Tooth Modification and a Sense of Identity
Miranda Ehlers
12/5/2016
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Abstract
The goal of this discussion is to embrace theories of identity to explain the occurrence of
tooth modification. It will look at evidence from Pre-Columbian Maya, and Efe in Africa to help
enlighten their connection to rites of passage
and the importance of pain and the resulting
social identity that can be born from it.
It has been said that “it is only in that
difference that we discover our place and
sameness with others”(Keagy 156). This will
be the focus of this discussion for
modifications, such as tooth modification, act as an instrument or symbol that can be utilized
when ascertaining and demonstrating social identities.
Introduction
There are many different types of rituals, institutionalized or not, that can mark a person
that has stepped through the phases of a rite of passage. In some traditions it is common for an
individual to experience scarification, circumcision, tattooing, and even tooth modification.
Filing and incrustation are both a form of active change and are, therefore, intentional and serve
certain purposes, as opposed to passive change which can occur as a result of occupational
repetition or as normal wear and tear (Alt et al.). It is important to stress that any intentional body
modification should be recognized as modification and not as mutilation. Utilizing the term
mutilation implies the individual had not given consent for what is happening to their body and
reminds people of mutilations, such as genital mutilation. Even though passive body
modification may have coercive objectives behind it, intentional body modification is planned
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and is a decision made by the individual receiving the alterations. For the purpose of this paper,
explorations into dental modification will be the main focus.
Tooth modifications can come in many different forms and time periods. There are
several regions of the world that perform this rite of passage as an initiation. Africa, Central
America, the Philippines, and the Malaysian Archipelago are a few of the regions that participate
in this practice. Out of all these places of occurrence, researchers have tried to uncover its role in
society. Some have argued that tooth modification is a type of kinship marker; others state that it
is a sign of social status. A common theme, however, can be deduced from all of these potential
implications. It is possible to reason that in any case rites of passage, as well as, identity are the
primary components that do not change drastically with the changing of the reason behind the
occurrence of dental modification.
Theories of identity have taken several forms, and admittedly sources have taken several
different theories from theorists, such as Durkheim, Mead, Merton, Strauss, Goffman and
Foucault, to define their opinions, however, they all include the same dichotomy: the individual
self vs the self, defined and dependent on society. Individuals change their body image to modify
their sense of self and align with the social identity and be publicly accepted by the majority. Or
individuals may utilize tooth modifications align their sense of self with their internal self-image;
however, it may not be socially acceptable. This paper will utilize theories of Goffman in
particular to explain the social identity developed though tooth modification.
Erving Goffman takes a collectivist approach in his theory proposed in “The Presentation
of Self in Everyday Life.” Goffman explains identity as a fluid and impermanent entity that
changes each time an individual comes into contact with others. Just like in a theatrical
performance, the individual will adjust their behavior and mannerisms to control the impressions
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they make on others. The process that takes place in a social interaction is dependent on
information gathering at a relatively fast pace. An individual will look for certain characteristics,
such as, socio-economic status, competence and trustworthiness, as well as many other features
(Newman 120) Everything is about impression management, what you allow a person to
perceive is important for social identity. The impressions an individual makes on others is
heavily controlled by the individual through what they wear, how they smell, the way they carry
themselves and the way their body looks. Through body modifications, such as, filing and
incrustation, one can achieve a level of control.
For theories of self-identity, a solid concept is not fully theorized. Some theorists have
tried to define it, such as Anthony Giddens. However, his theory has had led to critique, because
his definition of the concept of the self is self-reflective on an individual’s own biography
(Geller 18). The individuals themselves define who they are, however, common terms they use
to describe oneself, such as mother, friend, and coworker. All of these are relational to others and
institutions of society. Many people would argue that modification is an example of selfexpression and the result of deviant behavior. Individuals may feel that they are stepping away
from their social identity. However, the individual that is practicing modification, such as tooth
modification, is really entering a new social identity. This discussion will argue that the practice
of dental modification is an instrument that is used to demonstrate social identity.
