that Roosevelt’s courage and bold act
were more than justified. As Tedz
self said of the Panama Canal /It is
the greatest engineering feat of t ages.”
CASE
10
IiI.
.4
•1
.
,‘.
I
The Sinking of the Lusitania
Background
It began on a sunny June morning in 1914. A chauffeurdriven, open, touring car containing the Archduke of
Austria-Hungary and his wife was winding its way through
the narrow streets of Sarajevo, an obscure town in the
little-knowi country of Bosnia. The chauffeur, who had
made a wrong turn onto Francis Joseph street, was pre
paring to turn around when a nineteen-year old youth
moved toward the car with a pistol in his hand. He fired
twice at the Archduke and his wife. A spurt of blood shot
from the Archduke’s mouth as his wife Sophie cried, ‘For
heaven’s sake, what’s happened to you?” Seconds later
she collapsed into unconciousness from what the chauffeur
thought was shock. The dying Archduke somehow sensed
131
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
that she, too, had been hit by the assassin’s bullets. He
cried out, “Sophie dear, Sophie dear, don’t die! Stay alive
for our children!” By 11 A.M. both the Archduke and his
wife were dead.
So ended the drama of Sarajevo. By evening shocked
citizens around the world read in their newspapers of an
assassinated Archduke in a faraway place. Few people
thought that this event could have any effect upon their
lives. Few realized that the shot that killed the Archduke
was like a spark igniting a powder keg. The powder keg
was Europe and it exploded into World War I.
World War I ended on a grey, November morning in
1918. At 11 A.M. the cease-fire order went into effect. For
the first time in four years it was truly “all quiet on the
western front.” At war’s end there was little to celebrate.
What had begun as an adventure and novelty ended in a
nightmare of chaos and human suffering. Nearly 10,000,000
men and women had been killed in the four years of fight
ing and more than 6,000,000 had been crippled for life.
The 1,198 men, women, and children who lost their
lives on the Lusitania, represent but a few drops in the
bucket of blood spilled during World War I. The Lusi
tania, a British passenger liner, was torpedoed and sunk
on May 7, 1915, near the coast of Ireland. In wartime,
international law forbids the sinking of an unarmed pas
senger ship without first warning the ship and allowing
the passengers to be removed to safety. The Lusitania, how
ever, was attacked without warning. Especially surprised
and bewildered were the 197 Americans on board the
ship. The Americans felt that they were in no danger
since the United States was not involved in the war at
132
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
that time. They felt it was their right as neutrals to travel
freely and unmolested on the high seas.
The German submarine Commander, Captain Schwie
ger, apparently saw things differently through the lens of
his periscope. He gave the order to fire, and the explosion
which rocked the Lusitania was so sudden and the con
fusion so great, that only 35 of the 129 children on board
were saved. Hundreds of passengers went down with the
ship while others drowned trying to stay afloat in the icy
water. The corpses were recovered and brought to the
Irish port of Queenstown, where they were piled in even
rows along the docks. Bodies continued to wash up along
the Irish coast for months after the sinking.
The first reports of the sinking to reach America were
confused and meager. Relatives of the American passengers
turned to their newspapers in hope of finding out what
actually happened to the Lusitania and to their loved ones.
Angry relatives demanded to know who was to blame for
the sinking.
Let us suppose that you had relatives on board the
Lusitania. Like most Americans you want the answer to
two questions:
‘1. What actually happened to the Lusitania on
the afternoon of May 7, 1915?
Who was to blame for the sinking of the
Lusitania and for the death of your relatives?
The sources you will use in trying to answer these ques
tions include newspapers published at the time of the
THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA
133
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amidship.” This would indicate that at least two
submarines were arrayed in wait for the ship, since
the newest types of undersea boats carry but six
torpedo tubes.
Considering the Case
1. According to the statements in this article,
how many torpedoes struck the ship?
2. According to the ship’s steward, where was
the ship hit?
3. According to the Queenstown dispatch,
where was the ship hit?
4. Was the Lusitania warned before it was tor
pedoed?
5. Why do you suppose the sources disagree
as to where the ship was hit and as to the
number of torpedoes fired?
OLIVER P. BERNARD (passenger) “I think I can say
I was one of the few people who really saw a torpedo
discharged at the. Lusitania. Coming on deck from the
dining salon, I was leaning against the starboard rail
of the ship when I saw the periscope of a submarine
about 200 yards away. Then I noticed a long, white
streak of foam. It gave me the impression of frothy,
sizzling water. Almost immediately there was a ter
rific impact, followed by an explosion.”
