displays
frescoes, but the most distinctive element is the portal itself, with its
magnificent bronze Sigtuna Doors, produced in Magdeburg in the
1050s, and taken as loot from the Varangian fortress of Sigtuna by
Novgorod raiders in 1117.
The culminating point in the structure of the Novgorod Cathedral of
St. Sophia is the massing of cupolas. Although their original form would
probably have had a lower pitch than do the helmet-shaped domes now
in place, the design is without doubt one of the most visually impressive
moments in medieval Russian architecture. The structure itself provides
an admirable base, with its almost total lack of surface decoration and
only the simplest of architectural details – the profiled entrance arch of
each facade and the massive lesenes, or pilaster strips that mark the bays
99
of the exterior gallery walls. The attached galleries, although wide, are
visually integrated into the higher walls of the central structure. The
arched gables, or zakomary, of the galleries echo the more sharply
etched roof line of the main structure, with its arched and pointed
zakomary that conform to the interior vaulting contours.
The drum and dome over the central crossing predominate in both
height and diameter, but the four subsidiary domes are so closely placed
in relation to the central dome as to appear part of one perfectly devised
whole. (The "inner" walls of the flanking drums rest on the same line of
transverse vaulting arches as do the east and west arcs of the main drum,
thus conveying the impression of an enclosed penta-cupolar structure.)
The central group is balanced by a sixth cupola, lower than the rest, but
considerably larger in circumference, over the stair tower in the west
gallery. It is precisely on the west front that the horizontal space
occupied by the structure and its exterior galleries is most evident and
most likely to overcome the vertical development of the cathedral. Yet
the west cupola reasserts the vertical principle without detracting from
the unity of the central group. The Cathedral of St. Sophia in Novgorod
lacks the pyramidal ascent created by the thirteen cupolas of its
counterpart in Kiev, and its form may have been determined to no small
degree by a series of practical considerations that materialized as the
construction progressed. Nonetheless, the consummate skill of the
cathedral's builders not only incorporated local requirements and
materials into a functional design with a clear vertical development, but
also calculated the height and mass of the cupolar structure to achieve a
visual effect unmatched in early medieval Russian architecture.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the most imposing monument in the city of Novgorod?
Who supervised its building?
2. What material was used for the construction of the Cathedral in
Novgorod?
3. What do the plans of the Novgorod and Kiev cathedrals show?
Which cathedral is larger?
4. Why has the original painting of the interior vanished? What was
painted with the frescoes?
5. What appears part of one perfectly devised whole?
6. What does the west cupola reassert? What did the consummate
skill of the cathedral's builders do?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
100
to render homage, sacred mysteries, masonry construction, to
construct a cathedral, the central apse, the walls and the piers, rough
fieldstones, undressed blocks of limestone, a mortar of crushed brick and
lime, plinthos, the recessed row technique, the interior arches and
vaulting, the apsidal structure, the drums of the subsidiary cupolas, to
reduce the unevenness of the surface, aisles for the main structure,
enclosed galleries, the attached galleries, a round stair tower, the choir
gallery, the barrel vaults, elaborate mosaics, cryptic way, full-length
paintings, helmet-shaped domes, entrance arch, transverse vaulting
arches.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
соперник, установить связь между двумя городами, два
главных города, к тому же, княжество, точка зрения, каменное
здание, под руководством, заморские строители, нижняя часть
центральной апсиды, кирпич, добывать камень, необработанные
блоки известняка, булыжник, огромные каменные соборы,
расположенный в детинце, плинтус, арки и свод, основные стены,
раствор из кирпичного щебня и строительной извести, барабан
купола, придел основного строения, двухэтажное здание, фасад
здания, цилиндрический свод, фрески двенадцатого века,
западный портал, шлемовидный купол, закомары.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
a) the massing of cupolas;
b) the central group is balanced by a sixth cupola;
c) the Cathedral lacks the pyramidal ascent.
V. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
repository, fortunate, architectural, extending, princes,
neighborhood, tradition, ceased , strategic, independence
The city of Novgorod is, by a …. set of circumstances, the great
…. of medieval Russian art, with more than fifty churches and
monasteries …. from the eleventh through the seventeenth centuries.
The recipient of Byzantine …. forms via Kiev, the city rapidly
developed an indigenous …. style in churches ….commissioned by
its …. during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as well as in the
"commercial" and …. churches of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. Even with the surrender of its …. to Moscow in the late
101
1400s, Novgorod sustained a vital creative …. in its adaptation of a
new, "Muscovite" style – a tradition that …. only in the 1700s, as
the city lost its …. importance and sank into an almost total
stagnation.
VI. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
Medieval chronicles first mention Novgorod …. connection ….
events between 860 and 862, when the local Slavs summoned the
Varangian Riurik to assume control …. their disordered affairs. …. the
Riurikovich dynasty transferred its power …. Kiev …. the end ….
the ninth century, Novgorod continued to exercise control …. a vast
area …. northern Rus. …. 989, following the official acceptance ….
Christianity …. the domains …. Grand Prince Vladimir, Novgorod
was visited …. Vladimir's ecclesiastical emissary, Bishop Joachim ….
Kherson. …. his energetic imposition …. Christianity …. Novgorod,
the bishop overturned pagan idols …. the Volkhov River and
commissioned the first stone church (dedicated …. Sts. Joachim and
Anna; it is not extant), as well as a wooden Church …. St. Sophia,
with thirteen "tops," or domes.
VII. Translate the following text:
The achievement of Novgorod's medieval architecture is based
primarily on a resourceful adaptation of Byzantine and Kievan
prototypes to local conditions, as illustrated in the choice of building
materials. The builders who worked in Novgorod did not have a source
of high-quality surface stone, such as the white limestone used in twelfthcentury churches of the Vladimir area, nor was brickmaking as
extensively developed as in Kiev. Instead, they devised a method of
placing blocks of rough-hewn gray limestone of various sizes within a
cement composed of crashed brick and lime, which imparted to the facade a pink hue similar to that of early Kievan churches, though
coarser in texture. The use of brick was limited in most cases to
ornamentation on the facade, the detailing of window and door arches,
and the pilaster strips dividing the exterior bays. Stucco was originally
applied only in the interior, which was then covered with frescoes
painted by local and foreign masters. As in Kiev, all too few of these
remarkable paintings have survived. Many were destroyed in the Second
World War, others by overpainting in earlier centuries. It is only through
prewar photographs that we have some idea of the stunning contrast
between the lavish interior and the stark exterior of churches such as the
Savior on the Nereditsa River.
VIII. Translate the following text:
102
Софийский собор (1045– 1052 гг.), древнейшее из
сохранившихся каменных зданий Новгорода, является примером
сооружения, в котором наблюдается как прямое, так и косвенное
влияние зарубежной архитектуры на новгородскую. Одноименный
киевский собор, строительство которого было завершено в 1037
году, служит его прообразом.
При создании каменного христианского храма рзусская
архитектура позаимствовала у Византии общую композицию
плана и внутреннего пространства
крестовокупольных
пятинефных соборов с апсидами с восточной стороны и куполами
на высоких световых барабанах. Хоры, расположенные по трем
сторонам центрического здания, также были известны
византийским храмам уже с VI века. Подобные заимствования
были естественными, поскольку Русь и Византия принадлежали к
одной восточно-христианской церкви, причем Константинополь
был центром православия и местопребыванием «вселенских»
патриархов. Однако зодчие, создававшие Софийский собор в
Новгороде, были знакомы с подобными каменными зданиями на
Руси такого рода и более не обращались для решения возникавших
перед ними задач к зарубежным образцам.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
masonry – каменная кладка
pier – пилястр, пилястра;
колонна. Syn: pillar, pilaster
obtain – получать; добывать;
приобретать. Syn: get, receive,
catch
acquire – 1) приобретать. Syn:
get: 2) получать, приобретать
rough – необработанный.
Syn: crude 2., unfinished
fieldstone
–
булыжник;
плитняк
mortar – 1) известковый
раствор; строительный раствор 2)
скреплять известковым раствором
crushed brick – кирпичный
бой;
кирпичный
щебень;
кирпичная крошка
lime – 1) известь; finish lime –
строительная
известь;
штукатурная известь; burnt /
caustic lime – негашеная известь;
slaked lime – гашеная известь
plinth – плинтус
row – ряд, линия; in rows –
рядами even, straight row – прямая
линия; in a row – в ряд; подряд,
последовательно. Syn: series
barrel
vault
–
цилиндрический свод
vaulting – 1) возведение свода
2) свод, своды
occasional – предназначенный
для случайного, специального или
подсобного использования
apse – апсида
apsidal – апсидальный
drum – а) подушка капители;
103
б) стержень колонны; в) барабан
купола
subsidiary – второстепенный;
вспомогательный
cupola – верх, вершина,
купол; свод. Syn: dome, big top
aisle – 1) боковой неф храма;
придел. 2) проход (между рядами в
церкви)a highly textured appearance
gallery – 1) галерея, балкон,
портик. Syn: porch, portico, piazza,
colonnade; 2) хоры
storey – story этаж; ярус;
lower storey – нижний этаж; top
storey of a building – верхний этаж
здания. Syn: floor, flat, pair of stairs
facades – фасад (здания),
facade architecture – архитектура
фасада. Syn: front
chapel – часовня, придел
tower – 1. башня; вышка; bell
tower – колокольня; башня; 2)
крепость, цитадель. Syn: citadel ,
stronghold
counterpart – дубликат,
копия. Syn: duplicate; двойник.
Syn: double
impediment – 1) а) помеха,
препона, препятствие (to). Syn:
obstacle, hindrance, bar
suspend – подвешивать,
свешиваться ( from )
cryptic – 1) а) загадочный,
таинственный. Syn: mysterious,
enigmatic; б) скрытый, тайный.
Syn: hidden, secret, occult; 2)
защитный. Syn: protective
full-length – 1) во всю длину, в
полный рост; a full-length mirror –
зеркало в полный рост; 2) полный;
без сокращений
loot – добыча; награбленное
добро; трофеи. Syn: booty, haul,
swag
raider – участник налета,
набега, налетчик; мародер
pitch – высота
helmet-shaped
–
шлемовидный, шлемообразный
bay – пролет между стенами,
колоннами, пролет здания
transverse
–
пересекающийся,
поперечный;
transverse section – поперечный
разрез, поперечное сечение. Syn:
transversal , cross
arched gables – закомары
enclosed – окружённый
ascent – 1) восхождение,
подъем. Syn: rise, ascension; 2)
крутизна; 3) марш лестницы
104
UNIT II
EARLY TWELFTH-CENTURY CHURCHES
Although no subsequent church in Novgorod rivals the Cathedral of
St. Sophia in the grandeur of its conception and execution, the twelfth
century saw a continuation of major projects initiated by the city's princes.
As their hold on political power, and the citadel itself, loosened,
Novgorod's princes maintained a show of architectural force by
constructing large masonry churches elsewhere in the city. Some of these
structures have been destroyed and most have been modified; but four of
them, built between 1113 and 1130, provide evidence of a style
characteristic of the princely church: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in
Iaroslav Court (1113), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin at
Antoniev Monastery (1117–19), the Cathedral of St. George at Iurev
Monastery (1119), and the Church of John the Baptist in Petriatin Court
(1127–30). Each is a simplification of the multi aisled plan at St. Sophia
and indirectly reflects the influence of Kiev's Cathedral of the Formation:
the number of aisles has been reduced to three; the inscribed-cross plan
has been retained, with an additional bay, or narthex, on the west end; and
the east – or altar – end is completed by a triple apse, usually rising the
full height of the sanctuary wall. The lead roof typically followed the
contours of the interior vaulting – a feature obliterated by later, hipped
roofs. In each case, the interior division into bays is reflected on the
exterior by pilasters that divide the austere facade into arched segments.
The earliest of these, the Church of the Annunciation in
Gorodishche (a settlement at the southeastern edge of the city), was
founded around 1103 by Mstislav, son of the Kievan grand prince
Vladimir Monomakh. The church was destroyed and rebuilt in 1342,
but remnants of the original foundation are sufficient to place the
structure within the class defined before. Much more remains of the
Church of St. Nicholas in Iaroslav Court, also commissioned by
Mstislav and built within the dvorishche, or Court – the new residence
of the Novgorod prince. Located across the Volkhov River from the
detinets, the church was highly unusual in its original pentacupolar
design (since destroyed), whose purpose was undoubtedly to rival the
form of St. Sophia in a citadel the prince no longer possessed. In other
respects, the church followed the typical plan, including a contoured
roof with sheets of lead nailed directly over the barrel vaulting. The
walls were of alternating rows of brick and limestone slabs in a mortar
of crushed brick, and were covered with a light layer of stucco.
A variation on the princely church appeared in the Church of the
Nativity of the Virgin at Antoniev Monastery (1117–19). Although
commissioned by the founder of the monastery, Antonii Rimlianin ("the
105
Roman," a convert to Orthodoxy from the west), the church could not
have been constructed without the assistance of the Novgorod prince,
both for political reasons and because the prince still held a monopoly
on the materials and the builders necessary for masonry construction.
The Church of the Nativity displays the expected elements of Novgorod
church architecture during this period, but it also contains a number of
innovative features. The two west piers under the central crossing are
octagonal, which creates a sense of space in the center of what is a
relatively narrow structure. The choir gallery above the narthex is
reached by a stair tower attached to the northwest corner of the building,
but its shape is round, rather than the usual square extension housing a
round stairwell. This unexpected form, in conjunction with a
simplification of exterior details, heightens a sense of the plasticity of
the structure, whose walls were more crudely molded than those of the
early twelfth-century princely churches.
Of the latter, the culminating and most imposing example is the
Cathedral of St. George, commissioned in 1119 at the Iurev (St. George)
Monastery by Prince Vsevolod, son of Mstislav. According to the
chronicles, the builder was a certain Master Peter, one of the few
medieval Russian architects whose name has been recorded. In
comparison with the Antoniev Monastery church, the Cathedral of St.
George adheres more faithfully to the accepted architectural elements
of large Russian churches of its time. On the exterior, the vertical
development, created by massive pilaster strips that divide the facade
into bays, is counterposed to the horizontality of alternating rows of
windows and niches. On the interior, the cruciform piers define the
cross-inscribed space, with narthex and attached stair tower on the
northwest corner. In an era that emphasized the vertical structure, the
walls of St. George's reach a height of 20 meters, with a cross-centered
design whose piers soar to the barrel vaults with no visual impediment.
Master Peter applied these familiar elements on a scale and with a
fluency that suggested an intention to comment on the very art of
building a princely church. To have had his name recorded in the
chronicles, he must have been a compelling personality; and in this, his
one attested church, he did not work on a modest scale: in its central
space, the Cathedral of St. George is larger even than St. Sophia. The
plan of the cathedral is rectangular (with an additional bay, or narthex,
on the west end), but from the southwest, the structure appears to be a
massive cube – an impression produced, by the construction of the stair
tower in the form of an additional bay on the west facade. Only from
the northeast does one see the tower, leading to the choir gallery, as a
rectangular projection from the main structure. With the northwest bay
106
matching the narthex extension on the south facade, Master Peter
imposed an overall symmetry within which the second, larger, bay of
each facade corresponds to the arms of the inscribed cross.
The asymmetrical facade of the St. George Cathedral contains a
massive blind arcade and rows of windows seeming to foreshadow the
horizontal sweep of Petersburg's palaces. The restrained detailing of the
exterior centers on major structural elements: the narrow windows and
double-recessed niches complement the rhythm of the facade arches,
whose extrados repeat the indentation of the windows and portal. The
walls originally culminated in zakomary that followed the contours of the
vaulting and provided a visual transition to the three cupolas: the largest
over the crossing, the middle over the stair tower, and the smallest situated
at the southwest corner. The present domes, in the "helmet" shape,
probably replaced smaller domes prevalent in Rus during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries. In a final decorative touch, the two drums supporting
the larger cupolas repeat the arched-window motif of the facade, and the
largest and smallest drums are crowned with arcading edged in a dogtooth
brick pattern that had appeared in the Novgorod Sophia Cathedral. All
three domes have scalloped niches. In contrast to the austere
monumentality of the facades, the interior was covered with frescoes and
contained icons from the prince's workshop – including some of the rarest
examples of twelfth-century icon painting.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What did Novgorod's princes do when their hold on political
power loosened?