Tooth Modification
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There are many types of tooth mutilation, which include tooth filing, as well as
incrustation, dental evulsion, scoring, and artificial
coloring, and in modern times can expand to include
braces, dental implants, and tooth tattooing. To focus
on tooth filing and incrustation, there are many types
that can be categorized into these seven different
grouping shown in this figure, each with several
subtypes; most teeth filing occurs on the edges of
anterior teeth (incisors, as well as, canines), however,
some examples found in society may not fill any of
these categories. Incrustations are the result of the
drilling into the anterior teeth and the inlaying of a
precious or semiprecious jewel or stone; which can include substances such as, “iron pyrite,
haematite, jadeite, jade, turquoise, quartz, serpentine and cinnabar” (Alt et al.). Some researcher
may argue that if this practice was done to stand out among a crowd why would so many people
engage in it. Looking at these many different categories, it can be seen that there are many
variants that could be made. However, it is not about standing out from the norm of society, the
practice is done to fill the need to be different and yet the same. People in this practice of tooth
modification, may stand out among the crowd of the social mainstream, however, they fit in with
the group that also has tooth modification, or the like. The individuals still maintain a social
identity, it just happens to be different from the majority.
In populations of Pre-Coloumbian Maya, it is hypothesized that the individuals that have
these filings and incrustations are part of an elite class or at least hold a high ranking status in the
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community. In this study each individual was aged, sexed, and stratified by class, through
“information gleaned from mortuary
context and materials, specifically
grave types, locations, and materials,
and goods” (Geller 285). The high
ranking commoners usually display a
filing pattern much like B2 in the figure
above on the maxillary central insicors. The elite, however, hypothesized to be kings or rulers,
have both filing patterns, as well as, incrustations. These events seemed to be serial. The
individual would file their teeth and then at a later date have an inlay of hematite put in,
however, this could occur in the reverse order. In the end they would have modified teeth similar
to G15 in the figure above. This practice, if examined by Goffman, could have resulted from
social structure. In populations of the maya the symbolism behind the tooth modification may be
clear and may serve as an obvious cue to the people they are interacting with. The cultural
meaning attached to tooth modification, can help structure social interactions and
consequentially their social identity.
All modifications, in Geller’s case study of the Pre-Columbian Maya, were determined to
be in only adult teeth. No modifications were ever found linked to a deciduous tooth, or baby
tooth. The youngest individual to show signs of tooth modification was at minimum 14 years of
age. Because, this sample only included adults it was surmised that an individual only received
tooth modification when they were socially perceived as an adult (Geller 286). The practice of
incrustation and filing among the Mayan is a ritual rite of passage into a higher status.
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Individuals had undergone tooth modification to signify their elevated status. Tooth modification
in this context is a mode of identifying the self within society.
A rite of passage is a ritual that enables a person to move from one social standing to
another. There are three phases: a separation phase, which allows the person to become separate
from society, a liminal phase that places the individual in an ambiguous state where they have
achieved a state that is between the old and the new, and a reincorporation phase where the
person reenters society at a new status (DeMello 229). Moving into Africa, the Efe in Zaire
modify their anterior teeth into sharp points (Figure 1 C8). These modifications signify the
transitions involved in marriage and initiation. The correct dental pattern is stressed when
selecting a partner for marriage (Mower 45). These practices in many parts of Africa can be
examined through social identity. A rite of passage is very important because the person is being
transformed from an identity that fits in one society, to an identity that fits in a new society. So
instead of attempting to be an individual, liberated from the norms of certain society, the
individual is really just conforming to the norms of a certain smaller society. An individual is
very pointedly and visually leaving one identity behind and entering a new cultural ideal where
their identity fits with the so-called “mini-society.” This “mini society” is just like the big one
because it still has rules and their own social norms, which is why tooth modification is no
viewed as deviant behavior but as a ritual performed to assimilate into the smaller society.
Pain
Pain is also involved and plays a vital role in developing identity. In pre-Colombian era
anesthetics were not yet invented, which made for a very painful process. The “62 types” of
tooth modifications are made by bow drills (Tapia et al.). Based on depictions in art and
carvings, researchers have gathered that bow drills have been the main tool used to drill cavities
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into the anterior surface of the teeth. The bow is strung and wrapped around a hard pointed rock
that when moved, would twist the rock around creating a divot in the enamel. It is a painful
process and comes with a very high risk involved in filing and incrustation. If the procedure is
done inappropriately it can result in damage to the pulp chamber (A very sensitive and important
feature of teeth. It lies right beneath the dentin, which is directly under the enamel). What makes
the pulp chamber very sensitive is the presence of blood vessels and nerves. Any damage there
can cause internal inflammatory resorption or calcification of the pulp cavity (Versiani). This can
also result in tooth necrosis and infection, which can lead to serious health issues or even death.
In the archaeological records, however, there are only rare cases of pulp chamber damage. It is
important to remember that tooth necrosis could have occurred ante mortem and not be present
in the archaeological records.
