Language Arts Lesson 19
Listening and Speaking Strategies: Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and
Media Communications (Grades 11-12)
Instruction 19-4
Techniques in Media Messages and their Effectiveness
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This Instruction is about media messages and the techniques they use to inform,
to entertain and -- most of all -- to persuade you.
These messages come in many different forms: news reports, commercials,
programs and so on. But no matter what form a media message takes,
remember that it was created by a specific person for a specific purpose. And
that it is targeted toward a specific audience -- which is often you!
Learning how this works is called media literacy.
Media Literacy
Media literacy means "reading the media." In other words, looking at and
listening to all media with a critical eye. This includes watching TV, surfing the
web, listening to the radio or CD's, playing video games or reading newspapers,
magazines and books.
When you do any of these things, don't forget -1.
media messages are created for a specific purpose (to persuade,
to inform or to entertain) with a specific target audience in mind.
2.
Many tools are employed in the production of these messages,
including words, music, images, sound effects, celebrity
endorsements, humor, etc.
3.
Different people interpret these messages differently (based on
their own experience and social reality).
4.
No matter how "real" something seems, examine it carefully
(especially if it's part of an attempt to get you to buy something, do
something or vote for someone). It may or may not be true.
The media use many different motivational appeals and techniques, especially
when they want to persuade you of something.
Some of these techniques use faulty logic, so now would be a good time to
review Instruction 19-2, which describes a number of logical fallacies including:
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California Content Standards Grade 11-12 1.14
B. J. Subbiondo © 2003
Language Arts Lesson 19
Listening and Speaking Strategies: Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and
Media Communications (Grades 11-12)
www.etap.org
Instruction 19-4
Techniques in Media Messages and their Effectiveness
Ad Hominem, Red Herring, Either/Or, Stacking the Deck, Non Sequitur,
False Analogy, Post Hoc, Sweeping Generalization, Begging the
Question, Slippery Slope, Composition, Division, Appeals to Authority,
Ambiguity and Poisoning the Well.
Basic Human Motivations
Media experts are clever -- they motivate you by appealing to your deepest
emotions, needs and values.
Here are what psychologists consider the most important human motivations:
Self Preservation and Well-being -- physical needs such as food,
drink, sleep, sex, the avoidance of pain and protection from physical
harm.
Freedom from Physical Restraint
Self-esteem -- the need to have, and maintain, a favorable opinion of
yourself. Ideally, self-esteem should grow throughout a person's lifetime.
Achievement -- the need to achieve as much as you can and to have
your achievements recognized by others.
Love Needs -- love, affection and belonging. Belonging means
identifying with something larger than yourself -- being part of a couple, a
family, a gang, a neighborhood, a religion, a political party, a city, a state,
a country, an ethnic group, etc.
Survival of the Human Race
These motivations vary from person to person, from culture to culture and from
time to time. And when a media manipulator can't figure out a specific motivation
to appeal to, he or she will try to create one. This process is called The Social
Construction of Affect.
Tonight when you're watching TV, don't zap the commercials. Look at them
carefully and try to figure out which motivational appeals are being used.
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California Content Standards Grade 11-12 1.14
B. J. Subbiondo © 2003
Language Arts Lesson 19
Listening and Speaking Strategies: Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and
Media Communications (Grades 11-12)
www.etap.org
Instruction 19-4
Techniques in Media Messages and their Effectiveness
Motivational Appeals Used by the Media
Fear -- the implication that if you do or don't do something, your personal
survival (or something equally important) is at stake. Let's say a political
commercial implies that the county is in danger because the Democrats
have cut military funding and you can only be safe if you vote Republican.
That commercial is based on fear. Or if you are told, "Mother Nature is
destroying the finish on your car," that's also fear. As was the panic
caused by Orson Welles' radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds, which
we discussed in a previous Instruction.
Status -- the suggestion that if you buy or do something, you will achieve
higher status (physical, intellectual or financial) or move into a higher
social class. Commercials for expensive cars or jewelry ("Ice is Nice") are
often based on status. So are messages regarding certain brands of
clothing. Clothing commercials sometimes also appeal to the need to
belong ("Everybody is wearing it").
Sex Appeal -- the implication that if you wear a certain brand of lipstick,
drink a certain cola or drive a certain car you will be more attractive…even
irresistible.
Scarcity -- making something seem desirable because there's not
enough, "We have only 4 PT Cruisers left, so come down to Gonzales
Chrysler and get yours before they're all gone."
Power and Control -- we all want to control our own lives and decisions
and most of us would (secretly) like to control other people and events as
well. So a political party or product that promises to "put you in the
driver's seat" can seem very attractive.
Authority -- we are all taught to respect authority figures like parents,
teachers, doctors and ministers. But, as we said in Instruction 19-2,
before you accept what an authority or celebrity says, ask yourself if he or
she really knows what they're talking about. If your favorite rapper tells
you that XYZ amplifiers are best, it might be so. But what if he or she is
talking about lawn mowers or baby food?
Belonging (conformity) -- as we said, appeals to status are often used
to sell clothing. But belonging (conforming to the standards of a group) is
an important motivation here too. "Don't be left out! Buy Morton College
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California Content Standards Grade 11-12 1.14
B. J. Subbiondo © 2003
Language Arts Lesson 19
Listening and Speaking Strategies: Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and
Media Communications (Grades 11-12)
www.etap.org
Instruction 19-4
Techniques in Media Messages and their Effectiveness
clothing because all your friends are buying it!" The Bandwagon Effect is
another example of this appeal -- "Get onboard now…vote for Buffy
Montoya for Class President … don't be left behind."
Sympathy and Generosity -- we (sometimes) respond to the needs of
others, especially if doing so makes us feel better about ourselves (raises
our level of self-esteem). Direct mail often uses this approach: "Mary
Smith, only you can make sure that Baby X has shoes!"
Patriotism -- an appeal to love of country (another example of the
motivation to belong).
Resistance is Not Futile
In just one day with the media, you are likely to encounter all of these appeals -and more. So the more aware of them you become, the more easily you can
resist them.
Media manipulation isn't new -- although some of its techniques are. Fortunately,
many media sources try and make a conscientious attempt to present objective
information. That's important -- because democracy could not exist without an
informed citizenry. As Thomas Jefferson said, "a nation which expects to be
ignorant and free, expects what never was and what never will be." Beginning
with President John F. Kennedy, American presidents have held live press
conferences and given live speeches for just this reason.
The news media have many political roles -- to affect the public agenda, to serve
as a watchdog, to inform the people, to serve as a link between the public and its
leaders and to analyze what's at stake in a given situation. Except for clearly
labeled editorials, the media's role should not be to promote one candidate over
another, although that's how many newspapers began -- as partisan vehicles
directed to individual political parties. And of course some media outlets are still
partisan, although they usually admit their biases openly.
As we said in Instruction 19-1, the best thing to do is to read and watch as many
media sources as you can.
Then decide who's right and who's wrong for yourself.
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California Content Standards Grade 11-12 1.14
B. J. Subbiondo © 2003