DR. CARL E. Foss (passenger) “I was traveling
second class, and on May 7th, I was leaning against
the rail on the port side of the ship, looking off to
wards the Irish coast. It was just at 1:30 that I no
ticed something low in the water about a mile away.”
5
(a Toronto newspaperman) “I was
chatting with a friend at the rail about 2:00 when
suddenly I caught a glimpse of the conning tower of
a submarine about 1000 yards distant. I immediately
called my friend’s attention to it. We both saw the
track of a torpedo.
ERNEST COWPER
We still do not know for certain how many torpedoes
were fired at the Lusitania. At this point we will examine
the eyewitness testimony of passengers which may pro
vide further clues to solving that puzzle.
You will find that the eyewitnesses do not always agree.
Then you must ask yourself whether the eyewitnesses were
in a good position to see what they said happened and
whether they would have any reason for not telling the
truth.
How many torpedoes were fired? What do the
nesses say?
Up to this point we have been viewing the tragedy of
the Lusitania as it was seen through British and American
eyes. Now we will look at the incident through German
eyes. In particular we will look through the eyes of Cap-
136
THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA
eyewit
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
.
.
.
1. How many torpedoes struck the Lusitania?
2. Did all of the passengers see the same thing?
3. Which account do you think is true? Why?
137
tam Schwieger, Commander of U-20, the submarine which
torpedoed the Lusitania. The document which you will in
vestigate next, consists of translated excerpts from the
diary kept on board ship by Captain Schwieger.
6, 1915
The voyage to the St. George’s Channel had con
sumed so much of our fuel oil that it would be im
possible for us to return (to Germany) around the
southern end of Ireland if we had now continued to
Liverpool. I intend to return as soon as two-fifths of
our fuel is used up. I intend to avoid, if at all pos
sible, the trip through the North Channel on account
of the type of patrol service which U-20 encountered
there on her last trip. Only three torpedoes are still
available, of which I wish to save two, if possible,
for the return trip.
MAY
•
5
io
.
.
7, 1915
3:10 Ahead to starboard four funnels and two
masts of a steamer with course perpendicular to us
came into sight. Ship is made out to be large pas
senger steamer.
Submerged to a depth of 11 meters and went
ahead at full speed, taking a course converging with
the one of the steamer, hoping it might change its
course to starboard along the Irish coast.
The steamer turns to starboard, takes course to
Queenstown, thus making possible an approach for
a shot. Until 3:00 P.M., we ran high speed in order
to gain position directly ahead.
MAY
5
10
138
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
Clean bow shot at a distance of 700 meters (G
torpedo, 3-meters depth adjustment); angle 90, esti
mated speed 22 knots. Torpedo hits starboard side
right behind the bridge.
An unusually heavy detonation takes place with a
very strong explosion cloud. The explosion of the
torpedo must have been followed by a second on
THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA
139
5
10
15
(boiler or coal or powder). The super-structure above
the point of impact and the bridge are torn asunder,
fire breaks out, and smoke envelops the high bridge.
The ship stops immediately and keels over to starboard very quickly, immersing simultaneously at the
bow, It appears as if the ship were going to capsize
very shortly. Great confusion ensues on board; the
boats are made clear and in part are lowered to the
water, In doing so, great panic must have reigned;
some boats, full to capacity, are rushed and founder
immediately.
3:25 The ship blows off steam; on the bow the
name Lztsitania becomes visible in golden letters. Ship
was running (22) knots, Since it seems as if the
steamer will keep above the water only a short time,
we dived to a depth of 24 meters and ran out to sea.
It would have been impossible for me, anyhow, to
fire a second torpedo into this crowd of people strug
gling to save their lives,
2
1. Is Captain Schwieger’s diary more, or less,
reliable than the descriptions you read ear
lier? Why or why not?
2. What does he say about the number of tor
pedoes fired and where the Lusitania was
hit?
3. Was the U-20 under specific orders to locate
and to sink the Lusitania?
4, Did Captain Schwieger know that he was
firing upon a passenger ship? Would you
attack a passenger ship in wartime?
140
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
Was the sinking of the Lusitania justifiable? The German
government said “yes” in an official statement printed in
the New York World on Sunday, May 9, 1915.
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LUSITANIA SINKING JUSTIFIABLE,
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120_AMERICANS AMONG 1,272 DEAD
JTntosJMfrrd C. Vandertaft, Charles Kkm,Justus Miles Furman, Elbert Hubbard,
B
Loot—Sue.