2. What constructions provide evidence of a style characteristic of
the princely church? Wherein their simplification evident?
3. What was the destiny of the Church of the Annunciation?
4. Where did a variation on the princely church appeare?
5. What does the Church of the Nativity display? What is the most
imposing example of the construction of 1119? To what architectural
elements does the monastery church, the Cathedral of St. George adhere?
6. What does the asymmetrical facade of the St. George Cathedral
contain? What did the present domes, in the "helmet" shape, probably
replace? What domes have scalloped niches?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
major projects, architectural force, masonry churches, princely
church, to destroy structures, the multi aisled plan, a style characteristic
107
of, the inscribed-cross plan, an additional bay, a triple apse, sanctuary
wall, the contours of the interior vaulting, the austere facade, hipped
roofs, a light layer of stucco, a feature obliterated by, to divide into,
arched segments, "helmet" shape, the arched-window motif, remnants
of the original foundation, pentacupolar design, icon painting, a
contoured roof, rows of brick, limestone slabs, Court church, a convert
to Orthodoxy, for political reasons, masonry construction, massive
pilaster strips, choir gallery, a stair tower, a round stairwell, the crossinscribed space, a dogtooth brick, a massive blind arcade, extrados, the
larger cupolas, scalloped niches.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
более поздняя церковь, каменные церкви, разрушить здания,
трансформировать строения, Иоанн Креститель, стиль,
характерный для, сократить до трех, упрощение многопредельного
храма, вписанный крест, притвор, тонкий слой штукатурки,
тройная апсида, крупная стройка, внутренние своды, внутреннее
деление, простой фасад, отразиться на экстерьере, шатровые
крыши, основатель монастыря, разрушить и отстроить церковь
заново, первоначальный фундамент, монастырский двор, слепая
аркатура, иконопись, схема вписанного креста, пятинефный храм
с крестовокупольной системой, каменное здание, хоры, выпуклая
поверхность арки или свода.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
a) the inscribed-cross plan has been retained;
b) the lead roof typically followed the contours of the interior
vaulting;
c) the Church of the Nativity displays the expected elements of
Novgorod church architecture.
V. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
monastery, position, decrease, churches, struggle, prince(s),
construction, built, ruin, reflected
The instability of the …. of Novgorod's princes during the twelfth
century led to a ….decrease both in the number and the size of ….
they commissioned. Some 60 years elapsed between the …. of the final
princely church in the commercial district – the Church of the
Dormition in the Trading Side, …. in 1135 by Vsevolod – and the last
108
of Novgorod's …. to be built by a …. – the Transfiguration of the
Savior on the Nereditsa River (1198). In the interval, …. throughout
Rus were involved in the incessant …. for the Kievan throne. This
does not imply that Rus was beset by …., but with certain
exceptions, there was a …. in the number of masonry construction
projects initiated by …. . Indeed, the churches endowed during this
period often …. some aspect of the political …. , as is exemplified by
the design of the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior at
Mirozhskii …. in Pskov.
VI. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
Pskov was one …. the few cities …. the domain …. "Lord Novgorod"
that could claim an indigenous artistic style …. considerable vitality.
Located some 120 miles …. the southwest …. Novgorod, …. the confluence …. the Pskov and Velikaia rivers, the city was founded probably
…. some point …. the tenth century as a trading settlement, prospering as
part …. the Kiev-Novgorod network. Pskov's social and cultural
institutions developed parallel …. those of Novgorod, …. a veche, or
citizens' assembly, that …. occasion challenged the authority ….
Novgorod. Pskov never rivaled Novgorod as a commercial center, yet the
self-reliant spirit …. its citizens – who declared independence ….
Novgorod …. 1348 – was soon told …. the turbulent history …. their city.
VII. Translate the following text.
It was to Pskov that Prince Vsevolod retreated after his expulsion
from Novgorod in 1136, and it is possible that he was supported in his bid
to regain Novgorod by Archbishop Nifont, who, like Vsevolod, was an
energetic supporter of church construction. In any event, Vsevolod died
in 1137 or 1138, but there is evidence that before his death, he endowed,
with the support of Nifont, a church dedicated to the Transfiguration of
the Savior.21 From the time of Mstislav of Chernigov through the
thirteenth century, dedications to the Transfiguration of the Savior appear
to have been used exclusively for churches built by a prince; yet it has
been argued that another group of princes participated in the foundation
of the Savior Mirozhskii Monastery in Pskov in the late 1140s.22 Whether
Vsevolod or Nifont's subsequent ally Iurii Dolgorukii was a leading
contributor to the building of the cathedral and monastery on the banks of
the Mirozh River, it appears that the structure and its frescoes were
completed by the time of Nifont's death in 1156.
VIII. Translate the following text:
Задача перекрытия внутреннего пространства, одна из
наиболее трудных, возникающих при постройке каменных зданий,
109
решалась строителями новгородских храмов XI – первой половины
XII веков в основном теми же приемами, которые использовались
и в южнорусских постройках XI века. Цилиндрические своды,
полукупола над апсидами, купола на световых барабанах,
сферические паруса и подпружные арки одинаковы и в
новгородских, и в южнорусских постройках. Тождественны в них
также и расположение полуциркульных подпружных арок ниже
примыкающих к ним сводов и передача тяжести последних на
столбы и стены, усиленные в местах примыкания к ним
подпружных арок внутренними и наружными лопатками.
Новшеством в Новгородской Софии явились два вида сводов –
своды, образующие в поперечном разрезе треугольник, и
полуцилиндрические
своды,
в
поперечном
разрезе
представляющие четверть круга и покрывающие восточные концы
внешних боковых нефов. Первый из этих видов сводов не получил
дальнейшего развития в русской архитектуре. Он не имеет
аналогов не только в южнорусских, но и в византийских
постройках. Нечто подобное можно найти лишь в западной
архитектуре, но не в сводах, а в перекрытиях проемов в некоторых
дороманских и раннероманских постройках.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
princely – 1) королевский,
царственный Syn: kingly, regal,
kingly;
2)
выдающийся,
благородный, величавый. Syn:
dignified, stately, noble; 3)
великолепный. Syn: sumptuous,
magnificent, munificent
narthex – нартекс, притвор
altar – престол, алтарь (в
христианских
церквях);
б)
жертвенник, в) священное место,
памятное место где-л.
major project – крупная
стройка
sanctuary – а) святилище
(храм, церковь). Syn: adytum
contour – очертание, контур;
форма; абрис, линия, профиль,
surface
contour
–
профиль
поверхности. Syn: form, outline,
shape
austere – 1) строгий; 2)
аскетический, суровый. Syn:
ascetic; строгий, чистый, простой
(о стиле)
obliterate – 1) вычеркивать,
уничтожать;
toobliterate
completely, entirely, totally, utterly
–
полностью,
целиком
уничтожать. Syn: erase, strike out,
cross out, cross off, remove; 2)
прекращать,
отменять,
аннулировать. Syn: cancel
hipped roof – четырёхскатная
крыша;
вальмовая
крыша;
шатровая крыша
foundation
–
фундамент,
основание; to lay the foundation(s)
110
of
smth.
–
заложить
фундамент/основу
чего-л.;
положить начало чему-л.; to
undermine
a
foundation
–
подорвать фундамент; firm, solid,
sound, strong foundation – прочная
основа, фундамент; the foundation
(of
a
building)
settles
–
закладывается фундамент здания;
foundation pit – котлован под
фундамент. Syn: basis
limestone
–
известняк;
carboniferous
limestone
–
известняк
каменноугольного
периода
slab – 1) плита; лист, пластина;
concrete slab – бетонная плита;
marble slab – мраморная плита;
stone slab – каменная плита. Syn:
plate, plank, 2) а) панель; б)
многоэтажноe строение. Syn:
block; 3) пластину. Syn: piece, bit
layer – 1. 1) а) слой, пласт;
прослойка; in layers – слоями;
several layers of paint – несколько
слоев краски; bottom layer –
нижний слой; even layer – ровный
слой; outer layer – наружный слой;
protective layer – защитный слой;
top layer – верхний слой. Syn:
stratum;
б)
напластование,
наслоение. Syn: stratification 2)
отводок. 3) наслаивать, класть
пластами, слоями; 4) слоистый;
слоевой; layer structure – слоистая
структура; layer line – слоевая
линия
stucco – 1) лепная работа; 2)
оштукатуренный
дом;
3)
штукатурить Syn: plaster, parget
convert – 1) новообращенный,
прозелит, неофит. Syn: neophyte,
proselyte; 2) переубежденный,
поменявший свои убеждения
octagonal – восьмиугольный
stairwell
–
лестничный
колодец
soar – 1) высота (подъема,
полета); 2) а) парение; полет; б)
подъем вверх; 3) повышаться;
подниматься; 4) вздыматься
rectangular
–
1)
прямоугольный
rectangular;
coordinates – прямоугольные
координаты. Syn: right-angled; 2)
жесткий,
несгибаемый,
формальный. Syn: formal, stiff,
rigid
extrados
–
выпуклая
(наружная) поверхность арки или
свода
cupola – верх, вершина,
купол; свод. Syn: dome, big top
scallop
–
1)
что-л.,
напоминающее створку раковины
гребешка; 2) фестоны (зубчатая
кайма)
dogtooth – "пёсий клык"
(орнаментальная кладка с зубцами
пирамидальной
формы,
в
декорированном архитектурном
стиле)
semidome – полукупол
method, way, mode,
technique; device – способ, прием
111
UNIT III
LATE TWELFTH-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
IN NOVGOROD AND PSKOV
The instability of the position of Novgorod's princes during the
twelfth century led to a decrease both in the number and the size of
churches they commissioned. Some 60 years elapsed between the
construction of the final princely church in the commercial district –
the Church of the Dormition in the Trading Side, built in 1135 by
Vsevolod – and the last of Novgorod's churches to be built by a prince
– the Transfiguration of the Savior on the Nereditsa River (1198). In
the interval, princes throughout Rus were involved in the incessant
struggle for the Kievan throne. This does not imply that Rus was
beset by ruin, but with certain exceptions, there was a decrease in
the number of masonry construction projects initiated by princes.
Indeed, the churches endowed during this period often reflected
some aspect of the political struggle, as is exemplified by the design
of the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior at Mirozhskii
Monastery in Pskov.
Pskov was one of the few cities in the domain of "Lord Novgorod"
that could claim an indigenous artistic style of considerable vitality.
Located some 120 miles to the southwest of Novgorod, at the confluence of the Pskov and Velikaia rivers, the city was founded probably
at some point in the tenth century as a trading settlement, prospering
as part of the Kiev-Novgorod network. Pskov's social and cultural
institutions developed parallel to those of Novgorod, with a veche, or
citizens' assembly, that on occasion challenged the authority of
Novgorod. Pskov never rivaled Novgorod as a commercial center, yet
the self-reliant spirit of its citizens – who declared independence from
Novgorod in 1348 – was soon told in the turbulent history of their
city.
It was to Pskov that Prince Vsevolod retreated after his expulsion
from Novgorod in 1136, and it is possible that he was supported in his
bid to regain Novgorod by Archbishop Nifont, who, like Vsevolod, was
an energetic supporter of church construction. In any event, Vsevolod
died in 1137 or 1138, but there is evidence that before his death, he
endowed, with the support of Nifont, a church dedicated to the Transfiguration of the Savior. From the time of Mstislav of Chernigov
through the thirteenth century, dedications to the Transfiguration of the
Savior appear to have been used exclusively for churches built by a
prince; yet it has been argued that another group of princes participated
in the foundation of the Savior Mirozhskii Monastery in Pskov in the
late 1140s. Whether Vsevolod or Nifont's subsequent ally Iurii
112
Dolgorukii was a leading contributor to the building of the cathedral and
monastery on the banks of the Mirozh River, it appears that the structure
and its frescoes were completed by the time of Nifont's death in 1156.
It also appears that the unusual design of the structure had an
ideological meaning; Nifont was a Grecophile, a believer in the
authority of Byzantium over the Russian Church, and his cathedral in
Pskov is comparable to Byzantine prototypes in Asia Minor (perhaps
by way of Kherson) – a simple cruciform plan, with low corner bays
and one large cupola situated on a combination of east piers and the
indented corners of the west wall. This design, with its exposed central
bays, proved impractical in a much colder, northern climate and the
corner bays of the west facade were soon built to the height of the
main structure. The interior the cathedral was painted with frescoes,
which have, miraculously, survived largely intact. Their style has been
related to the still vital tradition of Byzantine wall painting in Rus
at a time when Greek painters were still active in the area, yet the
pictoral themes are chosen and interpreted in a manner that suggests
the work of local masters.
Some four decades after the completion of the Cathedral of the
Transfiguration of the Savior in Pskov, Prince Iaroslav Vladimirovich
commissioned the last of the churches to be endowed by a prince in
medieval Novgorod. Also dedicated to the Transfiguration of the
Savior, the church was located on the Nereditsa River near the
Gorodishche district, the site of a residence compound for the
Novgorod prince and his retinue. Constructed within three and a half
months in 1198, the Nereditsa church represents a considerable
dimunition in comparison with earlier princely churches, and it
prefigures the simplified cube form that would become the dominant
pattern in Russian parish church architecture for the next three
centuries. In 1903–4, the church was carefully studied and restored by
Peter Pokryshkin; and although Pokryshin's restoration of what he
assumed to be the original form of the cornice and roof was not
without controversy, his documentation proved invaluable for a
rebuilding of the church after much of it was destroyed by artillery fire
during the fighting around Novgorod in the fall of 1941.
The restored roofline, defined by zakomary, conforms to the
construction techniques applied in earlier large twelfth-century
churches, and the three apses have been retained, although the
flanking apses are diminished. The number of bays along the length
of the church was reduced from 4 to 3, thus creating a compact form
dominated by a single cupola. With the exception of an arcade band,
edged in the dogtooth pattern, on the cupola drum, the exterior is devoid
113
of ornamentation. The walls are of alternating rows of brick and red
shellstone (rakushechnik), whose rough, irregular lines endow the
church with a peculiar sculpted texture, emphasized by the partial
covering of the surface with a reddish stucco. It appears that wood was
used extensively in the structural work: the walls contained oak tie
beams (at certain places, they seem to have extended to the piers); the
portals were topped by a simple wooden lintel, with a brick relieving arch
above; and the original roof was apparently of wooden shingles – a
technique commonly adopted for smaller masonry churches in Novgorod.
Originally part of a small monastery endowed by the Novgorod
princes, the Church of the Savior fell into neglect with the eventual
disappearance of princely authority in Novgorod by the beginning
of the fourteenth century. After 1764, the church was open only once
a year for the Feast of the Transfiguration of the Savior, and thus its
frescoes, painted in the summer of 1199, escaped the extensive
repainting that damaged so many works of art in more active churches.
Before the war, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on
the Nereditsa contained one of the very few extensively preserved sets
of frescoes among medieval Russian churches; only a small portion
survived to be restored with the reconstructed church.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Why did 60 years elapse between the construction of the final
princely church and the last of Novgorod's churches? What were the
princes doing in the interval?
2. Why could Pskov claim an indigenous artistic style of
considerable vitality?
3. What did Prince Vsevolod endow in Pskov? Who participated in
the foundation the Savior Mirozhskii Monastery in Pskov? What
meaning did the unusual design of the structure have?
4. What proved impractical in a much colder, northern climate?
What was the interior of the Cathedral painted with? What tradition
was their style related to?
5. What did Prince Iaroslav Vladimirovich commission? What
does the Nereditsa church represent?
6. What was the destiny of the Church of the Savior? What
happened to the frescoes of the Church?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
114
a decrease in the number of churches, incessant struggle, to be
beset by ruin, a decrease in the number of, masonry construction
projects, to endow churches, an indigenous artistic style, an artistic
style of considerable vitality, a trading settlement, cultural institutions,
to challenge the authority, a commercial center, the turbulent history, a
supporter of church construction, a leading contributor to, the unusual
design, Byzantine prototypes, a simple cruciform plan, the indented
corners, exposed central bays, pictoral themes, to prefigure the
simplified cube form, ith a brick relieving arch above, the walls
contained oak tie beams, dogtooth pattern, an arcade band.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
участвовать в, Господин Великий Новгород, основать город,
при слиянии рек, соперничать с, изгнание из города,
идеологическое значение, большой купол, расписывать
фресками, чудом сохраниться, местные зодчие, средневековые
церкви, свита князя, значительное уменьшение, сохранившийся
цикл фресок, красный ракушечник, информация оказалась
бесценной, архитектура приходской церкви, первоначальная
форма карниза и крыши, барабан купола, аркатурно-колончатый
пояс, без орнамента, деревянная перемычка, анкерная балка.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
a) a decrease in the number of masonry construction projects;
b) the turbulent history of the city;
c) the unusual design of the structure.
V. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
pantheon, tradition, preached, god of fire, hilltop, prophesied,
arise, entity, root, event, fundamental, reception, translated,
service mission
The Slavs had a well-developed …. of pagan gods akin to those of
the Vikings: pride of place was taken by Perun, the …. …. and lightning,
and whose cult was actively promoted by Vladimir. However,
Christianity was a far from unknown…. in the land of the Russians
before 988. Indeed, the …. of the Russian Orthodox Church has it that
the …. upon which the city of Kiev would later …. was visited by the
Lord's disciple St. Andrew as early as the first century and who …. that
the Gospel would be …. in these lands. Most likely this story belongs
115
to the realm of pious legends. Historically, the most important …. to
have consequences for the taking of …. of Christianity in Russia was
the evangelizing …. undertaken by two Greek brothers from the
Balkans, Ss. Cyril and Methodius. Part of their …. to the Slav lands in
the ninth century embraced a …. aspect of Eastern Christianity: the ….
of the faith in the culture and language of the local people. To this end
the …. books of the Byzantine Church and parts of the Bible were ….
into the Slav language.
VI. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
AD 988 is conventionally regarded as the year that Christianity came
…. the Russian people as the religion …. the realm. However, ….
Vladimir's option …. Christianity there had existed …. the Russians
Christian communities and rulers. The first mention …. the Rus people
occurs …. seventh century Arab chronicles, describing them as a warlike
nation …. an eye …. trade. Archaeological finds …. ancient Russian
cities such as Staraya Ladoga and Gorodische (later to become Novgorod)
indicate that the Rus were Viking raiders …. Scandinavia who set ….
trading posts …. the rivers running …. a north-south axis …. the plains
…. present-day European Russia …. the capital …. the Byzantine
Empire, Constantinople. The Viking Rus ruled …. a number …. Eastern
Slav tribes, introducing Scandinavian customs and military retainers and
organizing the occasional raid …. Byzantium. …. the time …. the earliest
Russian literature …. the eleventh century it had become clear that the
Russians had now appeared …. the scene as a nation.
VII. Translate the following text:
Construction in old Russia was principally of horizontal logs from
trees abundantly available in the forested zones where most Russians
lived. Floor plans of log structures were typically combinations of square
or rectangular cells, whether the structures were houses, palaces,
fortification towers, or churches. In church architecture, carpenters
reproduced the two basic plans inherited from Byzantine Christian
masonry churches: an extended east-west plan of sanctuary, nave, and
narthex, or a centrally oriented plan of a square or octagon of logs,
sometimes with extensions built around a central nave. Several open-air
museums of traditional wooden architecture have been established in
Russia, among them Suzdal', Novgorod, Kostroma, Kizhi, Arkhangel'sk,
and Lake Baikal. Wood and masonry architecture influenced one another
in numerous ways. In wooden log churches, for example, the curve of a
masonry apse is imitated by a half-octagon of shortened logs. The
"storied" effect of some masonry churches is copied from log churches
surmounted by tiers of receding log octagons. Especially popular in
116
village wooden church architecture was a tent-shaped superstructure,
usually with eight slopes arising from an octagonal drum. The drum in
turn was placed on one or more square or octagonal bases.
VIII. Translate the following text:
В постройках XII века новгородцы применяли смешанную кладку
из камня с кирпичными прослойками. Эта имеющая византийское
происхождение кладка применялась в Новгороде до второй половины
и даже до конца XIII века, что, однако, еще не дает повода считать
новгородцев большими «византинистами», чем их западнорусские и
южнорусские соседи. Киев, Чернигов, Смоленск, Полоцк, Витебск не
располагали близкими месторождениями камня, пригодного для
строительных работ. Поэтому зодчие этих городов вынуждены были
заменять камень всюду, где возможно, кирпичом. Новгородцы,
напротив, располагали волховским плитняком, сравнительно
дешевым из-за его близости к местам возведения, и ильменскими
красно-коричневыми известняками. Употребление этих видов камня
в кладке с кирпичными прослойками, выравнивавшими постели и
облегчавшими связь версты с забуткою, позволяло ограничиваться
незначительной очень грубой обработкой. Новгородская кладка XII–
XIII веков не была простым повторением южнорусской или
византийской смешанной кладки, отличаясь от нее менее регулярным
характером кирпичных прослоек. Эти прослойки толщиной обычно в
один ряд имели между собой различные по высоте интервалы,
зависящие от размеров разделяемых ими рядов камня. Иногда они
даже не проходили по всему периметру стен, а обрывались гденибудь посередине фасада, когда в каменной кладке под ними
попадался более высокий камень.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
elapse
–
проходить,
пролетать, лететь, истекать (о
времени). Syn: pass
documentation
–
документация,
документы;
информация
incessant – беспрестанный,
непрекращающийся.
Syn:
persistent , unceasing, continual
beset
–
1)
окружать;
осаждать;
2)
украшать
(орнаментом)
endow
–
обеспечивать
постоянным доходом; передавать
завещанное наследство; делать
вклад
domain – имение, поместье;
земли; владение. Syn: estate,
territory, demesne
indigenous – 1) аборигенный,
местный, туземный. Syn: local,
indugenous,
vernacular;
2)
117
врожденный,
природный,
прирожденный (to). Syn: native,
inborn, innate
an arcade band – аркатурноколончатый пояс
vitality – жизнеспособность;
жизненность, жизнестойкость;
virility and vitality – энергичность
и жизнестойкость. Syn: viability,
vital capacity, tenacity
found
–
1)
начинать
строительство,
закладывать
(фундамент,
город);
2)
основывать,
учреждать;
создавать (on/upon) Syn: establish
challenge – 1) вызов; to issue,
send a challenge – бросить вызов; to
accept, meet, respond to, take up a
challenge – принять вызов; 2)
сложная
задача,
проблема;
formidablel challenge – истинное
испытание. Syn: summons, defiance
authority – власть (for, over),
to assume authority – взять власть;
to delegate authority – передавать
власть; to wield authority –
обладать властью
turbulent – бурный. Syn:
riotous, stormy, violent, wild,
impetuous. Ant: tranquil
expulsion – ссылка, изгнание;
высылка
ally – союзник; ally of moment –
временный союзник; faithful/ taunch
ally – верный друг; 2. соединять(ся);
be allied to – иметь общие черты с
(чем-л.).Syn: associate
contributor – жертвователь;
спонсор, донатор
cruciform – крестообразный.
Syn: cruciate
indented – 1) зазубренный,
зубчатый; с выемками (по краю);
indented
joint
–
стыковое
соединение
зубцами.
Syn:
serrated;
2)
зубчатый;
зигзагообразный;
имеющий
неровные, ломаные очертания
exposed – незащищенный,
уязвимый, беззащитный. Syn:
unprotected,
defenceless,
defenseless.
Ant:
fortified,
impenetrable,
impregnable,
invincible, unassailable, guarded,
protected
miraculously – чудесным
образом
retinue – свита, эскорт,
кортеж Syn: suite
prefigure
–
служить
прообразом, быть прототипом
parish – 1) приход; a parish
church – приходская церковь;
parish clerk – псаломщик; 2)
прихожане, паства
cornice – карниз; свес; to run a
cornice – вытягивать карниз;
bracketed cornice – карниз на
кронштейнах; closed cornice – полый
карниз; plaster cornice – лепной
карниз (внутренний); stucco cornice
– лепной карниз; principal cornice –
венчающий карниз здания; string
cornice – поясок
controversy
–
дебаты,
дискуссия; to enter into controversy
–
полемизировать;
without
controversy / beyond controversy –
бесспорно.
Syn:
discussion,,
argument, dispute
shellstone – ракушечник
tie beam – анкерная балка;
затяжка (арки)
lintel – перемычка окна/двери
relieving – затылование
118
UNIT IV
ANDREI BOGOLIUBSKII: THE FLOURISHING
OF STONE ARCHITECTURE
Prince Andrei has entered Russian history as a controversial figure,
feared by those who supported the power of Kiev and Novgorod, but
venerated in Vladimir, the city he considered his own. Throughout his
reign, he ruthlessly and with great tenacity pursued a policy of
aggrandizement at the expense of both Kiev and Novgorod. His
intention was not to rule from a capital in the south, but to transfer power
to Vladimir; in this he was largely successful. In 1169, Kiev was sacked
by his son Mstislav – some 70 years before its devastation by the
Mongols. Kiev continued to exist as the religious, and perhaps cultural
center of Rus, but its military and political strength had collapsed.
During the same period, Andrei's forces marched on Novgorod, and
although his army was repulsed – in a battle commemorated in
Novgorod's chronicle and icons – Andrei succeeded in blocking the
city's grain supply from the south, so that Novgorod, like Kiev, was
forced to accept his candidate for resident prince.
It seems to be axiomatic in the history of Russian architecture that the
expansion or establishment of political power is inevitably accompanied
by intensive building activity on the part of a ruler who wishes to impress
with his structures, particularly churches. One is tempted to add that in
Russia, the more blood-thirsty the prince, or tsar, or emperor, the greater
is his architectural legacy (Andrei Bogoliubskii, Ivan the Great, Ivan the
Terrible, Peter the Great). Exceptions come to mind, but it is beyond
question that Andrei Bogoliubskii, despoiler of Kiev, is one of the great
patrons of Russian architecture. Even though only a fraction of what he
built has survived, that is more than sufficient to support the claim.
His first church, the Cathedral of the Dormition in Vladimir (1158–
60), conformed to the elongated, six-pier plan typical of large churches
in Kiev and Novgorod during the same period, and it displayed, on a
limited scale in comparison to later Suzdalian churches, high-relief
carvings on its facade of limestone ashlar. Among the distinctive
features of the structure were a large drum and cupola, with twelve
windows and twenty-four columns with carved capitals. The ingenuity
required to raise such a structure far exceeded that needed for Iurii
Dolgorukii's churches during the preceding decade. If the source of their
design remains unclear, the enigma is all the greater in the case of the
Dormition Cathedral. The Laurentian chronicle mentions the bringing
of masters from "all lands," and there are later references to Nemtsi, or
"Germans" – a term broadly used. In fact, it has been proposed, on slim
evidence that the artisans were sent to Bogoliubskii by Frederick
119
Barbarossa. Nonetheless, if certain features of the Vladimir churches –
such as the portals and decorative stonework – suggest a western
medieval, particularly German Romanesque, presence, the basic plan
remains firmly in the tradition of Byzantine church architecture as
adapted in early medieval Rus.
The appearance of the Dormition Cathedral – located in the center of
Vladimir's citadel, on a high bluff above the Kliazma River – would surely
have been spectacular. Gilded copper sheets covered the cupola as well as
the walls of the drum; the columns of the arcade frieze at the facade
midlevel were gilded; and the surface between the columns contained
frescoes – presumably, a row of saints. As with the temples of ancient
Greece, the large twelfth-century churches of the Vladimir area so impress
the viewer with the monumentality of the stonework that it is difficult to
comprehend that their facades often displayed vivid polychromatic
decoration, evident on the limestone facades of the late fifteenth-century
Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin. Most of the decorative
work, however, was effaced at the end of the century, when the church that
Andrei built became the nucleus of a much larger structure.
The second of Andrei's major projects in Vladimir also dates from the
beginning of his reign, and involved not only a church, but also a
dominant point in his new fortifications for the city. Like much else in
Andrei's architectural patronage, the Golden Gates of Vladimir (1158–
64) were based on a larger structure in Kiev, which in turn based its major
fortress gates on the model of Constantinople. The original form –
substantially modified in a 1795 rebuilding – consisted of parallel walls
with pilasters that supported six vaulting arches. Above the gates
themselves and the various guard posts, the platform supported the
Church of the Deposition of the Robe. The construction of a church over
a main gate was a feature of the walls of Constantinople, with obvious
connotations of divine protection for the city's defenses. Kiev adopted the
same practice, not only for the central fortress gates, but also at the
Monastery of the Caves, whose example inspired the construction of gate
churches at the entrance to major Russian monasteries over the next six
centuries.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. How is Prince Andrei characterized? What policy did he pursue?
What was done to Kiev by Andrei’s son? What did Andrei’s forces do?
2. What seems to be axiomatic in the history of Russian architecture?
120
3. What did the Cathedral of the Dormition in Vladimir conform?
Who built the Dormition Cathedral?
4. Why did the large twelfth-century churches of the Vladimir area
so impress the viewer? Why was most of the decorative work effaced?
5. What was Andrei's second major projects in Vladimir?
6. What was a feature of the walls of Constantinople?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
to enter Russian history, throughout his reign, a controversial
figure, on a high bluff, to venerate in Vladimir, ruthlessly and with great
tenacity, to pursued a policy, a policy of aggrandizement, at the expense
of, to sack a city, before its devastation, to commemorate in icons, grain
supply, during the preceding decade, resident prince, to be axiomatic in,
expansion of political power, intensive building activity, on the part of
a ruler, to tempt to add, bloodthirsty, the great patrons, six-pier plan,
high-relief carvings, to impress with the structures, limestone ashlar,
decorative stonework, gilded copper sheets, the arcade frieze; at the
façade, the temples of ancient Greece, to impress with the
monumentality, vivid polychromatic decoration.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
бдагоговеть перед, перенести столицу во Владимир,
проводить политику безжалостно и твердо, отдавать на
разграбление город, войти в историю России, религиозный и
культурный центр, военная и политическая мощь, отразить
вражескую армию, поставки зерна, это не требует доказательств,
интенсивное строительство, со стороны правителя, хочется
добавить, что, архитектурное наследие, в предшествующее
десятилетие, великие покровители, сохранились только
фрагменты, позолоченная листовая медь, яркое многоцветие,
впечатлить монументальностью, декоративная каменная кладка,
горельеф, тесанный известняк, центр крупного строения,
укрепление города, ворота крепости.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
a) The enigma is great in the case of the Dormition Cathedral.
b) The appearance of the Dormition Cathedral would surely have
been spectacular.
c) the Golden Gates of Vladimir
121
V. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
authority, pursued, tributaries, authority, colonized, century,
power, forests, bishops, discovered, dedicated, churches, rulers,
principality, uprising, founder, extant, acquired
While Novgorod and Pskov …. their commercial interests and the
…. of Kiev eroded under the impact of princely feuds, a third center of
…. arose in Russia, to the northeast, in the upper reaches of the Volga
River and its …. . Settled as early as the first century by Finno-Ugric
tribes, these lands were …. during the tenth …. by Slavs from the west,
drawn to the rich …. and tillable land. During the eleventh …. , Kievan
princes extended their …. over the northeast, and strengthened
settlements such as Rostov and Suzdal, which formed a major …. .
Kiev's control proved tenuformed a major …. . Kiev's control proved
tenuous, however. In 1071, one of Rostov's first …. was killed in yet
another pagan …., and the area underwent the constant threat of raids
by Volga Bulgars. At the turn of the eleventh …. , the town of Suzdal
was fortified and …. its own prince. Suzdal was soon overshadowed by
the …. of Vladimir, established in 1108 a few miles south of Suzdal, on
the Kliazma River. Its …. , Vladimir Monomakh, was the last of Kiev's
great …. . Monomakh is recorded in the chronicles as having built in
Vladimir a church …. to the Savior. Its site has not been …., but the
foundation of his earlier church …. to the Nativity of the Mother of God
has been analyzed at the site of the …. Suzdal Cathedral of the Nativity.
Both of these …. would most likely have been built of brick.
VI. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
Monomakh's death …. 1125 led …. competition …. succession ….
the throne …. Kiev …. his numerous sons, including the heir ….
Suzdalia, Iurii Dolgorukii. Iurii finally gained Kiev shortly …. his
death, in 1157, but …. the protracted struggle, he built much ….
