Cardiff School of Sport
DISSERTATION ASSESSMENT PROFORMA:
Empirical 1
Student name:
Hannah Wixcey
Programme:
SC
Student ID:
St20007334
Dissertation title: The use of Pre-Performance Routines in Equestrian Athletes.
Supervisor:
Comments
Dr Richard Neil
Section
Title and Abstract (5%)
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findings of previous related research including gaps in the literature and relevant
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participant details; comprehensive replicable protocol.
Results and Analysis (15%) 2
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appropriate presentation of analysed data within text and in tables or figures; description of
critical findings.
Discussion and Conclusions (30%)
2
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extant literature/concept/theory and research question/problem; adoption of a personal
position on the study by linking and combining different elements of the data reported;
discussion of the real-life impact of your research findings for coaches and/or practitioners
(i.e. practical implications); discussion of the limitations and a critical reflection of the
approach/process adopted; and indication of potential improvements and future
developments building on the study; and a conclusion which summarises the relationship
between the research question and the major findings.
Presentation (10%)
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final reference list; clarity in organisation, formatting and visual presentation
1
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a combined section followed by an appropriate CONCLUSION. The mark distribution and criteria across these
two sections should be aggregated in those circumstances.
CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY
Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd
CARDIFF SCHOOL OF SPORT
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS)
SPORT COACHING
2014-5
The use of Pre-Performance Routines in Equestrian
Athletes.
(Dissertation submitted under the Psychology area)
Hannah Wixcey
St20007334
THE USE OF PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES IN
EQUESTRIAN ATHLETES.
Cardiff Metropolitan University
Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd
Certificate of student
By submitting this document, I certify that the whole of this work is the result of my
individual effort, that all quotations from books and journals have been
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the words contained (omitting contents pages, acknowledgements, indices, tables,
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either deemed to not need ethical approval or was entirely within the ethical approval
granted under the code entered below.
Ethical approval code:
14/5/371U
Word count:
11,981
Name:
Hannah Wixcey
Date:
18/3/15
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deemed to not need ethical approval (as indicated by 'exempt' above) or was entirely
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Notes:
The University owns the right to reprint all or part of this document.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
i
Abstract
ii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1
1.1.
Introduction
2
1.2.
Pre-Performance Routines
2
1.3.
Justification of Research
2
1.4.
Aim of Thesis
2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
3
2.1.
Introduction
4
2.2.
Definition of Pre-Performance Routines
4
2.2.1.
4
2.3.
Introduction to PPR Literature
Composition of PPRs
6
2.3.1.
Imagery and Mental Rehearsal
6
2.3.2.
Relaxation
7
2.3.3.
Self-talk
8
2.3.4.
Goal Setting
9
2.3.5.
Concluding comments on composition of PPRs
10
2.4.
Pre-Performance Routines and Equestrianism
11
2.5.
Present Study
13
CHAPTER 3: METHOD
15
3.1.
Research Design
16
3.2.
Participants
16
3.3.
Instrumentation
16
3.3.1.
17
Pilot Study
3.4.
Procedure
19
3.5.
Data Analysis
20
3.6.
Validity, Reliability and Trustworthiness
21
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
23
4.1.
Introduction
24
4.2.
Psychological Skills Over 7 Day Time Period
24
4.3.
Individual Experiences across Time Period
27
4.4.
Rider-Horse Relationship
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
33
35
5.1.
Introduction
36
5.2.
Contribution to Knowledge
36
5.2.1.
Frequency of Psychological Skills
36
5.2.2.
Structure of Routines
40
5.2.3.
Rider-Horse Relationship
44
5.3.
Practical Implications
46
5.4.
Strengths, Limitations and Areas for Future Research
48
5.5.
Conclusion
49
REFERENCES
50
APPENDICES
60
Appendix A: Participant Information Sheet
A-1
Appendix B: Cardiff Metropolitan University Consent Form
A-2
Appendix C: Interview Guide
A-3
List of Tables
Table 1.
Psychological skills and the frequency at which they occur throughout
the 7 day period leading up to and including competition day.
Table 2.
Summary Table of Individual Experiences.
Table 3.
Riders’ perceived benefit of pre-performance routine and specific
psychological skill use on the rider-horse relationship.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my dissertation supervisor, Dr. Richard Neil, for his support and
guidance throughout the duration of the academic year and the dissertation process.
Importantly, I would like to thank the riders who gave up their time and made the
experience enjoyable. Without them this would not have been possible.
i
Abstract
The purpose of this qualitative investigation was to explore the use of PrePerformance Routines (PPR) in non-elite Equestrian athletes. Six female equestrian
athletes were purposely selected based on their reported use of PPRs prior to
competitive performance. Semi-structured interviews were conducted which
discussed the participants’ use of PPRs in the week leading up to competition, and
the perceived impact of PPRs on the rider-horse relationship. All interviews lasted
approximately 30 minutes. Both inductive and deductive approaches were adopted,
allowing for the recognition of recurring patterns (e.g., psychological skill usage) and
the emergence of new themes (e.g., the rider-horse relationship). Findings
demonstrated that the riders primarily used organisational preparation, imagery, selftalk and various multimodal strategies within their PPRs. In addition, each individual
reported using a variety of different strategies over the week leading up to
competition. Finally, the rider-horse relationship was proposed to be influenced by
the PPR, as the behaviour of the rider effects the behaviour of the horse, which in
turn affected performance. Consequently, the study illustrated the importance of
individually tailored PPRs and the recognition of the impact of PPRs on the riderhorse
relationship
and
subsequent
ii
effect
on
performance.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1.