Lsndon Bates Jr. and Dr
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olson, Arrived at Queenstown, Tell Pitiful Tales
FATE UJSTAIA,
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Owners Knew Danger and They Are Responsible—Suffocating Fumes
sasd to Have Risen From MissIlr, Rifling Many on Decks
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8 (via wireless to London, May 9—
2:45 A.M.) The following official communication
was issued tonight:
“The Cunard Liner Lusitania was yesterday tor
pedoed by a German submarine and sank, The Lusi
tania was naturally armed with guns, as were recently
most of the English merchant ships. Moreover, as is
well known here, she had large quantities of war
material in her cargo.
Her owners, therefore, knew to what danger the
passengers were exposed. They alone bear the respon
sibility for what has happened.
Germany, on her part, left nothing undone to re
peatedly and strongly warn them (the passengers).
BERLIN, MAY
THE SINKING OF THE LUS1TANIA
D
141
s,.kasu
The Ambassador in Washington even went so far as
to make a public warning, so as to draw attention
to the danger.
The English press sneered at them for the warning
and relied on the protection of the British navy to
safeguard the Atlantic sea traffic.”
1. How did the Germans know the ship was
armed with guns and had war material in
the cargo? What was their source of informa
tion?
2. Could the Lusitania still be considered a pas
senger ship if it actually was armed with
guns and had war material on board?
3. Do you agree with the German charge that
the owners of the ship were to blame for its
sinking? Why or why not?
4. If the Americans were warned of the risk
they were taking prior to boarding the ship,
should Germany be held responsible for
their deaths?
Before we can go any further in our investigation of
what really happened to the Lusitania and who was to
blame, we must determine whether the ship was actually
armed and carried war materials as the Germans charged.
As you examine the statements which follow, keep these
questions in mind:
1. What is the source of the information? Is it
a reliable source?
142
2. Who is the authority? Is he in a position to
know?
3. When was the statement made? What were
the circumstances surrounding the statement
when it was made?
4. Is the person making the statement likely
to tell the truth? Why or why not?
“The True Story of the Lusitania,” an article published in
the American Mercury in May of 1935:
Judge Julius M. Mayer of the United States Dis
trict Court of New York, in an important judgment
concerning the Lusitania, handed down in August
1918, held that the Cunard Steamship Company was
blameless and accepted the theory of there having
5
been two torpedoes. He declared that, “The proof is
absolute that she was not and never had been armed,
3
nor did she carry any explosives.”
Testimony of Lusitania Captain W. T. Turner, before an
Investigating Committee of the British Admiralty in June
of 1915:
She (the Lusitania) had no weapons of offence or
defence and no masked guns.
4
Daily Express, (a London newspaper) May 11, 1915:
It is equally untrue that the Lusitania was carrying
5
ammunition on its final voyage.
The Nation, November 20, 1920:
Dudley Field Malone (Inspector at the Port of
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA
143
New York) revealed that the Lusitania carried large
quantities of ammunition consigned to the British
Government, including 4,200 cases of Springfield car
tridges. The Wilson administration refused to permit
publication of the fact.
6
Snyder, Louis L. The Military History of the Lusitania (1965):
On May 1, 1962, newsmen interviewed John Idwal
Lewis, seventy-seven, of Stockton, California, the only
officer of the Lusitania still alive. Lewis stated that
the liner carried no guns or munitions when she was
sunk. “I was the third officer at the time and in a
5
position to know.”
10
15
A twenty-one year old American skin diver, John
Light of Boston, explored the wreck of the Lusitania
with an underwater camera for the first time on July
20, 1960. In the next three years, Light made a total
of thirty-eight dives to the Lusztanza. In 1961, accom
panied by another diver, he claimed to have found a
long slender object which could have been a gun. The
men insisted that their findings showed that the wreck
had been visited before, possibly by British Admiralty
divers who had removed the ship’s guns.
7
The Nation, January 23, 1923:
Dudley Field Malone (Inspector at the Port of New
York) wrote, “Whether this second explosion was due
to bursting boilers or to the ignition of other explo
sives is mere speculation.”
8
144
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
1. Do you think the Lusitania was armed with
guns? Why or why not?
2. Do you think the Lusitania had war material
in its cargo? Why or why not?
3. Was the Lusitania a passenger ship or a war
ship? Justify your answer.
Before we can decide who was to blame for the sinking of
the Lusitania, we must settle one other controversy. Were
the passengers fairly warned that they risked being tor
pedoed by a submarine if they sailed on the Lusitania?