Vladimir, center …. his principality, and established a number ….
settlements …. Suzdalia – …. them a small fortified post called
Moscow, …. the river …. which it was located. Information …. the
chronicles indicates that his major building activity occurred …. the
1150s, as though he had despaired …. ever gaining Kiev and wished to
create an architectural legacy …. Suzdalia …. the end …. his life.
Although the white limestone Church …. St. George (c. 1157)
and palace built …. Iurii Dolgorukii in Vladimir are not extant, two ….
122
his churches provide early examples …. an architectural style that
would soon lead …. an extraordinary series …. monuments. The Church
…. Sts. Boris and Gleb, …. Suzdal, has been severely altered …. its
construction …. 1152, particularly …. renovations …. the 1660s and
…. 1780. Nonetheless, the walls …. the central and western bays ….
the structure are well preserved and illustrate the basic construction
technique that would apply …. churches …. the Vladimir-Suzdal area
…. the next eight decades. The walls are faced …. limestone ashlar ….
both interior and exterior, …. which is a rubble core.
VII. Translate the following text:
An arcade frieze decorates the facades at midpoint, above which
the surface of the bay is recessed within a profiled arch that culminates
in zakomary. The present roof obscures the original gable line, which
followed the vaulting of the interior, but it has been relatively easy to
reconstruct the initial form of the church, with its cuboid cross-inscribed
plan. The small choir gallery was apparently reached by a wooden
staircase, yet the uncertainty of its relation to the structure reveals a
problem typical of twelfth-century limestone churches.
The Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior at PereslavlZalesskii (1152–7) has retained most of its original structure. Although
it lacks the harmony of proportions that characterizes later churches
built by Iurii Dolgorukii's sons, the plan is finely calculated (particularly
in the main vaulting arches) and demonstrates the facility with which
limestone ashlar was used as the basic structural material. No other area
of Rus produced cut stonework of such precision for structural purposes,
and the reasons for its sudden appearance in Suzdalia are still
unresolved.
As at Kideksha, the upper bays of the walls are recessed, but the
facades are devoid of decoration, except for an ornamental frieze on the
apse and drum. Access to the choir gallery presumably occurred through
an opening in a bay of the north facade, linked by a wooden passageway
to the princely residence–also of wood. Structural evidence suggests
that the original roofing material consisted of wooden shingles. The
Cathedral of the Transfiguration provides the basic design for all but
one of Suzdalia's major twelfth-century churches: a cross-domed plan,
with a triple apse and four piers supporting a single cupola. Within a
year of its completion, Iurii's son Andrei Bogoliubskii had
commissioned the Cathedral of the Dormition, the first of the great
churches in Vladimir.
VIII. Translate the following text:
123
Наиболее крупным объектом строительства был городской
храм Владимира – Успенский собор, – возведенный в 1158 –
1160 гг. В конце XII в. собор был перестроен и значительно
расширен, однако его первоначальное ядро легко выделить в ныне
существующем сооружении. Даже наружная обработка стен
хорошо заметна внутри боковых членений более позднего собора.
Точно так же и своды первоначальной части хорошо видны сверху,
поскольку расположены несколько выше пристроенных позднее
сводов. Сохраняя общую схему сложившегося в Киеве
одноглавого шестистолпного храма, Успенский собор очень
существенно отличается от киевских памятников. Это сказывается
не только в технике – кирпичной в Киеве и белокаменной во
Владимире, – но и во всем облике здания. Заметно отличается
Успенский собор и от более ранних памятников этой же
территории – от церквей в Переславле-Залесском и Кидекше,
несмотря на то что в данном случае техника идентична. Роскошные
резные перспективные порталы, аркатурно-колончатый пояс,
проходящий по середине высоты стен, членящие стены
сложнопрофилированные пилястры с колонками, имеющие базы и
резные капители, профилированный цоколь, обходящий вокруг
всего здания, – вот основные декоративные элементы храма. К
этому следует добавить стройные пропорции и крупные размеры,
делающие собор величественным и торжественным. В интерьере
до настоящего времени сохранились значительные участки древней
фресковой росписи.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
venerate – благоговеть (перед
кем-л.), чтить Syn: revere
bluff – крутой обрыв, утес;
отвесный берег Syn: cliff
reign
–
правление,
царствование, верховная власть
in the reign of smb. – в
царствование
кого-л.
Syn:
kingdom, sovereignty
ruthlessly – безжалостно,
беспощадно,
жестоко.
Syn:
inexorably
tenacity
–
упорство,
стойкость; to demonstrate / display
/ show tenacity – проявить силу
воли; 3) вязкость, липкость; 4)
крепость,
прочность.
Syn:
durability, strength
aggrandizement
–
1)
увеличение;
возрастание,
расширение (власти, престижа).
Syn: rise, increase; 2) повышение,
карьера
intention
–
намерение,
стремление. Syn: design, purpose,
intent, aim, goal
sack – 1) отдавать на
разграбление
(побежденный
124
город солдатам победившей
армии ) 2) грабить; воровать,
расхищать. Syn: strip, plunder,
despoil
devastation – опустошение;
разорение (страны, земли); to
cause devastation – опустошить;
complete, total, utter devastation –
полное разорение. Syn: ruin
repulse – 1) отражение to
suffer a repulse – терпеть
поражение. Syn: rebuff; 2) отказ;
непринятие. Syn: denial, rejection;
2. 1) а) отбивать (атаку)
commemorate – 1) почтить
память (в письменном обращении
или каким-либо другим образом
); 2) отмечать, праздновать. Syn:
celebrate
chronicle
–
хроника;
летопись; to keep a chronicle –
вести летопись. Syn: history
grain – а) зерно; хлебные
злаки
supply
–
снабжение,
поставкаж to bring up, provide
supplies – обеспечить снабжение,
обеспечить поставки
succeed – 1) следовать за чемл.,
кем-л.;
сменять;
2)
наследовать, быть преемником
(to); to succeed to the throne –
унаследовать трон, корону; 3)
достигать цели, преуспевать (in);
иметь успех; to succeed in doing
smth. – преуспеть в какой-л.
деятельности
resident – 1) постоянно
проживающее лицо; 2) житель
axiomatic – не требующий
доказательства
ruler – властелин, правитель.
Syn: regent
tempt
–
искушать;
прельщать,
привлекать,
притягивать.
Syn:
charm,
captivate, allure. Ant: discourage,
dissuade
blood-thirsty – кровожадный.
Syn: bloodthirsty
fraction – обломок, кусок;
фрагмент. Syn: fragment
survive
–
сохранить,
выдержать, пережить, перенести
elongated – продолговатый;
удлиненный,
вытянутый,
продолженный Syn: oblong
high-relief – горельеф. Syn:
alto-relievo
ashlar – 1) тесаный камень
(использующийся для облицовки
зданий, парапетов); 2) кладка из
тёсаного камня. Syn: ashler
stonework – каменная кладка;
каменные работы; sculptured
stonework – фигурная каменная
кладка;
rough
stone-work
resembling or imitating natural
rocks
–
грубая
кладка,
напоминающая
природный
камень. Syn: masonry
copper sheet – листовая медь
arcade – аркада; сводчатая
галерея
frieze – фриз; бордюр. Syn:
border
viewer
–
зритель,
наблюдатель,
созерцатель;
свидетель Syn: beholder, observer,
spectator
vivid – яркий. Syn: bright,
blazing
polychromatic
–
полихроматический,
многоцветный Syn: multicoloured
nucleus – ядро; центр. Syn:
core, seed, nub, heart, kernel, center,
pith
fortification
–
1)
а)
фортификация, укрепление; б)
искусство
построения
укреплений; 2) укрепления. Syn:
wall, earthwork, tower
125
fortress – крепость; to besiege
a fortress – осаждать крепость; an
impregnable
fortress
–
неприступная крепость; ость; a
fortress falls, surrenders – крепость
сдается; a fortress holds out –
крепость не сдается
126
UNIT V
THE PALACE ENSEMBLE AT BOGOLIUBOVO
The greatest part of Andrei Bogoliubskii's architectural legacy
occurred not in Vladimir itself, but in Bogoliubovo, a special settlement
built between 1158 and 1165 and located some 10 kilometers to the east
of Vladimir. The center of Bogoliubovo consisted of a walled
compound with the princely residence and limestone cathedral
dedicated to the Nativity of the Virgin, as well as one – or perhaps two
–additional churches. The cathedral was a cuboid structure similar in
form to those built by Iurii Dolgorukii, but more elaborately decorated
with carved masks, an arcade frieze at the midpoint of the facades, and
carved capitals for the columns (not the usual cruciform piers) at the
central crossing. The choir gallery was reached through a passageway
leading directly to the palace, situated to the north, although it would
appear that there was a second entrance from a free-standing tower at
the southwest corner.
The lavish decoration of the Cathedral of the Nativity was an object
of wonder commented upon in the sparse chronicle entries:
"[Bogoliubskii] adorned it with a luster that could not be looked upon,
for all the church was of gold. ... He adorned it with precious icons, with
gold and valuable stones, with a priceless pearl of great size, with
various ornaments of jasper, and many precious things with carved
patterns." The repeated references to gold (sheets of gilded copper)
remind of the decoration of the Dormition Cathedral in Vladimir and
suggest the forthright nature of the grand prince's taste for extravagant
architectural display.
There is no reliable evidence as to the appearance of the palace,
apart from the fact that it was built of stone, as were the other buildings
of the compound – a notable exception to the preference for wood in the
building of dwellings – even on a grand scale –in medieval Russia. The
surviving stairtower and passageway that linked the palace and church
provide another glimpse of what appear to be borrowings from western
medieval architecture, particularly in the arcade band and the columns
of the north arch. It was on this site, in the summer of 1174, that Andrei
met his death, at the hands of conspirators exasperated by his strong
temper and autocratic rule. Having stabbed the prince and left him for
dead, the assassins heard groans from the staircase in the passageway,
where they finally delivered the coup de grace and then proceeded to
ransack the palace. Many of the local inhabitants, indifferent to princely
feuds and their ruler's fate, took part in the pillage. Two days later, a
Kievan recovered the corpse and placed in on the porch of Cathedral of
127
the Nativity of the Virgin; not until 6 days after the murder did a
delegation from Vladimir retrieve the body for burial in the city.
The Bogoliubovo compound was converted into a monastery in the
thirteenth century, and in 1702, Andrei Bogoliubskii was canonized.
Although much damaged in the Mongol devastation of Suzdalia in
1238, many of the ancillary structures remained until the latter part of
the eighteenth century, when "improvements" were made to the
monastery grounds. Andrei's elevation to sainthood undoubtedly
hastened the destruction of his Bogoliubovo. As for the Cathedral of the
Nativity, an inept attempt to enlarge the windows at the turn of the
eighteenth century upset the delicate structural balance and led to the
collapse of the church in 1723. Fragments of the limestone carvings
were placed on the walls of the church that now stands on the site.
Yet the vigorous building campaign that Andrei Bogoliubskii
initiated has not been entirely effaced or rebuilt over the centuries.
Indeed, the one church from his reign that has survived in something
like its original form, the Church of the Intercession on the River Nerl,
is arguably the most perfect thing created by medieval Russian
architecture. Located a short distance from the palace at Bogoliubovo,
the church honors the holy festival of the Intercession of the Virgin,
derived from a Byzantine miracle, but elevated to a major religious
holiday by Andrei. Built within one construction season in 1165 or
1166, the church follows the cross-inscribed design, with four piers, a
single dome, and a tripartite facade culminating in zakomary. Yet subtle
modifications in design and articulation create a sense of proportional
harmony unsurpassed in medieval Russian architecture.
This mastery over material and form is expressed most clearly in
the unknown architect's understanding of the vertical principle in the
design of the Russian cruciform church. The architect was aided by the
choice of site – and a very unlikely one, on low, marshy ground near the
confluence of the Kliazma and Nerl rivers. On this unpromising
location, exposed to spring floods as high as 4 meters, the builders
fashioned an artificial hill, paved with stone, that not only protected the
church from high water and provided a buttress for the deep foundation
walls (5 meters), but also served as the first stage of the visual ascent.
In its original form, the structure appears to have been buttressed by a
one-story gallery on the north, west, and south facades. In addition, the
gallery provided access to the choir gallery through an entryway still
visible on the upper level of the south facade.
From its well-engineered and durable foundation, the structure
rises in two tiers: a lower story of thick walls, culminating in an arcade
band; and the upper-facade panels, deeply recessed within the three bays
128
of each wall. The vertical thrust, defined by the proportions of the
building, is reinforced by the receding surface of the walls, and by a
slight calculated lean inward, which creates a foreshortened effect. The
perspective arches of the portals define a focal point at the base of the
structure, and continuity between the two levels is maintained by
pilasters, accentuated by attached columns ascending from plinth to
zakomary. This rhythm, established by the arched bays, is repeated in
the arcade strip and in the narrow stepped windows of the upper tier.
The ascent is completed by the drum, whose eight recessed windows
echo those of the walls and whose placement seems in perfect balance
with the rest of the structure. Although the onion dome is a nineteenthcentury distortion and the current roofline obscures the base of the
cupola as well as the relation between the zakomary and the drum, the
builders' original design is still clearly in view. The vertical lines of the
Church of the Intercession are determined by an unusual proportional
system among the facade bays. A simple method of expressing the
proportions is provided by the number of arches, in the blind arcade,
contained within each bay: on the north and south facades, the numbers
(counting from the east) are three, six, and five; on the west facade, four,
six, and four. Each of the three facades contains fourteen arches of equal
width and each central bay – the extension of the axes of the church –
contains six arches.
The complexity of the arrangement arises from the spacing of the
side bays along the north and south facades. The need to extend the west
end of the church in order to accommodate the congregation was usually
accomplished by adding another bay, or simply by lengthening the west
bay. By contrast, the Church of the Intercession obtains the additional
space in the west by shifting the central crossing slightly to the east – as
indicated by the number of arches in the east and west bays. On the east
end of the church, the apses rise to the archivolt of the zakomary and
display the same sense of proportion that characterizes the central
structure.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Where did Andrei Bogoliubskii's architectural legacy occur?
What did the center of Bogoliubovo consist of? What kind of structure
was the cathedral? Where was the second entrance?
2. How was the lavish decoration of the Cathedral of the Nativity
commented upon? What do the repeated references to gold (sheets of
129
gilded copper) remind of? Is there any reliable evidence of the palace?
What was it built of? What do surviving stairtower and passageway
provide? What happened to Andrei in the summer of 1174? Where did
Andrei meet his coup de grace?
3. What hastened the destruction of Bogoliubovo? What upset the
delicate structural balance and led to the collapse of the church in 1723?
4. What church has survived in something like its original form?
What does the church honor? How was the architect aided by the choice
of site? What did the gallery provide access to?
5. What is the vertical thrust reinforced by? What do the perspective
arches of the portals define? What is the rhythm, established by the
arched bays, repeated in? What are the vertical lines of the Church of
the Intercession determined by?
6. What does the complexity of the arrangement arise from?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
a walled compound, elaborately decorated, carved masks, at the
midpoint of the facades, a cuboid structure, carved capitals, a
passageway, a free-standing tower, cruciform piers, the sparse
chronicle entries, to adorn with, extravagant architectural, taste for,
valuable stones, priceless pearl, ornaments of jasper, the arcade
band, on this site, autocratic rule, princely feuds, coup de grace, to
ransack the palace, the ancillary structures, an inept attempt,
monastery grounds, the cross-inscribed design, cruciform church, the
visual ascent, to accommodate the congregation, in two tiers, the
axes of the church, to be buttressed, the upper-facade panels, lean
inward, the arcade strip.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
отдельно стоящая башня, резная капитель, детально
декорированный, резная маска, крестообразные пилястры,
добраться по переходу, украшать дорогими иконами, напоминать
о, вкус к, драгоценные камни, бесценные жемчужины, украшения
из яшмы, хоры, аркатурный пояс, на этом месте, надежные
показания/доказательства, разместить прихожан, участвовать в
грабеже, автократическое правление, феодальные распри, из
завершающий смертельный удар, разграбить дворец, ось церкви,
создавать эффект укороченности, в два яруса, служебные
помещения, монастырская земля, византийское чудо.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
130
a) fragments of the limestone carvings;
b) a Byzantine miracle;
c) the ascent is completed by the drum.
V. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
elegance, frieze, sculptural, sculptural, churche(s), structure,
limestone, building, carved, masters, portals, figures, style,
general, stylized, monument
The …. of the design brings to a culmination the architectural
principles first stated in the simpler …. from the reign of Iurii
Dolgorukii, with their two-tiered …., sharply molded facades, and
splayed window niches. Its …. decoration may also have had precedents
in Suzdalia, but the …. of the Intercession is the earliest surviving ….
to display an iconographic message in stone. The white …. quarried in
the area provided a durable material suitable for carving, yet apart form
the arcade …. at Pereslavl-Zalesskii, the …. possibilities of stone had
not been exploited before the …. of the Cathedral of the Dormition in
Vladimir, which contained a few …. figures and columns. The rapid
development of this form of exterior ornamentation at Andrei's
Bogoliubovo …. and the appearance of perspective portals suggest the
participation of foreign …. familiar with the Romanesque …. in central
Europe. The variety of carvings can be divided into two …. categories
– both of which are highly unusual in medieval Rus: the …. foliated
patterns on the archivolts of the …. and on the capitals of the engaged
columns, and the bestial and human …. on the facades.
VI. Insert the missing articles. Render the text into English:
…. dominant element in …. latter group is …. high-relief carving
…. King David, placed …. each …. the central zakomary. Enthroned,
…. the right hand raised …. blessing and …. left holding the Psalter,
David is flanked by two birds and two lions, signifying both submission
and protection. …. prominence allotted David suggests various
interpretations: as God's anointed, …. king of Judah, he represents ….
warrior-leader who defeated his enemies and united …. various factions
within his kingdom – deeds Andrei would have compared to his own
frequent campaigns to consolidate power within Rus and to defeat such
external enemies as …. Volga Bulgars. Built to commemorate ….
victory over …. Bulgars, …. church testifies to …. power of divine
intercession invoked in …. Psalms. More precisely, however, …. name
of …. church honors …. intercession of …. Virgin, whose protection is
extended to …. people of Vladimir and their just, God-fearing ruler. No
131
representation of Mary appears on …. Church of the Intercession, but
…. concept of feminine protection is expressed in …. twenty high-relief
masks of braided maidens, placed slightly below …. zakomary. Striking
in their stylized primitive form, …. masks suggest not only ….
exaltation of …. feminine in Orthodox religious art, but also ….
indigenous celebration of fertility and …. reverence for …. Russian
earth as …. female being.
VII. Translate the following text:
Although much of the carving was obscured by the construction of
the exterior gallery, a variety of forms proliferated on the consoles
supporting the columns of the arcade band – female masks, lion faces,
leopards, pig snouts, griffins, and other chimeras. These figures were
undoubtedly drawn from the Physiologus, a work that had considerable
impact on architectural sculpture and manuscript art throughout
medieval Europe one of the secular texts imported to Rus from
Byzantium. The appeal of the Physiologus derived from its blending of
popular tales of nature with an allegorical, Christian interpretation of
the beasts depicted therein. Thus, the carvings on the surface of the
church had a symbolic significance comprehensible to the prince and at
least a part of his retinue. But however extensive the symbolic system,
the dominant figure was that of David, both in terms of its position at
the center of the main zakomary and as the iconic image of the ruler.
Although written sources refer to Andrei as a "second Solomon", it is
probable that Andrei intended himself to be compared to King David, a
strong ruler and victorious warrior. In endeavoring to unite the Russian
lands around a new center of power in the northeast, Andrei had clearly
been aware of the symbolic uses of architecture. He intended his
churches to rival those of Kiev.
At the same time, Andrei Bogoliubskii's work represents a
disavowal of much in Kievan culture and architecture. Having left Kiev
in 1155 and having rejected his father's political goal of ruling from
Kiev, Andrei looked elsewhere for the means to create a new princely
architecture. It seems likely that he found in central Europe a source of
builders familiar with precise stonework and trained in a culture that
encouraged the use of statuary in church decoration in contrast to the
Byzantine tradition, accepted elsewhere in Rus, which rejected such
uses. To be sure, the interior of the Church of the Intercession was in
the usual Russian manner covered with frescoes. But Andrei had also
achieved the means of conveying to all who passed his churches – and
not just to those who entered – the images of a stone poem in praise of
his power and the glory of what he had created.
VIII. Translate the following text:
132
В пригородной княжеской резиденции – городке Боголюбово –
был создан великолепный архитектурный ансамбль. Основные его
части – собор Рождества Богородицы и дворец, соединенные
между собой по второму этажу переходом; в среднюю часть
перехода включена лестничная башня. На вымощенной
каменными плитами площади перед собором стоял киворий – сень
над водосвятной чашей. В настоящее время от ансамбля
полностью сохранились лишь лестничная башня и часть перехода
между нею и собором. В результате раскопок были обнаружены
остатки стен собора, на которые в XVIII в. поставили новую
церковь. Основания кивория и перехода от башни к дворцу также
были обнаружены сам же дворец был полностью уничтожен более
поздним зданием. Раскопки ансамбля и исследование
сохранившихся
частей
дают
возможность
графически
реконструировать его первоначальный облик.
Центром ансамбля являлся собор. Он во многом повторял
владимирский Успенский собор, хотя был не шести-, а
четырехстолпным
и
меньшим
по
величине.
Вместо
крестообразных в плане подкупольных столбов внутри собора
стояли
четыре
мощные
круглые
колонны,
имевшие
профилированные базы и, судя по описаниям, резные капители.
Письменные источники сообщают о необыкновенной роскоши
отделки здания. Сейчас об этом свидетельствуют лишь следы
медных плит, устилавших пол, отверстия от гвоздиков, которыми
прибивали листы золоченой меди, украшавшей западный портал.
Открытые в результате раскопок нижние части перспективных
порталов демонстрируют великолепную белокаменную резьбу. На
башне и на арочном переходе сохранился аркатурно-колончатый
пояс.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
cuboid – кубовидная глыба.
Syn: a cuboidal lump
capital – капитель
elaborate – 1) а) тщательно,
детально
разработанный;
продуманный;
законченный;
доскональный.
Syn:
careful,
painstaking. Syn: elaborated
cruciform – крестообразный.
Syn: cruciate
sparse
–
разбросанный,
редкий. Syn: scanty
entries – записи (в летописи)
adorn – украшать (with – чемл. ); быть украшением. Syn:
decorate,
embellish,
beautify,
ornament
133
extravagant – расточительный
priceless
–
бесценный;
неоценимый. Syn: invaluable,
beloved, inestimable
jasper – яшма
palace – дворец
site – площадка, место
reliable evidence – надежные
показания/доказательства
autocratic
–
1)
автократический,
самодержавный. Syn: absolute ,
authoritarian; 2) диктаторский,
деспотический. Syn: despotic,
dictatorial, tyrannical
coup de grace – из
завершающий смертельный удар
ransack – ограбить
retrieve – найти, принести,
доставить
ancillary – вспомогательный,
добавочный. Syn: auxiliary
inept – несвоевременный,
неуместный ( at, in ) he has used
inept words – он говорил невпопад
(букв.: использовал неправильные
слова) Syn: inappropriate
efface
–
стирать,
вычеркивать,
удалять,
отбрасывать; изглаживать – efface
oneself. Syn: erase
buttress – 1) контрфорс;
подпор(к)а, устой; бык. Syn:
abutment, pier; опора, поддержка;
2) подпирать, поддерживать,
усиливать,
укреплять
(подпорами, контрфорсами). Syn:
sustain, support. Syn: buttress up,
support, strengthen
durable – 1) надежный,
прочный, стойкий, крепкий; 2)
длительный,
долговременный,
долговечный; Syn: permanent,
long, protracted; 3) длительного
пользования
tier – ряд; ярус. The seating is
arranged in tiers. – Места
располагаются ярусами.
foreshorten – 1) рисовать или
чертить в перспективе или
ракурсе; 2) укорачивать. Syn:
abridge , shorten
accommodate – вмещать
(людей)
congregation
–
1)
конгрегация;
религиозное
братство; 2) прихожане, паства
slightly – мало, незначительно,
несущественно, немного, слегка;
еле-еле. Syn: somewhat
134
UNIT VI
ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT
IN THE REIGN OF VSEVOLOD III
The period following Andrei Bogoliubskii's assassination in 1174
was marked by the usual struggle among contenders for power over
Suzdalia. By 1177, the issue had been resolved in favor of Vsevolod
Iurevich, half-brother of Andrei, who in 1162 had driven Vsevolod's
mother, Elena, and her sons into exile in Constantinople. Vsevolod's
return to Vladimir ensured not only the continuation of the Monomakh
princely line as the dominant power in the eastern lands of Rus, but also
a renewal of the creative spirit of Greek art in medieval Russian
architecture. The Cathedral of St. Dmitrii, with its frescoes and
elaborate carving, provides ample testimony to the influence of Greek
culture during the reign of Vsevolod.
Furthermore, Vsevolod would come to understand, no less than
Andrei, the uses of architecture in projecting the authority of the prince.
He ruled at a time of able and ambitious rival princes, including
Sviatoslav Vsevolodovich of Chernigov; Riurik Rostislavich, grand
prince of western Rus; and his brother, David Rostislavich of Smolensk.
These princes actively supported the construction of large masonry
churches, and one can assume that they did so not only as an expression
of religious devotion and support for the Orthodox Church, but also as
a statement of the power and wealth that they commanded.
Not until 1185, however, did Vsevolod III – known as "Great Nest"
for the number of his male progeny – turn his attention to a major building
campaign. The immediate cause was a fire that destroyed much of
Vladimir and severely damaged the Dormition Cathedral. Vsevolod's
builders ingeniously retained the walls of the earlier structure, weakened
by fire, as the core of the cathedral, and added another aisle on each side.
The bays of the now interior walls were widened to create piers (bolstered
by pylons), and the choir gallery was extended over cross vaults to the
west aisle. On the east, the apsidal structure was completely rebuilt, with
a substantial increase in depth. On the other facades, the new walls were
raised 2 stories, but not to the full height of the original structure. The
relation between the old and the new was thus clearly defined in the
structure, and the additional aisles served as a form of gallery. Indeed, it
could be said that the rebuilding of the Dormition Cathedral achieved the
consummate integration of attached gallery and central structure that had
so often challenged medieval Russian architects.
The exterior walls are marked at midlevel by an arcade frieze but
relatively little carved ornament. Nonetheless, the extant console blocks
from Vsevolod's time demonstrate the preservation of the technique, if
135
not the scale, of carving introduced 20 years earlier by Andrei
Bogoliubskii's Romanesque masters. In a broader sense, the walls
themselves possess a sculpted quality, with the recessed upper bays
delineated by attached columns, and the festive row of zakomary
outlined in decorative metalwork. The most spectacular change in the
design of the new cathedral consisted of four additional cupolas, placed
over bays to the north and south of the corners of Andrei's original
structure. Again, Vsevolod's builders demonstrated remarkable
assurance in integrating the two structural layers. As before, the walls
of the drums were sheathed in gilded copper; and although the basic
roofing material was sheet lead, there is evidence that the large central
cupola was also covered with gilded copper.
The rebuilding of the Cathedral of the Dormition produced one of
the largest masonry structures in medieval Rus. As the center of
religious authority in the large domains of Suzdalia, the cathedral also
represented a monument to Vsevolod's power and to the cultural
renaissance that it fostered. The Dormition Cathedral was followed in
1192–6 by a stone church with one dome and four piers for the
Monastery of the Nativity of the Virgin in Vladimir. Although not as
large as the Dormition Cathedral, it apparently possessed the same
monumental form, with little ornamental carving apart from the
perspective portals. Long in ruins by the middle of the nineteenth
century, the church was razed and a copy of what was presumed to be
the original form was rebuilt on the site only to be destroyed in the
1930s.
In view of the austerity of sculpted ornament on Vsevolod's earlier
churches, the profusion of stone sculpture for his palace church, dedicated
to St. Demetrius of Salonika, must be attributed to its role as a statement
of princely authority. Built between 1193 and 1197, the church is similar
in plan to the cuboid structure of the Bogoliubovo churches, with an
arcade frieze separating two tiers, the upper of which is covered in carved
limestone. Although Vsevolod's sculptors undoubtedly drew on motifs
and techniques developed three decades earlier at Bogoliubovo, there is
no clear source for the extraordinary iconographic exercise of the facades
of the Cathedral of St. Dmitrii. The western medieval elements introduced
in Bogoliubskii's churches are still in evidence, but some have argued in
favor of borrowings from Balkan churches or from the carved tufa facades
of Armenian churches.
No reliable evidence exists for any one theory of derivation, and in
view of the transience of motifs and craftsmen – from Byzantium, the
Balkans, central Europe, and, possibly, the Caucasus – it is likely that
Vsevolod's artisans adapted and brilliantly combined elements from
136
several sources. As Meyer Schapiro has noted, Romanesque art is
distinguished by its eclectic use of elements from widely diverse
sources: "There is in western art from the seventh to the thirteenth
centuries an immense receptivity matched in few cultures before that
time or even later; early Christian, Byzantine, Sassanian, Coptic, Syrian,
Roman, Moslem, Celtic, and pagan Germanic forms were borrowed
then, often without regard to their context and meaning." The late
twelfth-century Suzdalian churches exhibit the same receptivity and
pose the same challenges in determining provenance and derivation.
Apart from the issue of provenance, there is the iconographic
question posed by the carvings, whose order has been partially preserved
despite reconstruction and renovation over a period of eight centuries –
the most extensive being a "restoration" begun in 1832. Like the Church
of the Intercession on the Nerl, St. Dmitrii was originally constructed with
an exterior gallery that gave access to the choir gallery within. The
removal of this attached structure in the 1830s enhanced the perception
of the exterior carving, but also introduced a rearrangment of some of the
carved blocks of the facade. Nonetheless, the extant original carvings on
the exterior display a system of religious, secular, and ornamental motifs
that comprise a message in stone. Furthermore, it is likely that a number
of the reconstructed elements would have conformed to the iconographic
function of the original carvings they replaced.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What was the period following Andrei Bogoliubskii's
assassination marked by? What would Vsevolod come to understand,
no less than Andrei? At what time did Vsevolod rule? What did the
princes actively support?
2. When did Vsevolod III turn his attention to a major building
campaign? What was the immediate cause for this? How was the church
rebuilt?
3. What did the most spectacular change in the design of the new
cathedral consist of? What did Vsevolod's builders demonstrate?
4. What represented a monument to Vsevolod's power and to the
cultural renaissance?
5. What must be attributed to its role as a statement of princely
authority? Is there any clear source for the extraordinary iconographic
exercise of the facades of the Cathedral of St. Dmitrii? What did
Vsevolod's artisans adapt and brilliantly combine?
137
6. What question is being posed apart from the issue of provenance?
How was St. Dmitrii originally constructed?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
struggle among contenders, to provide ample testimony, ambitious
rival princes, an expression of religious devotion, the immediate cause,
ingeniously, to be bolstered by pylons, a substantial increase in depth,
the consummate integration, the preservation of the technique, a
sculpted quality, attached columns, two structural layers, sheathed in
gilded copper, sheet lead, the large central cupola, a stone church, a
monument to, the cultural renaissance, a stone church, the monumental
form, the perspective portals, the perspective portals, the austerity of
sculpted ornament, carved limestone, in favor of, carved tufa facades,
the transience of motifs, ornamental motifs, a message in stone
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
русские зодчие, листовой свинец, послание в камне, убийство,
княжеская династия, творческий дух, средневековая архитектура,
власть князя, выражение набожности, первоначальное строение,
примыкающая галерея, вырезанный орнамент, в более широком
смысле, сравнять с землей, эклектика, каменная церковь,
религиозная власть, культурное возрождение, резной известняк,
романское искусство, листовой свинец, сохранить стены, памятник
кому-либо, власть князя, очень сильно повреждена, примыкающая
галерея, резной орнамент.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
a) "Great Nest"
b) carved limestone
c) introduced a rearrangment of some of the carved blocks of the
façade
V. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
motifs, carvings, function, warrior, blocks, identified, medieval,
elements, masks, figures, legendary, authority, power, essential,
appear, figure, frieze, faith
Although certain of the plant and animal …. are associated with ….
widespread in Indo-European folklore – and, more directly, with the
Physiologus – their …. seems primarily decorative, the repetition of
138
highly stylized …. in an ordered setting. In addition, the chimeras and
…. – particularly evident in the console …. of the apse arcade – no doubt
play the thaumaturgic role allotted to them elsewhere in …. architecture,
including the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. The human ….,
however, have in many cases been …., and it is possible to read the
facades as a text on the prince whose …. is sanctioned by God, by the
Orthodox Church and its saints, and by …. rulers of antiquity.