Introduction
This chapter introduces the concept and importance of Pre-Performance Routines,
the justification for the research conducted within this thesis, along with the aim of
the current thesis.
1.2.
Pre-Performance Routines
A Pre-Performance Routine (PPR) has been defined as a “sequence of task-relevant
thoughts and actions which an athlete engages in systematically prior to his or her
performance of a specific sport skill” (Moran, 1996. P. 177). It has been illustrated
throughout the literature that for a PPR to be effective for performance certain criteria
should be met. PPRs should be consistent in cognitions and behaviour (Cohn,
1990), effectively structured (Boutcher and Rotella, 1987) and idiosyncratic to the
individual (Hardy, Jones and Gould, 1996). Various research exists which supports
the concept of PPRs and have suggested that they enable athletes to
psychologically and physically prepare appropriately for competition.
1.3.
Justification of Research
Although research exists into the use of PPRs in a variety of sports (Lidor and
Mayan, 2005; Lonsdale and Tam, 2007), and across skill levels (Hansen, Tremblay
and Elliott, 2005), the literature available is generally concerned with closed skills.
Consequently, the results are not transferrable to an open skill activity. In addition,
there is a lack of sport psychology research into equestrianism, with no insight into
the PPRs of equestrian athletes. Indeed, Wolframm (2013) suggested that
equestrianism is still under researched when compared to other sports.
1.4.
Aim of Thesis
Given the current literature, the present study aims explore the use of PPR of nonelite female equestrian riders. The study endeavours to offer an understanding of the
content and variations of PPRs across these riders.
2
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
3
2.1.
Introduction
A lot of research exists that demonstrates Pre-Performance Routines to have
benefits for performers. This literature review aims to give critical insight into this
literature base to provide a critique of existing knowledge and provide a valid
justification for the research question that has been proposed. More specifically, this
review will first provide a definition of Pre-Performance Routines, it will then go on to
discuss the composition of Pre-Performance Routines and subsequent effects on
performance and it finally will illustrate a clear rationale and purpose of the research
question proposed.
2.2.
Definition of Pre-Performance Routines
A pre-performance routine (PPR) can be defined as a “sequence of task-relevant
thoughts and actions which an athlete engages in systematically prior to his or her
performance of a specific sport skill” (Moran, 1996. P. 177). The definition
highlighted that PPRs consist of both cognitive and behavioural elements which are
required for, and that are executed prior to, task-relevant performance (Cohn, 1990;
Cotterill, 2010).
2.2.1. Introduction to PPR Literature
Literature has emphasised preparation as a critical determiner of whether an athlete
will achieve optimum activation and arousal levels for performance (Boutcher, 1990).
Therefore, it is essential that athletes can gain psychological control prior to
performance to achieve their desired emotional, cognitive and physical state.
Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) illustrated that PPRs can enable athletes to gain
psychological control prior to performance and consequently improve performance
outcomes. Furthermore, Marlow, Bull, Heath and Shambrook (1998) suggested that
PPRs were useful in creating a stable environment which an athlete physically and
psychologically can prepare. This can be achieved by psychological techniques
already in place that have been refined and practiced (Boutcher and Rotella, 1987).
The results illustrated that prior to a golf swing an element designed to establish an
optimum level of arousal was used by the athlete (Boutcher and Rotella, 1987). This
may have emerged from the use of relaxation and organised into a routine to give
4
the performer consistency. Demonstrating that psychological skills already being
utilised are adaptable to become part of a structured and consistent routine.
Lidor and Singer (2000) found that PPRs are inherently systematic in
structure and include components such as motor, emotional and cognitive elements,
executed prior to performance of a self-paced task (a movement or skill produced in
an environment which is considered relatively stable and predictable; Singer, 2002).
Self-paced tasks require time to prepare whereas, an externally-paced task is a
movement/skill that is performed as a response to rapidly changing stimuli and less
predictable (Abernethy, Wood and Parks, 1999). Self-paced tasks require minimal
decision making, leaving the athlete vulnerable to distractions and/or negative
emotions. Cohn (1990) advised a way to protect against these detrimental effects
was to develop a PPR which was consistent in cognitions and behaviours that would
be executed prior to a task. Furthermore, Moran (2009) stated that consistent use of
PPRs are effective at focusing an athletes’ attention on the task-relevant information
available. This is achieved by creating an appropriate activation state prior to
performance allowing athletes to be optimally aroused and focused on task relevant
cues (Lidor and Singer, 2000). This desired state can aid self-regulation which will be
beneficial to performance as it allows the performer to remain in control of cognition
and behaviours (Hardy, Jones and Gould, 1996).
In addition to consistency, the content of a PPR can have implications on the
ability of an athlete to reach desired pre-performance state. The content of PPRs are
idiosyncratic in nature and intuitively constructed by the individual (Hardy et al.,
1996). Gould and Udry (1994) suggested that athletes would benefit from finding the
correct combination of emotions for their sport to create an effective PPR. Proposing
that emotions experienced prior to and during performance can be facilitative or
debilitative. Consequently, self-regulatory techniques are an important factor to
include in PPRs to help direct athletes’ attention, focus and emotions (Crews,
Lochbaum and Koroly, 2001). PPRs allow the athlete to be in control of the process
and pace of their behaviour, and, therefore, more able to control emotions and
cognitive activity associated with performance. The content of a PPR is dependent
on the sport, task and skill level of the athlete (Cohn, 1990). Non-elite athletes will
use simple routines and focus on movements of the skill itself (Boutcher, 1990;
Cohn, 1990). This may be due to the stage of learning which the non-elite athlete
5
would be in (Fitts and Posner, 1967). Whereas, an elite performer would be able to
replicate the skill with little thought, focusing on kinaesthetic aspects, process or
belief in ability (Hansen, Tremblay and Elliott, 2005). Boutcher (1990) concluded that
the difficulty for a performer would occur when attempting to compose an efficient
routine meeting individualistic needs and repeating the routine prior to every
performance. Conclusively, the literature supported the use of PPRs and has
subsequently expressed that they should be individually constructed to ensure
factors such as skill level, sport and emotions are taken into consideration.