The German Embassy placed the following advertise
ment in the New York World, May 1, 1915, and several
other New York papers on the very day that the Lusitania
set sail for Ireland.
Examine the actual warning notice which is reproduced
on page 146, and decide for yourself whether adequate
warning was given.
1. Do you feel the passengers received a fair
warning? Why or why not?
2. Should Germany be held responsible for the
lives of passengers who boarded the ship in
spite of this warning?
3. Was it just a coincidence that the warning
appeared in the newspaper the very day that
the Lusitania sailed or did the Germans plot
to sink the Lusitania and create an interna
tional incident?
THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA
145
r.
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CaJI 1200 Far Rockaway, L. I.
ADVMITTSEMENT.
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NOTICE!
Noon
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14th t.
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TRAVELLERS intending to
embark on the Atlantic voyage
are reminded that a state of
war exists between Germany
and her allies and Great Britain
and her allies; that the zone of
war includes the waters adja
cent to the British Isles; that,
in accordance with formal no
tice given by the Imperial Ger
man Government, vessels fly
ing the flag of Great Britain, or
of any of her allies, are liable to
destruction in those waters and
that travellers sailing in the war
zone on ships of Great Britain
or her allies do so at their own
IMPERIAL GERMAN EMBASSY
I DA
WAH1NGTON. D. C., APRIL 22, 1915.
CHUNK.
Lay 50th
BAN Kilt PTCY NOTW ES.
UNITFm STATES DIS’I’RICT COURT FOR
tim Sotilirerir DLdrict of Nw York.--Tn the
HANDELSMAN an
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FLANIJELSMAN individually aid
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The following statements by two surviving passengers
and the German ambassador provide further insight into
the questions you have been discussing.
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E. LAURIAT, JR. (a survivor) “When I
bought my ticket at the Cunard office in Boston, I
asked if we were to be convoyed through the war
zone, and the reply was, ‘Oh, yes! Every precaution
will be taken.’”
CHARLES
5
REVEREND CLARK, (another survivor) said that the
ticket agent assured him there was no danger. “The
Cunard Company is not likely to risk a ship as enor
mous in value if there were any extra danger.”
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COUNT JOHANN VON BERNSTORFF, (the German am
bassador in Washington) claims that he received the
warning notice several weeks before it was actually
published. “Thinking it a great mistake,” he said,
“I threw it into a drawer of my desk and hoped that
Berlin would forget about it.” On the day before the
Lusitania’s departure he received a wireless message
from Berlin asking why he had not published the
notice earlier and ordering him to publish the notice
at once.
9
5
10
I
In conclusion, we must face the basic moral question
(\raised
in this Case. Who was to blame for the death of
1,198 men, women, and children
THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA
147
What Do You Think?
1. Was the Cunard Steamship Company to
blame because it armed the ship and allowed
war materials as part of the cargo?
2. Did Captain Schwieger of the U-20 bear the
responsibility because he failed to warn the
ship that it was to be sunk and did not pro
vide for the safety of the passengers?
4.3. Was the United States government to blame
because it allowed Americans to travel on a
British passenger ship during wartime even
if the United States was neutral at the time?
4. Was the German government to blame
because it ordered the sinking of an Un
armed passenger liner bearing innocent
civilians who were simply exercising their
right to sail freely on the high seas during
wartime?
5. What of Captain Turner of the Lusitanza,
was he to blame because he failed to take
the precautions of requesting a convoy of
destroyers, failed to follow a zig-zag course,
and traveled at a slow speed to conserve fuel?
6. Were the American passengers to blame for
their own fate because they failed to heed
the warning notice published in the news
papers?
148
SELECTED CASE STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
CASE
The
to
11
—F
iic Bomb
1
Background
It is August 6, 1943.
place Tinian, an island speck
in the South P
the evening quiet is
t 2:45 A.
abruptly interrup
the roar o a B-29 bomber as it
rumbles down
unway and disap ars into the night.
# 13 is unde ay. A single B-29,
Special bombir
nicknamed ii /En0h12 Gay, embarks upo a mission which
Ga; will drop
will chanr e course of history. The En
the first
.iic bomb in history
into view.
At 8: A.M. the target city, Hiroshima, co:
plane’s
der Tibbets is speaking to his crew o:
“We are about to start the bomb
When
and place them up on your forehe
eyes
hear the tone signal, pull the goggles over
.d leave them there until after the flash.”
b’-”