Furthermore, the military component, so …. to the maintenance of
princely …., is emphasized not only in references to Alexander the
Great and King David, but also to the "…. saints," or Roman officers
martyred for their …. and canonized by the Orthodox Church. This
would not …. to be a setting congenial to the cult of Sts. Boris and Gleb,
yet they …. prominently in the arcade …. of the north facade.
VI. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
As …. the Church …. the Intercession, the central zakomara is
dominated …. King David, so inscribed …. the west facade. The
significance …. David has already been noted …. the discussion …. the
Church …. the Intercession …. the Nerl, but he is joined here …. the
figure of Solomon, law-giver, poet, and builder …. the Temple.
Surrounding David are creatures …. the sky and the earth, …. them
eagles, doves, peacocks, lions, panthers, pheasants, hares, as well as
fantastic creatures such as griffins, centaurs, and the basilisk. As
representations …. the wise and strong ruler, David and Solomon are
complemented …. mythological and historical figures such as Hercules
and Alexander the Great, the latter known …. the Alexander Romance,
a legendary version …. his deeds that circulated …. Byzantium and
medieval Europe. Indeed, the emphasis …. great rulers seems to
overshadow the image …. Christ, whose baptism …. the left zakomara
…. the south facade is balanced …. the apotheosis …. Alexander the
Great …. the right bay. …. symbolic terms, however, all …. the
previous rulers and mythological figures would have been interpreted
as part …. an elaborate system …. commentary …. the glory and
majesty …. Christ.
VII. Translate the following text:
The final link in the uppermost row of images occurs on the north
facade, of which the left zakomara displays a donor group containing
Vsevolod and his five sons, one of whom he holds on his knee. From
Alexander, David, Solomon, and Christ, the sense of authority
bequeathed to Vsevolod and to his sons is emphatically proclaimed.
Below the row of zakomary are further depictions of religious and
secular figures, each category of which contains emblems of physical
139
and martial prowess, as wrestlers and hunters are joined by galloping
warrior-saints such as Theodore Stratilates and George of Cappadocia.
Of the several half-figure portraits of ascetic saints and churchmen, only
a few can be dated to the twelfth century; the rest are replacements
sensitive to the style and identification of the originals.
Much the same can be said of the arcade frieze: It is possible that
only sixteen of the seventy carvings are original work, yet the overall
iconographic system has been maintained. The figures of the divinity,
of Mary, and of the evangelists on the west facade are seated, thus
indicating their regal position in the cosmic hierarchy. The south facade
contains statues of Russian princes, including Alexander Nevskii –
proof that later sculptors used the cathedral as a pantheon for the
portrayal of medieval Russian saints and leaders.
VIII. Translate the following text:
Сооружения, возведенные во Владимирском княжестве в
90-х гг. XII в., продолжают сложившиеся традиции 60-х годов.
Однако их строили уже другие мастера. Архитектурные формы
памятников свидетельствуют о том, новых приезжих зодчих не
приглашали. Вместе с тем архитектурный облик памятников 60-х
и 90-х гг. все же далеко не одинаков: все основные элементы
типологии, конструкции и даже архитектурных деталей остались
прежними, но характер зодчества изменился. На смену почти
скульптурной пластике фасадов и острой выразительности
пропорций приходит спокойная торжественная парадность. Даже
в тех случаях, когда храмы почти лишены скульптурного
убранства, они производят впечатление помпезности, не говоря
уже о роскошном убранстве Дмитриевского собора. Изменение
архитектурного образа памятников свидетельствует об усиление
мощи Владимира – стольного города одного из самых сильных
русских княжеств. Стала развиваться своеобразная владимиросуздальская архитектурная школа, которую несмотря на большое
количество романских элементов, нельзя рассматривать как
русский вариант романского стиля. Романские элементы не
определяют основной черты владимиро-суздальских памятников.
Прямая связь с плановой схемой киевских памятников, в первую
очередь с Успенским собором Печерского монастыря, сохраняется
в Северо-Восточной Руси в течение всего XII в.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions
140
WORDS TO REMEMBER
ingenious – изобретательный,
находчивый, искусный (о людях).
Syn: skilful, creative, inventive,
resourceful
assassination – политическое
убийство; террористический акт
contender
–
противник,
соперник,
конкурент.
Syn:
combatant, rival, competitor
ample
–
богатый,
изобильный, обильный Syn:
abundant, plentiful
devotion – 1) набожность,
религиозное рвение. Syn: piety,
devoutness; 2) богослужение,
религиозные обряды, молитвы.
Syn: worship
testimony – свидетельское
показание (against; for, on behalf
of); to give, bear testimony – давать
показания; to cite testimony –
ссылаться на свидетельство; to
contradict testimony – опровергать
показания; to discount testimony –
не принимать показания в расче;т
to refute testimony – опровергать
показания; to recant (one's)
testimony
–
отрекаться,
отказываться от показаний; to
repudiate (one's) testimony –
отрекаться, отказываться
от
показаний; to retract (one's)
testimony
–
отрекаться,
отказываться от показаний
bolster – поддерживать,
подпирать
substantial
–
важный,
значимый,
значительный,
немаловажный, существенный,
большой
consummate – законченный,
совершенный,
превосходный.
Syn: complete, perfect
integration – объединение в
одно
целое;
интеграция;
укрупнение (into)
attached – прикрепленный к
стене
sculpt – ваять, лепить,
высекать. Syn: sculpture, chisel
sheathed – покрытый
sheet lead – листовой свинец
renaissance – возрождение,
оживление (наук, искусства,
литературы). Syn: renewal
foster
–
поощрять,
побуждать,
стимулировать;
одобрять. Syn: encourage
apparently – 1) очевидно,
несомненно. Syn: evidently; 2)
вероятно,
предположительно.
Syn: to all appearance
possess – владеть, иметь,
располагать. Syn: have, hold, keep,
own. Ant: borrow, dispossess,
relinquish
monumental
–
1)
монументальный,
величественный; значительный;
monumental
work
–
монументальная
работа;
monumental figure – значительная
фигура;
2)
огромный;
бросающийся в глаза
perspective – 1) перспектива,
ракурс, проекция; in perspective –
в перспективе; to look at, see smth.
in
perspective
–
смотреть
на/видеть что-л. в перспективе;
the proper, right, true perspective –
верная, правильная перспектива;
the
wrong
perspective
–
неправильная,
неверная
перспектива; 2) перспективный
perspective drawing – рисунок,
сделанный
по
законам
перспективы
141
raze
–
разрушать
до
основания; to raze to the ground –
сровнять с землей. Syn: destroy
tufa – туф; volcanic tufa –
вулканический туф; calcareous
tufa – известковый туф
derivation – происхождение,
источник, начало. Syn: origin,
descent
transience – быстротечность,
мимолетность. Syn: transiency,
fleetingness
craftsman – 1) мастер,
ремесленник;
2)
искусный
мастер,
квалифицированный
рабочий, специалист, умелец
artisan
–
кустарь,
мастеровой, ремесленник Syn:
artificer , handicraftsman
eclectic – 1) эклектичный,
эклектический; 2) эклектик
diverse – 1) иной, отличный
от
чего-л.,
различный;
несходный;
Syn:
different,
divergent; 2) многообразный,
различный,
разнообразный,
разный; разнотипный. Syn: several
receptivity
–
1)
восприимчивость,
чувствительность.
Syn:
susceptibility
provenance
–
происхождение,
источник;
doubtful
provenance
–
сомнительное
происхождение;
provenance of the manuscript –
происхождение
манускрипта.
Syn: spring , source
renovation – восстановление,
реконструкция Syn: renewal
enhance
–
увеличивать,
усиливать, улучшать (качество,
значимость, ценность, важность,
привлекательность чего-л.). Syn:
improve,
increase,
intensify,
strengthen, reinforce
secular – мирской, земной;
secular concerns – мирские
хлопоты;
б)
светский,
нецерковный 2) немонашеский,
не связанный монашеством
142
UNIT VII
EARLY THIRTEENTH-CENTURY CHURCHES
Following the construction of the Cathedral of St. Dmitrii, Vsevolod
commissioned the Dormition Cathedral of the Kniaginin Convent in
Vladimir; but although he continued to rule effectively throughout much
of Rus until his death in 1212, he added little to his architectural legacy
after the completion of St. Dmitrii. His sons, however, continued the
building of churches in their respective fiefdoms within the VladimirSuzdal principality. The most active builder among them was
Konstantin, Vsevolod's eldest son, who had ruled in Rostov since 1207.
In 1213, he commissioned the rebuilding of Andrei Bogoliuskii's
Dormition Cathedral in Rostov, and in 1215 and 1216, he undertook two
major projects in Iaroslavl: the Cathedral of the Dormition, begun in
1215 and consecrated in 1219; and the Transfiguration of the Savior at
the Spasskii (Savior) Monastery, built between 1216 and 1224. Both of
the Iaroslavl churches were of brick, with carved limestone details.
None of Konstantin's churches is extant and only a slightly better
fate occurred with the architectural work of his brother Iurii, with whom
he struggled for control of the northeast. For political reasons having to
do with the need to maintain the central authority of Vladimir Vsevolod
had appointed not Konstantin, but the next son, Iurii, to be his successor
as grand prince in Vladimir-Suzdal. Rivalry between the two increased
with Konstantin's establishment in 1214 of an independent episcopate
in Rostov, and in 1216, the two factions dashed in a battle on the river
Lipitsa. Although Iurii was supported by three of his brother-princes,
the victory went to Konstantin, who assumed power in Vladimir. Iurii
endured peaceful exile in Suzdal.
After Konstantin's death in 1219, Iurii returned to the capital,
Vladimir, but his long association with Suzdal led him to rebuild its
Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin.; and in 1222–5, the structure was
rebuilt in stone – primarily a light tufa, with limestone for the details.
Rubble from the plinthos walls of the Monomakh church was used for the
core infill. In 1445, the upper part of the cathedral collapsed. When rebuilt
in 1528–30, the remaining stone walls were lowered to the level of the
arcade frieze, and the upper structure and five drums were rebuilt of new
brick in the style of large Muscovite churches. Thus, the form of the
thirteenth-century cathedral must remain in part conjectural.
The Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal shows substantive differences
with earlier limestone churches in the area, in both plan and detail. The
main bay of each facade contains an enclosed extension with portal, thus
giving the plan a cruciform aspect.
The arcade band, which in earlier churches functioned as a support
143
for the drip cornice at midlevel, is here recessed into the wall surface,
thus assuming a decorative role. The surface iconography is limited to
female masks placed on the pilaster strips, with heraldic lions at the
corners and on certain of the capitals of the attached columns framing
the portals. This emphasis on the ornamental, as opposed to
iconographic, function in the carved stonework is particularly evident
in the elaborate strap motifs that cover the shafts of the attached columns
of both the arcade band and the portals, and the leaf detail of the capitals.
The primary iconographic setting of the cathedral was transferred from
the structural surface to the "Golden Doors" of the west portal,
tentatively dated 1233, and to a later pair in the south portal (c. 1248).
The scenes portrayed in the panels of both sets of doors were executed
by applying gold foil to copper plate; and although the combination of
biblical scenes, Byzantine theologians and saints venerated in Rus, and
heraldic beasts can yield ingenious religious and political
interpretations, the setting of the doors and the artistic medium create a
miniaturization of the iconographic message.
The full measure of the tendency toward ornamentalism was
revealed in the limestone cathedral constructed in Iurev-Polskoi by
Sviatoslav Vsevolodovich. Founded by Iurii Dolgorukii in the middle
of the twelfth century, the town had been included in the Vladimir
principality; but with the distribution of lands among Vsevolod's sons
in 1212, it became the seat of a small principality under Sviatoslav. In
1230, he commissioned a rebuilding of Dolgorukii's Church of St.
George (1152), and by 1234, the new cathedral was completed. When
the upper part collapsed in the 1460s, Ivan III, grand prince of Moscow,
commanded the architect Vasilii Ermolin to rebuild the structure as part
of a campaign to restore the luster of the ancient centers of the
Monomachus princes in Suzdalia, now absorbed into Muscovy .
In 1471, Ermolin completed his task – successfully, to judge by the
sound state of the structure, but with scant concern for the original
appearance. Perhaps there was little choice, because the original design,
which seems to have daringly elevated the large drum and cupola above
the main walls, may have been unstable. Furthermore, the patterned
carving that covered the facades could hardly have been recreated in the
absence of a concern for scholarly accuracy in such matters. It is
fortunate that many of the carved blocks were restored to the new walls
in whatever fashion, yet a number were used for the vaulting, or for
other hidden structural purposes. Much of the extant surface, therefore,
resembles carved chaos, with the exception of the relatively intact north
wall.
Although considerably smaller than the Nativity Cathedral in
144
Suzdal, the Cathedral of St. George is similar in its three extensions for
the portals of the north, west, and south facades. As at Suzdal, the west
extension is considerably larger: two stories, with an upper level
replacing the usual choir gallery within the main structure. Because it
lacked a choir gallery, the interior of this four-piered church was
unusually spacious and well illuminated by two tiers of unobstructed
windows. The interior walls would have had the usual complement of
frescoes, but the more striking iconographic display remained on the
exterior. It is thought that the Cathedral of St. George was built to
celebrate a major victory of Sviatoslav's forces over the Volga Bulgars
in 1220, and, consequently the biblical scenes, saints, and church fathers
that appear in relief carving signify the divine protection extended to the
prince and his people. Not only are there carved blocks with separate
motifs, but also at least three large stone icons composed of several
blocks. In addition, the surface was covered with a low-relief vegetal
pattern carved when the blocks were already in place. The dense
ornament covered all of the lower structure, including the attached
columns, so that architectural detail – clearly delineated at the St.
Dmitrii cathedral – is subsumed within a monolithic carved block.
The exuberance expressed in the form and decoration of the
Cathedral of St. George at Iurev-Polskoi is an indication of the relative
wealth of the grand principality of Vladimir in thirteenth-century Rus.
Despite the setback dealt to Iurii Vsevolodovich and his quest for
unification at the battle of Lipitsa, the principality continued to expand
and colonize in the east. After his brother Sviatoslav's victory over the
Volga Bulgars in 1220, Iurii founded Nizhnii Novgorod at the
confluence of the Oka and Volga rivers and built two limestone
churches in the new town: the Transfiguration of the Savior (1225) and
Archangel Michael (1227). The fragmentation of Rus did not, under
normal circumstances, mean a loss of vitality in the major principalities.
Circumstances, however, were rapidly changing.
TASKS
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What did Vsevolod add to his architectural legacy? What did his
sons continue to do? Who was the most active builder? What did he
commission to build and rebuild?
2. Is any of Konstantin's churches extant? Whom did Vsevolod
appoint his successor as grand prince in Vladimir-Suzdal? What was the
reason for this?
145
3. What did Vladimir Monomakh commission to build? What was
this church used for?
4. What does the Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal show? What is the
surface iconography limited to? Where is the emphasis on the
ornamental evident on? What did Ivan III, grand prince of Moscow,
command the architect Vasilii Ermolin to do?
5. What did Ermolin do in 1471? What choice did he have? How were
the scenes portrayed in the panels of both sets of doors executed?
6. Where was the full measure of the tendency toward
ornamentalism revealed? What does much of the extant surface
resemble? What Cathedral is the Cathedral of St. George similar to?