Furthermore, in reference to the definition provided PPRs should encapsulate
cognitive and behavioural elements to facilitate performance.
2.3.
Composition of PPRs
As discussed PPRs are inherently complex and idiosyncratic in nature (Hardy et al.,
1996). Therefore, the composition of a routine is subjective and personally
constructed. Psychological techniques prominent within the 1980s PPR literature
include; imagery and mental rehearsal, relaxation, self-talk and goal setting (Vealey,
1988). The following sections critique existing literature on psychological techniques
used within PPRs and provide concluding comments of the composition of PPRs.
2.3.1.
Imagery and Mental Rehearsal
Some practitioners consider it important to distinguish between imagery and mental
rehearsal (Murphy, 1994; Murphy and Jowdy, 1992). Imagery has been defined as
“an experience that mimics real experience" (White and Hardy, 1998, P.389). This
can be interpreted as the awareness of sensory experiences that have occurred
when the stimulus is not present (Richardson, 1969). On the contrary, mental
rehearsal has been described as the ability of an individual to employ the use of
imagery to mentally practice a skill or task (Hardy et al, 1996).
Within the literature, imagery has been used extensively as a preparation
technique for athletic performance. Orlick and Partington (1988) found 99% of an
Olympic sample used imagery prior to performance. This was consistent with
findings from Murphy (1994) who found that 90% of the Olympian sample used
imagery in preparation for training and competition. These statistics illustrated that
imagery and mental rehearsal are frequently used in preparation. Furthermore, many
6
athletes have adapted the technique into PPRs. However, it is suggested that elite
level athletes are more proficient at using this technique than non-elite athletes (Hall,
Rogers and Buckolz, 1991; Mahoney, Gabriel and Perkins, 1987). This may be due
to an elite athlete taking more time to develop greater control (Orlick and Partington,
1988). Also elite athletes may combine the use of psychological skills with physical
mechanisms as they focus less on the activity itself. Additionally, mental rehearsal
accompanied with physical stimulation can produce greater results than when used
alone (Meacci and Price, 1985; Ross, 1985). The composition of an athlete’s PPR
may contain one or more psychological technique which is deemed more effective
than a singular technique. Weinberg, Seabourne and Jackson (1981) illustrated that
PPRs containing both imagery and progressive muscular relaxation techniques
(PMR) resulted in significantly better performance than those who used singular
techniques. According to Bandura (1997) theory of self-efficacy the use of imagery
can have facilitative effects on an individuals’ self-efficacy. This was supported by
Albinson, Bray and Beauchamp (2002) who found athletes that engaged in pre
performance imagery had higher levels of self-efficacy and subsequently better
performance outcomes. Although, the literature has supported the use of imagery
there are restrictions as to the effectiveness of the technique (Meacci and Price,
1985; Ross, 1985). The proficiency of an athlete to use imagery is largely dependent
on three mediating factors. These factors include imagery ability, imagery
perspective and imagery outcome (Murphy and Jowdy, 1992). These factors affect
the nature of imagery and whether it can be facilitative to performance but also how
it can be integrated into a PPR.
2.3.2.
Relaxation
In the early 1990s, relaxation techniques emerged as an important strategy for
performance preparation (Jones and Hardy, 1990).
Relaxation can loosely be
categorised into mental and physical techniques. Maynard, Hemmings and WarwickEvans (1995) found relaxation helped to reduce anxiety and increase facilitative
interpretation of anxiety symptoms.
Fletcher and Hanton (2001) later found
performers using relaxation were able to decrease anxiety and interpret anxiety
symptoms as facilitative. Furthermore, the literature has illustrated that PMR has
facilitative effects on performance. Nideffer and Deckner (1970) found that shot
putters’ performance was improved by the employment of PMR. Similar findings
7
were derived using high school basketball players where PMR reduced state anxiety
that athletes experienced (Kukla, 1976). Support by Lanning and Hisanaga (1983)
illustrated that volleyball player’s reduced state anxiety using relaxation techniques
prior to performance. Hanton and Jones (1999) distinguished between elite and nonelite performers with regard to anxiety levels and interpretation of symptoms. This
study illustrated that non-elite performers primarily used relaxation to reduce anxiety
and to interpret symptoms as less debilitative. Furthermore, elite performers
maintained anxiety intensity levels and used a combination of psychological skills to
restructure interpretations to ones that considered anxiety as potentially beneficial to
performance.
Although facilitative effects of relaxation are evident it has been suggested
that anxiety experienced should be matched to specific relaxation techniques to gain
the most performance benefits (Davidson and Schnartz, 1976). In addition, and as
identified earlier, a combination of psychological skills such as relaxation and
imagery are likely to have increased benefit to an athlete than the use of a singular
skill (Weinberg et al., 1981). More recently Neil, Mellalieu and Hanton (2006) showed
that more non-elite athletes used relaxation techniques in aid their performance. Also
Mellalieu, Neil and Hanton (2006) supported this in a mediation analysis of selfconfidence and anxiety. Therefore, illustrating the facilitative effects of relaxation
techniques on performance.
2.3.3.