Humans are very empathetic towards pain, and it becomes a shared experience within the
community. The experience of pain is important, because it allows a connection to form within
the group that has experienced it first-hand. This fosters a re-identifying of the individual,
creating a sense of belonging within a selected group. This causes a shift in identity, or a sort of
personal growth, that often occurs during a rite of passage. Tooth modification in this way can be
compared to scarification. Scarification is an African and Australian practice that consists of
marking the body in scars often forming designs and patterns of significant meaning. This
process is often done as a rite of passage when a girl goes through puberty or when a boy joins
initiation. A big part of this process is pain, and just like the tooth modification practices, it
utilizes “pain as a tool for self-transformation” (DeMello 212). However, it is not only the self
that transforms it is the way that the whole society views an individual as well. Pain has special
implications as previously stated, in transforming an individual. Pain has allowed the individual
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to recognize their power and strength within them to properly and successfully handle the pain
that accompany the modifications such as straightening, filing, and incrustation. For a person
that undergoes these procedures they do not see it as a way to harm themselves it is a mechanism
to acknowledge the power they hold inside.
Modern Interpretations
Filing and incrustations are not the only dental modifications. In modern times the list has
expanded to include modern incrustations of gems, whitening of teeth, dental tattoos, golden grill
appliances, and straightening of teeth by braces. Body modifications have expanded, but the
purpose and the feeling that a person can achieve is never changing. These modern twists
maintain their transformative properties. A simple straightening of teeth due to orthodontics can
result in a change in an individual. Most braces are put on young adults and the braces coming
off allow the individual to feel empowered with pride and offer them the chance to easily move
into new levels of society. In a different way, the appliance of gold grills on top of ones teeth
allows an individual to remove themselves from the norm of society and enter a new social group
who participate in this sort of practice. Each dental modification is connected to transforming the
identity of the individual and delivering them into new strata so they may participate in a new
social identity.
Reaching beyond dental modification to other forms of modification, such as piercing or
tattooing, an individual can achieve the same change in identity. It is often claimed that
individuals that feel different than the rest of the majority will change their outward appearance
to better reflect upon themselves. However, it is not only a reflective practice it is a way of fitting
in with others who feel different. For Keagy, the feeling of difference, in some social constructs
can only be expressed through a visible change of the body, through modification. It is a way for
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individuals to gain social capital and status (Keagy 154). Any way an individual changes the
body, through modification or adornment there is a change in identity, a change in the way one
sees and portrays themselves, as well as the way other view them.
Conclusion
For the individual, transformed by this rite of passage, the tooth modification themselves,
as a symbol, functions as one part of the impression they give to others, for it serves as sign of
their membership or importance. It demonstrates an important aspect of Goffman’s presentation
theory. This visible, and permanent marks, are encoded with a unique cultural meaning that is
rooted in this transformative rite of passage. For the pre-Columbian Maya this symbolized a
dissent into higher rank, an elevated and central status within the community. In Africa, among
the Efe, it symbolizes belonging to a specific tribe. These very obvious symbols allow society to
function properly. It is like a doctor with his white coat on. As a society, mainly western, a white
coat symbolizes something specific, a professional that practices health and medicine. It has
grown into a very powerful symbol because society would be very confused if a person in a
white lab coat delivered pizza. It has been normalized. Much like the white lab coats, tooth
modification in its main manifestations symbolizes something important, such as high status or
kinship, in societies that have normalized it themselves. It allows everyone to go through their
everyday life and interact correctly in social situations. It allows Goffman’s play to run without a
hitch. Similar to Goffman, George Herbert Mead had theorized that the self emerged from social
experiences, because it displays a symbolic interactionism, because the symbols that are given in
an interaction mediate the individuals actions and the self they present (Keagy 21). It is
important to remember in social theories of identity, having a readily available symbol, like tooth
modification, aids in the process of information.
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Pain is an important feature. Pain endurance can be an empowering experience wrought
with internalized feelings of success that can be seen through mood and posture. The tooth
modification is only a badge that an individual had earned by enduring several swings of pain.
This badge is just a symbol, for others to take notice and respect. It is also something the can
foster inclusion among others that have endured a similar pain. The pain becomes a shared
experience within the mini society and it shapes their social identity.
For theorists like Goffman and Mead, identity is a dynamic entity. Identity is seen as
fluid and multidimensional, because the self can only be synthesized indirectly through
interactions with others. In the development of the self, which may include characteristics like
personality, and values, in a social situation is dependent upon the outward appearance of the
body. Any alteration to the body through body modifications can change the way a person is
interpreted, because ultimately each body modification is entwined with cultural meaning.
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