III. i. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
respective fiefdoms, to commission the rebuilding, to undertake two
major projects, peaceful exile, extant churches, carved limestone
details, a light tufa, rubble from the plinthos walls, arcade frieze,
conjectural, substantive differences, a cruciform aspect, the drip
cornice, the pilaster strips, heraldic lions, the attached columns, the
carved stonework, to frame the portals, the elaborate strap motifs, the
luster of the ancient centers, gold foil, copper plate, biblical scenes, the
setting of the doors, carved chaos, the extant surface, a four-piered, to
celebrate a victory over, biblical scenes, stone icons.
ii. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
преемник, независимая епархия, камня на камне не оставить,
листовое золото, основная идея, гравировальная доска, лепное
украшение или каменный карниз над дверью, епископальная
система церковного управления, зыбкие стены, с научной
точностью, блеск старинных центров, сцены на библейские
сюжеты, раздробленность страны, архитектурное наследие,
зодчий, при естественных обстоятельствах, примыкающие
колонны,
верхняя
часть
собора,
предположительный,
распределение земель среди, художественное средство, дошедшие
до наших дней церкви.
iii. Write a story of your own trying to use as many words and
expressions from task III as possible.
IV. Expand on the following:
a) An earlier church on the site, constructed around 1102 by
Vladimir Monomakh, had undergone a number of major repairs.
b) The original design may have been unstable.
c) The interior walls would have had the usual complement of
146
frescoes.
V. Fill in the blanks by inserting the words from the box. Translate
the text:
disorganized, winter, principality, approached, forces,
chronicle, leadership, princess, siege, slaughtered, hearkened,
arrows, town, youth, surrendered, commanded , group
A Mongol army of some 150,000 troops struck the …. Russian
principalities, first at the southern …. of Riazan in 1237, and then at
Vladimir in the … of 1237–8. According to the detailed account in the
Galician-Volhynian …., the catastrophe at Vladimir began with the
defeat of Russian …. and the death of Grand Prince Iurii. When the
Mongols …. the city and attempted by threats to gain the city without a
…., Bishop Mitrofan assumed …. and exorted the citizens to fight: The
people of the city …. to [his] words and began to fight with greater
strength. The Tatars battered the …. with their wall-battering
instruments; they released …. without number. Prince Vsevolod saw
that the battle waxed yet more fierce, took fright because of his …. , and
went forth from the town with his small …., carrying with him many
gifts. Batu, like a wild beast, did not spare his …., but ordered that he
be …. before him, and he slew all the town. When the bishop, with the
…. and her children, fled to the church, the godless one …. it to be set
on fire. Thus they …. their souls to God.
VI. Insert the missing prepositions. Render the text into English:
…. the death …. Grand Khan Ugedei, Batu withdrew …. Europe
…. the lower part …. the Volga, where he established his leadership ….
that part …. the Mongol empire known as the Golden Horde. …. their
capital …. Old Sarai, Batu and his successors exacted tribute …. Russia,
conferred the title …. Grand Prince …. Russian leaders whom they
favored, and made periodic raids to maintain their dominance. Russian
princes were frequently required to accompany Mongol punitive
expeditions …. rebellious Russian cities; the ambitious princes ….
Moscow were adept …. exploiting this role …. their own advantage.
The "Tatar Yoke," which was not formally abrogated …. 1480, led ….
a general cultural decline that was particularly noticeable ….
architecture, …. both technical and economic reasons. Brilliant as they
were …. military organization, the Mongols had little to offer the more
highly developed Russian culture, …. which they remained detached
…. both religion and secular custom. As the process …. assimilation
increased …. the fifteenth century, the direction was invariably …. the
acceptance …. the Mongols …. the Russian Orthodox faith and other
147
cultural traditions.
VII. Translate the following text:
In the period following the Mongol invasion, a modicum of
organized existence returned to the devastated towns of Sedalia, even
though the principality was exposed to frequent raids. In 1252, the title
of Grand Prince of Vladimir was bestowed by the Mongols on
Alexander Naskapi – prince of Novgorod and grandson of Vsevolod III
– whose policy of accommodation provided a fragile stability to the
area. However, the predominance of Vladimir in Russian affairs had
passed. In 1328, Moscow's Grand Prince Ivan I persuaded the
metropolitan of the Russian Church to transfer his residence from
Vladimir to Moscow; and by the end of his reign, Vladimir had been
incorporated into the Moscow principality. Throughout two centuries of
harsh Mongol rule, the Church provided the most important link with
the culture of early medieval Rus, and during the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, it continued to play a leading role in the resurgence
of the Russian culture, from Novgorod to Moscow.
The limestone monuments of Suzdalia would also provide a modelfor the halting recovery of masonry architecture in Muscovy during the
same period; but the genius of the early limestone churches eluded later
generations of builders, and Muscovite architecture developed in
directions little related to carved stone. Indeed, the architecture of the
Vladimir-Suzdal principalities before the Mongol conquest represents
an anomoly in the general development of Russian architecture, which
throughout its history emphasized the plasticity of brick, and only
occasionally resorted to the more precise discipline of stonework.
VIII. Translate the following text:
В начале XIII в. в Чернигове возвели Пятницкую церковь. Эта
небольшая четырехстолпная церковь имеет своеобразный план.
Прежде всего обращают внимание его нерасчлененность и
собранность: даже апсиды оконтурены плавной линией и
представляют собой не три полукружия, а одну трехлопастную
кривую. Пилястры сложные, с тонкими полуколонками, но очень
мягко профилированные. Церковь имеет чрезвычайно стройные
пропорции и нарядные, насыщенные кирпичной орнаментацией
фасады. Завершаются фасады не обычными закомарами; а одной
средней закомарой и двумя боковыми полузакомарами, благодаря
чему завершение каждого фасада приобретает трехлопастную
форму. Но самым замечательным в Пятницкой церкви является
конструкция ее завершения, ибо здесь полностью изменена
148
система сводов и арок, поддерживающих барабан главы. Арки,
соединяющие подкупольные столбы, расположены не ниже, как
обычно, а выше примыкающих к ним цилиндрических сводов.
Таким образом, была создана система повышающихся к центру
арок, отчего барабан сильно поднимался над сводами. Снаружи
повышенные подпружные арки образуют второй ярус закомар,
служащий как бы пьедесталом для барабана. А на самом барабане
размещен еще третий ярус закомар, на этот раз уже чисто
декоративных, т. е. по существу уже не закомар, а кокошников. Все
особенности Пятницкой церкви строго подчинены одной идее –
придать ей вертикальную устремленность и столпообразность.
IX. Find key sentences in the text. Discuss them with your classmates.
X. Summarize the text using the key sentences and expressions.
WORDS TO REMEMBER
fiefdom
–
феодальное
поместье, лен
consecrate – 1) посвящать
(что-л. кому-л. to). Syn: dedicate;
2) освящать, благословлять;
делать священным
fate – судьба; доля. Syn:
destiny, fortune, lot, portion, doom
faction – 1) а) фракция;
группировка; extremist faction –
экстремистская
группировка.
Syn: bloc, sect, splinter, group,
wing; б) клика. Syn: clique, cabal;
2) раздоры, распри; интриги. Syn:
dissension
episcopacy – 1) епископат,
епископальная
система
церковного управления. Syn:
bishopric, episcopate; 3) епископы.
Syn: episcopateextant
endure – 1) выдерживать
испытание
временем.
Syn:
undergo, bear, sustain; 2) длиться;
продолжаться, тянуться Syn:
persist, last, continue; 3) терпеть,
сносить. Syn: tolerate
extant – сохранившийся,
дошедший до наших дней,
существующий в настоящее
время, наличный. Syn: present
rubble – 1) а) бут, бутовый
камень, булыжник; heap, pile of
rubble – груда булыжника; б)
бутовая кладка; каменная кладка;
coursed rubble – каменная кладка
рядами; dry rubble – сухая
каменная кладка; в) валун. Syn:
boulder; г) штыб. Syn: slack; 2) а)
производить бутовую кладку б)
превращать в каменные обломки,
разрушать
core
–
основной,
центральный. Syn: essential ,
central , basic , fundamental
infill
–
1)
заполнять,
наполнять; 2) заполнение
conjectural
–
гипотетический, гипотетичный,
предположительный
Syn:
presumable, hypothetical
substantive – 1) реальный,
существующий, действительный
substantive;
2)
независимый,
самостоятельный.
Syn:
independent, self-dependent; 3)
субстантивный
drip = dripstone – 1) слезник;
отлив; лепное украшение или
149
каменный карниз над дверью,
окном для дождевого стока. Syn:
label; 2) фильтр из пористого камня
dash
–
наносить
сокрушающий удар, разбивать
вдребезги. Syn: smash
motif – лейтмотив, основная
идея, мысль
luster – а) глянец, блеск;
отраженный свет. Syn: brilliance;
radiance, shine; б) лоск, блеск,
великолепие
gold foil – золотая фольга,
листовое золото
copper
plate
–
гравировальная доска
unstable – зыбкий, сыпучий;
нестойкий, нестабильный
exile – I 1. 1) изгнание;
ссылка; to send smb. into exile –
ссылать, отправлять кого-л. в
ссылку.
Syn:
banishment,
expatriation;
2)
изгнанник;
ссыльный; эмигрант
undertake
(undertook
–
undertaken) – 1) предпринимать,
совершать; Syn: launch; 2) брать
на себя ответственность (за
выполнение чего-л. – for ); 3)
гарантировать; Syn:
warrant,
guarantee
yield – приносить урожай,
давать результ. Syn: produce,
furnish, exhibit, give, provide,
furnish, – afford
spacious
–
обширный,
большой. Syn: wide, extensive,
widely extended; 2) просторный,
свободный,
обширный
(о
помещении, дворе, улице). Syn:
large, roomy, commodious
exuberance – богатство,
достаток, избыток, изобилие Syn:
abundance , plentyъ
fragmentation – дробление,
разбиение,
разделение,
расщепление, фрагментация
circumstances – обстановка,
среда
vitality
–
1)
жизнеспособность; жизненность.
Syn: viability, vital capacity,
tenacity; 2) живость, энергия,
энергичность.
Syn:
vivacity,
activity, animation, liveliness
150
KEYS
PART I
UNIT I
VI. Renaissance is a word which is very generally understood, but which few
people would care to define very closely.
The Early Renaissance was the time of the formation of the style in the arts
which, culminating in Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, is still
generally used as a touchstone of aesthetic quality. The period is usually reckoned
to begin in Italy earlier than elsewhere, in the fifteenth century or in the fourteenth
century, perhaps as early as Giotto (died 1337), and to end in the sixteenth century,
at any time after the death of Raphael (1520) and before that of Tintoretto (1594).
The word itself means 'rebirth', and there can be no doubt that the Italians of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries regarded their own times as immensely superior to
all the ages since the fall of the Roman Empire (that is, about a thousand years
earlier), and in this opinion posterity has largely concurred. The idea of the rebirth
of the arts after a sleep of a thousand years is an Italian one.
VII. by, for, in, about, of, in, in, of, in, of, in, of, in, since, of, from, in, to, by, by.
UNIT II
VI. In a gilded bronze relief representing the Feast of Herod done about 1425
for the baptismal font of the Cathedral of Siena, Donatello makes, as far as we
know, the first complete visual statement of the science of one-point perspective,
controlling the inward recession and diminution of the masonry of Herod's palace–
walls, arches, and columns, down to the very floor tiles–about ten years before
Alberti wrote his description of the method of one-point perspective in his treatise
On Painting of 1435. But this epoch-making centripetal system is used by
Donatello as a setting for an episode of passion, a composition organized only by
its inherent centrifugal force. The presentation of the severed head of Saint John
the Baptist at Herod's table has the effect of a bursting grenade, scattering the
spectators to left and right in attitudes and expressions of horror.
VII. Spent, made, is, derives, has exploited, toys, should be remembered,
symbolized, meant, may have had.
UNIT III
VI. In 1401 Ghiberti won the competition for a new pair of doors for the
Baptistery in Florence, his principal competitors being Brunelleschi and Jacopo
della Quercia. Both the Ghiberti and the Brunelleschi trial panels have survived.
The scene set was the Sacrifice of Abraham. In the Brunelleschi panel the action is
vehement, even violent. The allusions to the antique are indicative of his training
and the trend of his mind, but technically the panel nowhere equals the smooth
modelling and the brilliant surface of Ghiberti's rendering of the scene. The
Brunelleschi was made in a number of pieces and put together afterwards; the
Ghiberti was a technical triumph in that it was cast in one piece. In it the action
flows smoothly; the angel glides down from heaven to arrest the patriarch's knife;
the beautiful, classically inspired, nude figure of Isaac turns with relief both towards
his father and the angel, where Brunellcschi's distorted and terrified Isaac struggles
against the knife, and the plunging angel with vehement gesture arrests Abraham's
hand at the very last second. The same qualities of grace and charm, of brilliant
151
workmanship, of sinuous use of pattern and line, of silhouette, appear in the doors
which were begun by Ghiberti in 1403 and finished in 1424. For instance, in the
panel of the Annunciation the Virgin, in her little aedicule, has the typical Gothic
sway and with a gesture of infinite delicacy both welcomes and retreats before her
heavenly visitant.
VII. In, in, of, of, of, of, of, to, by, by, by, without, to, During, of, of, of, of,
among, on, of, in, of, in, for, of, of, of, in, in, of, of, of, to, with, of, without, into, of.
UNIT IV
VI.The emergence of the new iconography was preceded in Germany and
Bohemia by the long aftermath of Italian Trecentro painting. Like a leaven working
through the whole lump, so the outstanding quality of Italian art during the
fourteenth century slowly permeated the whole of Western European painting, and
the styles that emerged in the more active artistic centres such as Prague are derived
from Florence and Siena. In the process of assimilation by, for instance, the Master
of the Vyssi Brod cycle, Duccio's coherent narratives and the attenuated forms of
Simone Martini's sophisticated elegance become more spiky and contorted, and the
Master of the Trebon Altarpiece achieves a slightly Expressionist form of Agnolo
Gaddi–that is, his colour is darker and richer, his forms less clear, and his sense of
internal space more distorted, but his rather wilting poses and his sense of pattern
derive from Florentine sources.
VII.The, –, the, –, the, the, the, the, –, the, the, the, –; The, –, –, –, –, the, the,
the, the; The, –, the.
UNIT V
VI.The Arnolfini Marriage Group is one of the world's most fascinating and
involved pieces of iconography, and can qualify for the unusual role of a painted
marriage certificate, for the Italian merchant is clearly at the most solemn moment
of his vows, as is proved by the lighted candle above his head signifying the
presence of God, while at the feet of his young wife stands the small dog
emblematical of marital fidelity, and behind them is the marriage bed. On the wall
at the back of the room above the mirror which reflects the scene the artist has
signed the work and affirmed his presence at the ceremony –'Johannes de Eyck fait
hie 1434'. Here again it is the realism, the minute concentration on appearance that
is so striking. The perspective system of the room, the window, the floorboards, is
not based on any of the scientific theories of optics which, at the same date, were
current in Florence; it is purely empirical, but so perfect is the observation that the
illusion of reality within the room is complete.
VII.In, on, on, of, of, on, for, in, of, on, in, of, of, among, of, of, of, with.
UNIT VI
VI.The other great Sacra Conversazione of the period is the St Lucy Altarpiece
by Domenico Veneziano. Very little is known about this artist, and he seems to
stand slightly outside the main stream of Florentine art. On the other hand, the St
Lucy Altarpiece is clearly one of the major works of the middle of the century, and
in some ways is more subtle than any of those by Lippi or Angelico. It is not known
when Domenico Veneziano was born, and he signed himself as a Venetian. The
very problematic tondo of the Adoration of the Magi is often held to be evidence
of an International Gothic phase dating from the late 1420s or early 1430s, but the
152
first certain fact is that in 1438 he was in Perugia and wrote to Piero de' Medici,
then in Ferrara, to ask for work. The most important thing is the fact that he had as
an assistant Piero della Francesca, who must then have been making his first contact
with Florentine works. It is certain that Domenico's unique interests in colour and
in the play of light were of fundamental importance in the development of Piero's
style, and therefore on all painting outside Florence itself. Only two works are quite
certainly by Domenico; both are signed. They are the Madonna with fragments of
two saints, and the St Lucy Altarpiece, the main panel of which is in the Uffizi.
VII. Since, in, of, in, of, of, about, into, in, in, by, off, Diuring, in, in, in, by,
with, in.