Self-talk
Throughout the literature self-talk has had many definitions, early research by
Bunker, Williams and Zinsser (1993) vaguely defined self-talk as any time an
individual thinks about something. This was later criticised and Chroni (1997) went
on to describe self-talk as being two-dimensional including cognitive and behavioural
aspects. More recently it has been suggested that self-talk can be internally or
externally directed at oneself. In an attempt to define self-talk a critical review of the
self-talk literature was conducted, Hardy (2006) proposed that self-talk is a
multidimensional phenomenon in which an individual addresses themselves either
overtly or covertly in a motivational or instructional manner.
8
Various literature has supported the use of self-talk and illustrated its positive
relationship with confidence. Early research suggested that athletes should replace
irrational and self-defeating thoughts with constructive and rationale self-talk which
would be more beneficial to performance (Ellis, 1962, 70). The 1970’s literature
found that not only was self-talk the best determiner of qualifiers in competition but
was also influential on levels of self-confidence (Mahoney and Avener, 1977). This
was later supported by Banduras (1997) theory of self-efficacy. Post 1970’s, the
literature focused on the functions self-talk being motivational or instructional
(Rushall, Hall and Roux, 1988). Practitioners who later went on to investigate these
functions provided a link between the use of motivational self-talk and selfconfidence (Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma and Kazakas, 2000). This link
indirectly provided support for the relationship that exists between psychological
skills and the impact on athletes’ emotions.
Research conducted in the early 1990s concluded that self-talk was an
essential element to performance as thoughts affect feelings and ultimately actions
(Bunker et al., 1993; Hackfort and Schwenkmezer, 1993). More recently
Frederickson (2001) supported the 1990s research and proposed that positive selftalk has facilitative effects on performance due to its impact on emotions and
emotional control. The study found that positive emotions broadened attention
whereas negative emotions narrowed attention therefore, restricting an athletes’
ability to recognise task related cues. Thus, illustrating that positive self-talk can
have facilitative effects on emotions and consequently performance.
2.3.4.
Goal Setting
Goal setting is a process in which an individual identifies a singular target and aims
to accomplish relative to certain traits. Goal setting aims to direct attention, increase
effort and consistency, encourage persistence, promote problem-solving and
enhance self-confidence (Locke and Latham, 1990). Research conducted by Locke
and Latham (1990) found that goal setting as a motivational construct can reap
generous performance outcomes, due to incentives and enhanced confidence that
they can provide (Weinberg, 1993). Goal setting could be beneficial for self-paced
tasks such as those which utilise PPRs, these may include the pre putt performance
for golfers (Coterill et al., 2010). The literature suggested three types of goals which
9
include, outcome goals, performance goals and process goals (Burton and Naylor,
2002; Kingston and Hardy, 1997).
Outcome goals are referenced by external factors and often involve
comparison, for example placing first in the 100 metres. Performance goals are selfreferenced and often numerical, for example specifying an end product such as
completing the race in a certain time. Finally process goals are self-referenced but
focus on aspects of the task such as specific movements or skills. Burton (1989)
gained an understanding that self-referenced goals are more adaptive than
externally referenced goals. The results found that performance goals increased
motivation, lowered anxiety and facilitated performance. Kingston and Hardy (1997)
found that club golfers using process goals had a positive effect over the duration of
the season. Results demonstrated that concentration, self-efficacy and anxiety
control were increased facilitating overall performance. This may have been
consequence of the self-referenced nature of process goals, giving the performers
increased perceived control.
Furthermore, Zimmerman and Kitsantas (1996)
suggested that increased concentration and learning may be a direct result of the
nature of process goals. Other practitioners have argued that the use of multiple
goals types and a holistic approach would be more appropriate (Filby, Maynard and
Graydon, 1999). Multiple goal use have been prominent in the goal setting literature
with many athletes performing significantly better when setting more goals
(Tenenbaum, Pinchas, Elbaz, Bar-Eli and Weinberg, 1991). Conclusively the
literature supported the use of process goals as a preparation technique and
indirectly facilitative within PPRs.
2.3.5. Concluding comments on composition of PPRs
Conclusively, PPRs are considered an effective tool for preparation and
controllability of the self and consequently performance (Lidor and Singer, 2000;
Lobmayer and Wasserman, 1986). Literature illustrated that athletes may use one or
multiple psychological techniques in preparation. A multimodal strategy to PPRs
may, therefore, be more facilitative and appropriate for athletic performance than
singular techniques (Shelton and Mahoney, 1978). Research suggested that the
inclusion of positive self-talk and imagery are typically included in an effective
multimodal PPR (Shelton and Mahoney, 1978). Multimodal strategies support
cognitive and behavioural elements of PPRs but also the interpretation of anxiety
10
symptoms to facilitative (Hanton and Jones, 1999; Mamassis and Dogams, 2004).
The interpretation of anxiety as facilitative to performance is essential within sport.
Research suggested that the use of PPRs allow for performers to view anxiety as
advantageous (Neil, Mellalieu and Hanton, 2009). Therefore, if an athlete is able to
compose an individualistic PPR that incorporates multiple techniques they are
considered more likely to be successful in comparison to those who do not use
PPRs as they are better equipped to manage negative emotions such as anxiety and
focus on relevant environmental information to perform effectively.
Extensive research into PPRs illustrated that these preparation techniques
can create stability for the performer (Marlow et al., 1998), consistency (Boutcher
and Rotella, 1987) and increase focus of attention (Moran, 2009). PPR research has
mainly covered closed skill activities, which are performed in a stable environment
that is self-paced with a clear beginning and end (McBride and Rothstein, 1979).
Sports such as golf (Cotterill et al., 2010), volleyball (Lidor and Mayan, 2005) and
basketball (Lonsdale and Tam, 2007) are closed skills. These studies investigated
the use of PPRs and found that PPRs are facilitative in preparation of a given task.
However, little research has been conducted into open skill activities. Therefore, this
study will explore the use of pre-performance routines within an open skill activity.
2.4.
Pre-Performance Routines and Equestrianism
Open skills are ever changing in nature and lack a definitive beginning and end
(McBride and Rothstein, 1979). Equestrianism is one type of open skilled sport as it
is considered unpredictable due to environmental factors and the behaviour of the
horse regardless of the training it may have received (Wolframm, 2013). The
externally paced nature of the sport and conditions that affect execution are
determined by the environment, furthermore making it difficult to master as an
activity. Riders take into consideration potential for environmental and situational
change at any time, but also the effect that these changes can have on the horse.
Horses are essentially trained to respond to react to cues given by the rider.
Therefore, the relationship between the rider and horse is critical for performance
(Wolframm, 2013). Furthermore, stress and subsequent emotions experienced by
the rider are also felt by the horse (Wolframm, 2013). Consequently, the ability of a
11
rider to control such emotions will have facilitative or debilitative effects on
performance. These may be important factors for practitioners, coaches and athletes
to consider when evaluating behaviour in a competitive environment.
Riders that are able to maintain control prior to and during performance have
greater harmony in the rider-horse relationship (RHR) (Borstel, 2007). Borstel (2007)
presented that harmony allows for better performance, it also illustrated that
psychological skills aimed at improvement of emotional composure and relaxation
are likely to have a beneficial effect on the horse. The results of the study indirectly
show support for the use of mental skills in a PPR to improve rider-horse relationship
(Borstel, 2007). Wolframm (2013) suggested that routines provide safety and
security for the rider and horse. The literature has suggested that PPRs can offer the
athlete consistency (Boutcher and Rotella, 1987) and stability (Marlow et al. 1998).
These are considered key aspects for successful performance as they have
facilitative effects on an athletes’ perception of control and consequently emotions
experienced, thus providing security.
Successful performance is partially contingent upon the capability of the rider
to maintain emotional composure (Pretty, 2001; Tenenbam, Lloyd, Pretty and Hanin,
2002). Emotions experienced by a rider prior to and during performance can affect
the behaviour exhibited by the horse. Pretty (2001) found that emotional reactions
before and during competitions subsequently affect performance. The preparation
phase is vital within equestrianism in order to control emotions and facilitate a
harmonious rider-horse relationship for the benefit of performance (Wolframm,
2013). The use of PPRs may provide the consistency that is required to perform
successfully. Orlick and Partington (1988) found that the mental readiness of an
athlete provided a statistical link to ranking in competition, those who failed to
maintain concentration levels would place lower in the ranks. The study illustrated
the importance of physical and psychological preparation and the subsequent
relationship with performance. Psychological techniques within equestrianism has,
however, received limited research. Wolframm and Micklewright (2011) found that
non-elite dressage riders who utilised psychological skills performed better than
those who did not. One important psychological skill is relaxation because how
relaxed the rider can have a direct effect on how relaxed the horse is. Furthermore, if
a rider is physically tense they may lose the ability to create fine motor movements
12
creating tension between rider and horse. Another favourable psychological skill is
imagery, Wolframm (2013, 2014) proposed that imagery increases practice time
whilst not in the saddle consequently being beneficial to performance. Conclusively,
the use of psychological skills in preparation for performance could be deemed vital
for the rider-horse relationship and consequently performance outcomes.
2.5.
Present Study
The review has demonstrated that various studies have been conducted into the
PPR phenomena. From these studies it is evident that PPRs have a multitude of
facilitative effects for performance including, the creation of a stable environment in
which the athlete can prepare (Marlow et al., 1998), consistency prior to performance
(Boutcher and Rotella, 1987) and an increase in attentional focus on task relevant
information (Moran, 2009). Importantly the literature has emphasised that for PPRs
to be successful they should be consistent in behaviours and cognitions (Cohn,
1990), well structured (Boutcher and Rotella, 1987) and idiosyncratic in nature
(Hardy et al., 1996). Despite the positive evidence which has been derived from the
literature, there has been little to no investigations into the use of PPRs in equestrian
athletes. As discussed most studies have examined closed skill activities which are
not transferable to open skill activities. Although, there is a growing number of sport
psychology literature within the equestrian realm (Wolframm, 2013) it is still a
minority in comparison to other sports.
As a result of the literature discussed, the present study endeavours to offer a
greater understanding of the use of PPRs in particular the content, variations and will
attempt to draw any relevant implementation strategies. Through a retrospective
account, a qualitative approach will be adopted to enhance knowledge and
understanding of individual routines within equestrianism. Although the data will not
be generalisable, Gratton and Jones (2010) stated that qualitative investigations can
elicit rich, meaningful data that could not be accessed through quantitative
measures. By examining the PPRs of equestrian athletes through qualitative means
the study hopes to provide a greater understanding of the phenomena. The study
also intends to build on any PPR literature that may exist within the equestrian realm
as currently little to no research has been conducted in the subject area.
13
Conclusively, the research question states that the study will “explore the use of preperformance routines in female equestrian athletes”.
14
CHAPTER 3
METHOD
15
3.1.