UNIT VII
VI.The date of Castagno's birth is not known. He was certainly in Venice in
1442 when he signed and dated some frescoes which he had painted in
collaboration with an unknown painter called Francesco de Faenza. From the 1440s
until his early death in 1457 he painted numerous works in Florence, including the
frescoes of the Last Supper and the Scenes from the Passion. The Last Supper, a
traditional refectory subject, is a curious mixture of grandeur and harsh realism,
simplicity and elaboration. The room is projected as an eye-level extension of the
actual room with the interior covered with patterned marble inlays; the diffused
light from windows at the end of the room and from two immediately above the
fresco have caused the artist to insert a painted two-light window into the right wall,
so that he may use the strongest light and shadow in delineating Christ and the
Apostles.
VII.The, the, – , the, the, the, the; The, the, the, the, the, the, – , the, a, – , the,
– , – , the, – , – , an, –.
UNIT VIII
VI.Outside Florence four separate strands have to be followed: Siena, where
the main currents are derived from Florence; Central Tuscany and Urbino with
Piero della Franccsca; Padua and Mantua with Mantegna; and Ferrara, where the
line of development ran through the Padua of Donatcllo and Mantcgna, and
reflected the influence of the lost Ferrarese works by Piero. During the fourteenth
century, Siena had been as great a fountain-head as Florence itself; the influence of
Duccio, of Simone, and the Lorenzetti was as decisive in Florence as it had been in
Siena, and even more so, for it was their style that determined the course of late
fourteenth-century painting in Florence, and that spread far and wide across Europe
to return eventually transmuted into the courtly grace of International Gothic.
VII. the, –, the, – , the, – , – , – , – , – , the, a, – , the, the, the, –, – , the, – , the,
– , – , the, – , the, the, –, a, – , the.
UNIT IX
VI.Signed works are very few. One of them is the Flagellation, which dates
from the late 1450s or early 1460s, and which may be connected with Piero's stay
in Urbino, the chief fruits of which were the double portraits of the Duke and
Duchess, the large Madonna and Child with Saints and Angels, and his considerable
researches into perspective. The Flagellation, a small panel, painted with great
richness of colour and the most painstaking technique, is iconographically a
mystery. The likeliest explanation of the three figures–so much more prominent than
153
the actual subject–is that they are witnesses, like the three voices singing the Passion
on Good Friday, or the commentators in a Passion Flay, such as the one performed in
Florence in 1439. Pictorially, the painting has the same kind of symmetrical
composition as the Queen of Sheba scenes at Arezzo, and the consistent use of
frontality. This also pervades the double portraits, which date more probably from
about 1472 than the 1465 formerly suggested on rather slender grounds.
VII. Commemorative, markedly, Flemish, Roman, realistic, stylistic, practical,
disfiguring, facial, Clearly, Flemish, mysterious, certainly.
UNIT X
VI. The influence of Dieric Bouts was more widespread than the limited
number of his works would suggest. He was a Haarlern painter, born about 1415.
He was to a certain extent influenced by Roger in that the efforts he makes to
express a stiff and reticent emotion stem from the impact of his ideas and style. His
figures have an unmistakably ramrod quality; his poses are ungainly. But, like
Roger, he has the infinite gift of so presenting his ideas that the spectator is drawn
to identify himself with them.
The Five Mystic Meals is a rare and unusual treatment of the Last Supper, since
it is presented as an Institution of the Eucharist, and is surrounded by four smaller
scenes, each representing one of the Old Testament antitypes: the Sacrifice of
Abraham and Melchisedek, the Gathering of the Manna, Elijah in the Desert, and
the first Passover. The accurate perspective construction based on a central
viewpoint is for Bouts, part of the normal constructional devices of picture space.
The simple bourgeois setting is also a means by which the impact of the event is
made more telling; unlike the Easternized dresses and turbans of the Old Testament
characters, Christ and the Apostles, despite the sense of separation induced by their
generalized garments and their idealized faces, are seated in a monastery refectory
and waited upon by the commissioner, the artist, and, in all probability, his sons.
Two things in Bouts's work strike one with immediate force: the tenderness of the
colour and the delicate sensitiveness of its gradations, and the beauty of the
landscapes. The rocks and hills may be the conventional jagged stones of
symbolism rather than reality, but the recession into infinity and the fluid, limpid,
cool light are seen with an understanding which suggests a new kind of vision of
the natural world.
VII. the, an, the, the, the, the, the, a, the, the, a, a, a, the, the, The, an, the, the,
a, The, the, the, a, a, the, the.
UNIT XI
VI. A very different German master, Konrad Witz (c. 1400/10 – 1445/46), was
born at Rottweil in Wtirttemburg, but moved to Basel in Switzerland, then the
center of a church council that attracted princes and prelates from throughout
Europe. Witz was accepted in the artists' guildin Basel in 1434 and bought a fine
house. Much of his work fell a victim to Protestant iconoclasm during the
Reformation, but what survives shows a vigorous and independent personality,
with little patience for the niceties of perspective or anatomy but with acute powers
of observation, particularly where nature is concerned. His Miraculous Draft of
Fish, part of an altarpiece containing a cycle of scenes from the life of Peter
installed in 1444 in the Cathedral of Geneva, displays all his best qualities. The
background is the Lake of Geneva, a landscape "portrait" in the tradition already
154
established by Masaccio and Fra Angelico, exactly painted, with farms and hills in
the middle distance and a glittering array of snowcapped Alpine crags on the
horizon. More surprising is Witz's observation of water, complete not only with
reflections but also with refractions, distorting the stones on the bottom and the legs
of Peter seen through its transparent surface; Witz even painted the bubbles thrown
up, apparently, by passing fish.
VII. of, by, throughout, from, in, in, of, for, to, with, by, of, to, of, of, of, from,
of, of, of, by, of, above, at, by, into, of, of, in, in, in, of, in, during, with, to, to, of,
by, of, in, of, under, from, in, of.
UNIT XII
VI. When Dürer arrived in Venice for the second time in the summer of 1505
he was no longer the poor, unknown student he had been eleven years before. He
was rich, famous, and sought after. From the engravings it is clear that the Little
Horse of 1505, that Dürer had been influenced by Leonardo even if the influence
was not based on a very wide knowledge of his works. Dürer returned to
Nuremberg reluctantly; he was no longer content to be merely a good workman and
he hankered after the climate of the arts in Italy. Now he began developing the
'erudite' side to his art and personality that raised him so much above the other
painters of his period and country. He studied mathematics and geometry, Latin
and Humanist literature; he consorted, not with fellow artisans, but with Humanists
and scholars. A new kind of engraving was evolved after his return, based on the
Italian type of chiaroscuro print–that is, a print, usually a woodcut, printed in more
than one colour so as to give an effect of tone.
VII. In, of, by, of, by, in, for, in, at, of, in, at, of, for, against, through, by, in,
of, with, in, at, between, of, by, at, before, of.
PART II
UNIT I
V. The city of Novgorod is, by a fortunate set of circumstances, the great
repository of medieval Russian art, with more than fifty churches and
monasteries extending from the eleventh through the seventeenth centuries.
The recipient of Byzantine architectural forms via Kiev, the city rapidly
developed an indigenous architectural style in churches commissioned by its
princes during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as well as in the "commercial"
and neighborhood churches of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Even
with the surrender of its independence to Moscow in the late 1400s, Novgorod
sustained a vital creative tradition in its adaptation of a new, "Muscovite" style
– a tradition that ceased only in the 1700s, as the city lost its strategic importance
and sank into an almost total stagnation.
VI. in; of; After; to Kiev; at; of; over; of; In; of; in; of; by; of; In; of; on; into;
to; of.
UNIT II.
V. The instability of the position of Novgorod's princes during the twelfth
century led to a decrease both in the number and the size of churches they
commissioned. Some 60 years elapsed between the construction of the final
princely church in the commercial district – the Church of the Dormition in the
Trading Side, built in 1135 by Vsevolod – and the last of Novgorod's churches
155
to be built by a prince – the Transfiguration of the Savior on the Nereditsa
River (1198). In the interval, princes throughout Rus were involved in the
incessant struggle for the Kievan throne. This does not imply that Rus was beset
by ruin, but with certain exceptions (primarily in the area of Vladimir-Suzdal),
there was a decrease in the number of masonry construction projects initiated
by princes. Indeed, the churches endowed during this period often reflected
some aspect of the political struggle, as is exemplified by the design of the Cathedral
of the Transfiguration of the Savior at Mirozhskii Monastery in Pskov.
VI. of; in; of; to; at; of; at; in; of; to; of; with; on; of; of; from; in; in; of.
UNIT III.
V. The Slavs had a well-developed pantheon of pagan gods akin to those of the
Vikings: pride of place was taken by Perun, the god of fire and lightning, and whose
cult was actively promoted by Vladimir. However, Christianity was a far from
unknown entity in the land of the Russians before 988. Indeed, the tradition of the
Russian Orthodox Church has it that the hilltop upon which the city of Kiev would
later arise was visited by the Lord's disciple St. Andrew as early as the first century
and who prophesied that the Gospel would be preached in these lands. Most likely
this story belongs to the realm of pious legends.
Historically, the most important event to have consequences for the taking of
root of Christianity in Russia was the evangelizing mission undertaken by two
Greek brothers from the Balkans, Ss. Cyril and Methodius. Part of their mission to
the Slav lands in the ninth century embraced a fundamental aspect of Eastern
Christianity: the reception of the faith in the culture and language of the local
people. To this end the service books of the Byzantine Church and parts of the Bible
were translated into the Slav language.
VI. to; of; before; for; among; of; in; for; in; from; up; along; along; across;
of; of; over; of; on; By; of; in; on.
UNIT IV.
V. While Novgorod and Pskov pursued their commercial interests and the
authority of Kiev eroded under the impact of princely feuds, a third center of power
arose in Russia, to the northeast, in the upper reaches of the Volga River and its
tributaries. Settled as early as the first century by Finno-Ugric tribes, these lands
were colonized during the tenth century by Slavs from the west, drawn to the rich
forests and tillable land. During the eleventh century, Kievan princes extended their
authority over the northeast, and strengthened settlements such as Rostov and
Suzdal, which formed a major principality. Kiev's control proved tenuous,
however. In 1071, one of Rostov's first bishops was killed in yet another pagan
uprising, and the area underwent the constant threat of raids by Volga Bulgars. At
the turn of the eleventh century, the town of Suzdal was fortified and acquired its
own prince. Suzdal was soon overshadowed by the fortress of Vladimir, established
in 1108 a few miles south of Suzdal, on the Kliazma River. Its founder, Vladimir
Monomakh was the last of Kiev's great rulers. Monomakh is recorded in the
chronicles as having built in Vladimir a church dedicated to the Savior. Its site has
not been discovered, but the foundation of his earlier church dedicated to the
Nativity of the Mother of God has been analyzed at the site of the extant Suzdal
Cathedral of the Nativity. Both of these churches would most likely have been built
of brick.
156
VI. in; to; for; to; at; to; before; in; in; of; of; in; among; after; on; from; in; of;
in; toward; of; of; by; in; of; of; to; of; of; near; in; by; in; in; of; of; to; in; over;
with; on; between.
UNIT V.
V. The elegance of the design brings to a culmination the architectural
principles first stated in the simpler churches from the reign of Iurii Dolgorukii,
with their two-tiered structure, sharply molded facades, and splayed window
niches. Its sculptural decoration may also have had precedents in Suzdalia, but the
Church of the Intercession is the earliest surviving monument to display an
iconographic message in stone. The white limestone quarried in the area provided
a durable material suitable for carving, yet apart form the arcade frieze at PereslavlZalesskii, the sculptural possibilities of stone had not been exploited before the
building of the Cathedral of the Dormition in Vladimir, which contained a few
carved figures and columns. The rapid development of this form of exterior
ornamentation at Andrei's Bogoliubovo churches and the appearance of perspective
portals suggest the participation of foreign masters familiar with the Romanesque
style in central Europe.The variety of carvings can be divided into two general
categories – both of which are highly unusual in medieval Rus: the stylized foliated
patterns on the archivolts of the portals and on the capitals of the engaged columns,
and the bestial and human figures on the facades.
VI. The; the; a; the; the; the; the; The; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the;
the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; the; a.
UNIT VI.
V. Although certain of the plant and animal carvings are associated with motifs
widespread in Indo-European folklore – and, more directly, with the Physiologus –
their function seems primarily decorative, the repetition of highly stylized elements
in an ordered setting. In addition, the chimeras and masks – particularly evident in
the console blocks of the apse arcade – no doubt play the thau-maturgic role allotted
to them elsewhere in medieval architecture, including the Church of the
Intercession on the Nerl. The human figures, however, have in many cases been
identified, and it is possible to read the facades as a text on the prince whose
authority is sanctioned by God, by the Orthodox Church and its saints, and by
legendary rulers of antiquity. Furthermore, the military component, so essential to
the maintenance of princely power, is emphasized not only in references to
Alexander the Great and King David, but also to the "warrior saints," or Roman
officers martyred for their faith and canonized by the Orthodox Church. This would
not appear to be a setting congenial to the cult of Sts. Boris and Gleb, yet they figure
prominently in the arcade frieze of the north facade (right bay).
VI. At; of; by; on; of; in; of; of; on; by; of; of; of; the sky and the earth, among;
of; by;at, through; of; in; on; of; on; of; by; of; on; In; of; of; of; on; of.
UNIT VII.
V. A Mongol army of some 150,000 troops struck the disorganized Russian
principalities, first at the southern principality of Riazan in 1237, and then at
Vladimir in the winter of 1237–8. According to the detailed account in the GalicianVolhynian chronicle, the catastrophe at Vladimir began with the defeat of Russian
forces and the death of Grand Prince Iurii. When the Mongols approached the city
157
and attempted by threats to gain the city without a siege, Bishop Mitrofan assumed
leadership and exorted the citizens to fight: The people of the city hearkened to
[his] words and began to fight with greater strength. The Tatars battered the town
with their wall-battering instruments; they released arrows without number. Prince
Vsevolod saw that the battle waxed yet more fierce, took fright because of his
youth, and went forth from the town with his small group, carrying with him many
gifts. Batu, like a wild beast, did not spare his youth, but ordered that he be
slaughtered before him, and he slew all the town. When the bishop, with the
princess and her children, fled to the church, the godless one commanded it to be
set on fire. Thus they surrendered their souls to God.
VI. With; of; from; to; of; of; of; of; from; of; on; against; of; in; to; until; to;
in; for; in; by; of; during; toward; by; of.
158
CONTENTS
Введение ............................................................................................. 4
Part I
Unit I. Melchior Broederlam ............................................................. 5
Unit II. Donatello ............................................................................ 12
Unit III. Lorenzo Ghiberti ............................................................... 19
Unit IV. Flemish Fifteenth-Century Painters .................................. 27
Unit V. Jan van Eyck ....................................................................... 34
Unit VI. Fra Fuippo Lippi ............................................................... 41
Unit VII. Fra Angelico .................................................................... 49
Unit VIII. Uccello ........................................................................... 56
Unit IX. Piero della Francesca ........................................................ 64
Unit X. Roger van der Weyden ....................................................... 72
Unit XI. Hieronymus Bosch ............................................................ 81
Unit XII. Albrecht Dürer ................................................................. 90
Part II
Unit I. Architecture of the Eleventh Century in Novgorod ............. 98
Unit II. Early Twelfth-Century Churches ..................................... 105
Unit III. Late Twelfth-Century Architecture in Novgorod and Pskov.. 112
Unit IV. Andrei Bogoliubskii: the Flourishing of Stone Architecture... 119
Unit V. The Palace Ensemble at Bogoliubovo .............................. 127
Unit VI. Architecture and Ornament in the Reign of Vsevolod III ..... 135
Unit VII. Early Thirteenth-Century Churches .............................. 143
Keys.................................................................................................. 151
159
УЧЕБНОЕ ИЗДАНИЕ
Миньяр-Белоручева Алла Петровна
ИСТОРИЯ ИСКУССТВА.
ЗАПАДНАЯ ЕВРОПА
И РОССИЯ.
Пособие по английскому языку
Учебное пособие
Компьютерная верстка В. Г. Ковалевский
Подписано в печать 15.01.2008. Бумага типографская.
Формат 60х88 1/16. Гарнитура “Таймс”.
Уч. изд. л. 9,3. Усл. печ. л. 10.
Изд. №