Research Design
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the use of pre-performance
routines (PPRs) in female equestrian athletes. Due to the exploratory nature of the
investigation, a qualitative approach was adopted. Gratton and Jones (2010) stated
that qualitative investigation would allow for rich, meaningful data to be elicited from
the participants involved, an outcome relevant to this study which aims to glean
performers’ experiences of PPR use. In addition, if the study were to use quantitative
measures the results would not be as in depth as required. Therefore, a semi
structured interview was utilised for data collection. This chapter will illustrate the
method of the study. In particular, the participants involved, instrumentation adopted,
the procedures that were applied and the data analysis used. The chapter will also
discuss the reliability, validity, trustworthiness and ethical considerations of the
method.
3.2.
Participants
Six non-elite female equestrian athletes aged between 20 and 59 (M= 45.5 SD=
13.72) were purposely selected for the study. By utilising purposeful sampling it
attempts to elicit rich, informative data from participants who are relevant to the
purpose (Patton, 2002). All participants were known by the researcher as this was
thought to increase familiarisation, therefore creating a better interview environment
and, consequently, higher quality results (Creswell, 2007). The researcher had
experience in equestrianism as this was seen as important for the quality of
questions asked and subsequently answers given within the interview. Participants
were selected based on their use of a PPR prior to competitive performance. As the
researcher was an equestrian rider it aided the interview process as they could relate
to the participants and understand the content of the discussion (Baker, 1994).
3.3.
Instrumentation
The study began with a discussion between the researcher and participant to
establish the PPR of the rider and to give the researcher an opportunity to discuss
these routines. Participants were selected based on the outcome of this discussion
and were invited to take part in an official interview. The criteria for selection were a)
16
the riders were of non-elite status; and b) the use of a PPR prior to competition.
Interviews were voluntary and consent was obtained from those who wanted to
participate. Prior to the interview the participants were provided with an information
sheet which the researcher talked them through and answered any questions they
may have had.
3.3.1. Pilot Study
Conducting a pilot study has been described as an essential part of data collection
for a novice interviewer (Gratton and Jones, 2010). By doing so the interviewer is
able to evaluate their interviewing ability and assess whether the interview guide has
been effective in obtaining in-depth information relevant to the purpose of the study.
The process of conducting a pilot interview can, therefore, enhance the validity of
data collection (Marshall and Rossman, 2006). Taking into account the inexperience
of the interviewer it was deemed essential that a pilot interview was conducted to aid
the study overall.
The pilot interview was transcribed and read over a number of times, a
process of reflection took place that evaluated the skills of the interviewer and the
relevance of information to the purpose. The initial part of the interview was deemed
to have been rushed and may have caused the interviewee to give closed answers.
As an interviewer it is important to be relaxed and confident so that the interviewee
answers freely (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). Consequently, for future interviews it
was imperative that the researcher was more familiar with the interview guide and
better prepared for the responses of the interviewee.
Based on the pilot transcription, the interview guide was well structured and
needed only minor amendments prior to the official interviews taking place. The
questions delivered were understood and did not need alteration. However, some
questions were rearranged as during the interview the order of questioning was not
always appropriate. For example, within the pilot interview questions regarding the
rider-horse relationship were asked too early and therefore, repeated later in the
interview. Consequently, the interview guide was adjusted so that the temporal
timeframe of PPRs was addressed before questions which may have exposed
sensitive and personal data. Overall the pilot interview was successful in generating
17
appropriate information which addressed the research question and importantly
increased the confidence of the interviewer.
3.3.2. Interview Guide
The strength of employing semi-structured interviews is that they allow for
elaboration, often resulting in newly emergent themes (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009).
The interview guide was developed by the researcher to be semi-structured in
format, and all questions were carefully planned out with regard to questioning type
and order in which they were asked. By using an interview guide it ensured that
there was a logical and progressive order to the questioning and that all information
required was obtained (Patton, 2002). As the researcher was familiar with the sport
this aided the process, as subject matter knowledge is deemed critical when asking
significant and insightful questions (Kvale, 2007). Open-ended questions and probes
were utilised throughout the interview guide. This allowed the participants to answer
freely and elaborate on aspects which could be beneficial to the results.
After the pilot study had been conducted and amendments made, the
structure of the interview guide was as follows. First, the interview guide stated the
purpose of the study and ensured the participant that there were no right or wrong
answers. It then went on to discuss the experiences of the rider within their sport;
such questions help to gain trust and cooperation of the interviewee (Gratton and
Jones, 2010). Throughout the literature recurring themes were identified and these
were the basis for the main body of questions asked. Specifically, these questions
were focused on discussing the PPR temporal timeframe and the psychological skills
that the participants used throughout this period – within the PPR. Questions
included;
“When do you start to think about your performance?”
“What exactly are you doing (seeing, thinking, feeling) at these points?”
The interview went on to discuss PPRs and their perceived benefits for the
performance of the rider and horse. Questions included;
“How do you think the PPR benefits you emotionally?”
“How do you think the PPR benefits your performance?”
18
“How do you think the PPR benefits the horse?”
Alongside incorporating questions and probes to ensure that the research
question was addressed, it was also considered important to look for experiences
that were unique to the individual. By looking for the specifics it allowed for the
emergence of new themes thus, providing a contribution to knowledge. Therefore,
the interview guide accommodated for this with questions that addressed what the
rider did specifically within the PPR, the rider-horse relationship and where they
learnt techniques. Questions included;
“What exactly do you see/hear/feel/do?”
“Talk to me about the relationship with the horse?”
“Where did you learn to use the PPR?”
The interview guide was well structured and elicited the information required
for rich, meaningful data to emerge. The interviewer ensured that probes were used
and that the participants were allowed to elaborate on their experiences. By doing so
the quality of answers were in-depth and allowed for new themes or patterns to
emerge.
3.4.
Procedure
Prior to the study being conducted ethical approval was granted from ‘Cardiff
Metropolitan Ethics Research Committee’ in May 2014. Once ethical approval had
been obtained the researcher then made contact with potential participants in
September 2014. Once the participants had agreed to take part in the study they
received a ‘Participant Information Sheet’ which explained the purpose of the study
and why they had been asked to participant. On the day of the interview the
participant was asked to sign the ‘Participant Consent Form’ this ensured that they
understood their rights and the purpose of the study.
During September 2014 contact was made with twelve equestrian riders in
search of appropriate participants for the study. Prior to initiating the study the
researcher used purposeful sampling to seek relevant participants for the study. The
19
researcher had emailed the participants outlining the nature of the study and what
would be required of them, following this the researcher met the participants
individually to further discuss the study and to explore the participants’ current use of
PPRs and to increase familiarisation between the researcher and participant. During
this meeting the participant was also given an information sheet and were talked
through it to ensure understanding and ask any questions that they may have had.
From the twelve originally selected, six were identified as appropriate given the
predetermined criteria. Specifically, participants were known to the researcher and
selected based on their use of a PPR.
In December 2014 after the pilot study had been conducted and the interview
guide completed the researcher met with the participants to arrange a suitable date,
time and venue. This also gave the researcher the opportunity to talk to the
participant about the interview guide to clarify any worries or queries. All interviews
were conducted in December 2014. On the day of the interview the participant
signed the consent form and were fully informed of the procedure. The interviews
were conducted in the participants’ homes so that they felt comfortable in the hope
that they would elicit interesting responses. Also to ensure that the interviews were
standardised and to increase reliability the same researcher took the interviews
(Patton, 2002).
The duration of the interviews were approximately 30 minutes dependent on
how the participants answered the questions. All interviews were recorded on a
dictaphone and transcribed immediately after the interview taking place.
At the
beginning of the interview the participants were reminded that it was entirely
voluntary and that there were no right or wrong answers. Participants were also
reminded that their information would be anonymised within the results. By ensuring
anonymity it encouraged the participants to answer honestly. Anonymity was upheld
by referring to the participant as A, B, etc. within the results and discussion.
3.5.
Data Analysis
The process of analysing qualitative data involves the reduction of data incorporated
within the transcription of the interviews, through filtering relevant information and
coding this information into themes (Gratton and Jones, 2010). From this the
20
interviewer can draw conclusions from the data that has emerged and ensure that
they address the research question.
The first stage of data analysis was the transcription of data, although the
researcher did not transcribe the interview themselves they ensured that they knew
the script entirely and were able to analyse the emergent themes. Corbin and
Strauss (2008) emphasised the importance of the researcher vicariously entering the
participants’ minds by reading and re-reading the scripts. Therefore, this was
adopted within the present study to ensure a sound understanding of the interviews.
Following this process the transcriptions were personally taken to the participants for
‘member checking’ (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). Which is a process by which the
participant can read through and reflect on the interview ensuring that the data
emerged is true, thus aiding validity of the results. By personally taking them to the
participants it allowed for the researcher to make any alterations to the transcripts
immediately.
The second and final stage of data analysis was content analysis, which is
when the researcher can look for recurring themes or patterns within the
transcriptions (Patton, 2002). The researcher was looking for recurring psychological
techniques and behaviours within the PPR that would be categorised into themes,
from this analysis the researcher also looked for elements that may have been
unique to the sport or individual. This approach can be defined as being inductive
and deductive in analysis. An inductive approach is the discovery of themes and
patterns which have already been identified within the field of inquiry (Gratton and
Jones, 2010), for example, psychological techniques which have frequently been
integrated into PPRs. Whereas, a deductive approach allows for the emergence of
new themes and open mindedness is considered crucial (Patton, 2002), this may
include an aspect of the PPR that could be considered unique to the individual.
3.6.
Validity, Reliability and Trustworthiness
Gratton and Jones (2010) stated that regardless of research type validity and
reliability should be upheld as without these constructs the findings would be
considered redundant. Within qualitative studies it is essential that validity and
reliability remain paramount to the investigation, this is due to the nature of the data
21
that emerges. Although, qualitative data is often rich and meaningful it can often be
misinterpreted as being inaccurate (Cresswell, 2007). Validity within qualitative
research is considered to have been sustained if the data accurately represents the
research question proposed and the participants involved (Hammersley, 1987). To
ensure that validity was maintained the researcher allowed themselves time to
extensively critique the existing literature that surrounded PPRs, ensuring familiarity
with the subject area. Furthermore, this aided the process of data analysis as
relevant data and themes could be extracted from the transcriptions. Research
should ensure that reliability is central to the design, this is so that external
practitioners could replicate the method and produce similar results at a different
time (Newby, 2010). Utilising an interview guide ensured continuity throughout the
interview process.
Trustworthiness is used within qualitative research and is dependent on the
credibility of data obtained and the neutrality of the researcher involved. Credibility of
the data is the assurance of the trust and believability of the results collected
(Gratton and Jones, 2010) and is therefore critical for the interpretation of the
findings. The neutrality of the researcher is paramount in the collection of data and
more so in semi-structured interviews. It is essential to maintain neutrality during
data analysis to allow the emergence of new themes and to avoid simplistic
interpretations. The study was designed with these factors in mind and the
researcher ensured that a neutral stance was adopted throughout the process.
Furthermore, to enhance the trustworthiness and reliability of the study ‘member
checking’ was utilised. This is the process in which the clean transcriptions are sent
back to the participants to ensure that they are a true reflection of the experiences
discussed. After the transcripts were analysed and conclusions made the results
were sent back to the participants for them to either accept or reject the
interpretations of the researcher. By accepting the interpretations this reinforced the
trustworthiness and reliability of the study (Miles and Huberman, 1984). Furthermore,
as the study was not looking to prove or disprove a hypothesis the credibility was
enhanced.
22
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
23
4.1.
Introduction
The following chapter will represent the raw data derived from the interview
transcripts. This information will be presented through the use of both tables and
informative text. The first section will give insight into the psychological skills used by
the participants within their pre-performance routines (PPR) over the seven day time
period. This will be complimented by a frequency table. Then, the individual
experiences will provide the content and variations between participants’ PPRs, this
will be illustrated through a comparative table. Finally, the perceived effect of the use
of a PPR on the rider-horse relationship will be presented from the riders’
perspective.
4.2.
Psychological Skills Over 7 Day Time Period
A frequency table (i.e., Table 1) was constructed to illustrate the psychological skills
used within PPRs over the temporal time frame. When looking at Table 1 it is evident
that all psychological skills were utilised by the riders however, some skills were
more commonly used than others.
From Table 1 it can be seen that for these non-elite riders organisational
preparation was prominent from seven days prior to competition however, this
decreased closer to competition. Participant A suggested that organisation was the
first thing they began to consider in preparation, “First of all I think I probably start
with the organisation for me, so I make sure I have everything I need, even
sometimes I end up making a list of things on my mobile phone.” Specifically,
organisation, timing and physical readiness were important for all individuals,
participant A stated:
My time is all structured, I know exactly what I have to do by which time, when
I'm leaving so I usually give him some hay first thing and I go off and connect
up my trailer. I've put my tack and everything in the car already the night
before, so I haven’t got that to do, but then I've got to get him ready with travel
boots and tail bandages and all that sort of thing.
24
Table 1.
Psychological skills and the frequency at which they occur throughout
the 7 day period leading up to and including competition day.
7
Days
Preparation
Organisation
Timing
Physical
Imagery
Internal
External
5
Days
2
Days
Night
Before
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
Morning
Journey
Post
1
1
1
Self-Talk
Motivational
Instructional
Overt
Covert
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
Relaxation
Deep Breathing
Avoidance
1
Goal Setting
Process Goals
Reflection
Recall
Imagery
Negative
Kinesthesis
During
4
1
1
Multimodal
Imagery & Relaxation
Preparation & Imagery
Preparation & Self-Talk
Reflection & Imagery
Relaxation, Imagery &
Process Goals
Imagery & Self-Talk
Self-Talk & Reflection
10
Minutes
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
In addition, external imagery was used seven to five days prior to competition.
Participant F elaborated upon how they used this:
I will actually visualise the arena to be familiar with the arena, I’ll visualise the
whole thing in my head even down to the jumps... I’ll probably relate it to a
competition I've done recently, or the last competition I’d taken him to...I’ll
visualise from a distance, looking on and I’ll also visualise going up to a jump
as well.
25
Whereas, internal imagery was used on the journey to the event, “On the way to a
competition it’s really looking over the test and going over it and over it again… I've
done it at home in my own arena, so I can visualise myself being there, doing it.”
Also 10 minutes prior to the event:
I kept visualising the whole course, and then as I walked away I kept doing it
so not only did I know the course really well but it almost felt like I’d already
done it...
Internal imagery was used during performance, “because I've visualised it,
because I've slowed it down in my mind, actually then, when I'm riding I can recall
that and just slow everything down.”
Motivational and instructional self-talk were popular techniques, in particular
instructional and overt self-talk was used on the journey to the event when learning
or revisiting a dressage test. Participant C identified how they used instructional and
overt self-talk to memorise the dressage tests, “I literally talk to myself in the car as
I'm going, so I'm going through the tests as I'm driving.” Instructional, covert self-talk
was also used during the event, although the covert nature may be due to the use of
voice being prohibited during performance (British Dressage, 2015). This was
illustrated by participant A, “I was thinking ‘Now you need to slow it down. You need
to get over that jump and before you turn to that left-hand corner you need to really
slow it down’.”
Motivational, overt self-talk was predominantly used to increase confidence of
the rider and horse, “Talking to the horse, maybe asking him to be a good boy…to
ease my nerves.” Participants perceived that motivational self-talk increased the
strength of the rider and horse relationship, “So I do try to be aware of how he’s
feeling...I was like ‘Come on!’ …once he’d jumped on it was ‘Yeah! Good boy!’”
Multimodal strategies were adopted by all riders interviewed, with varying
combinations of psychological skills used. Most commonly, the combination of
imagery and self-talk was used immediately prior to and during performance.
Participant B expressed how they used imagery and self-talk during performance to
correct negative behaviour, “I actually thought to myself ‘This is not how I visualised
it!’ which reminded me that when I visualised it we were actually cantering and
moving forward.”
26
Participant E used internal imagery and instructional self-talk to identify ‘what
ifs’ 10 minutes prior to performance:
I’d stand there and visualise where I start and visualise where I'm going to go
to look and then throughout the test I’ll find all these different things that might
affect it...Talking myself through it, that’s what I do, with a bit of visualisation.
Other combinations included reflection and imagery, “I tried to remember
exactly, rather than how I would have ridden it, how I did ride it.” Additionally, some
riders used preparation and imagery, “I’ll read the test step by step and I’ll draw that
step and go on to the next step and draw that section of the test. So I learn it in
blocks.”
4.3.
Individual Experiences across Time Period
Individual experiences across the preparation time period were considered vital to
the aims of the study, which included the exploration of content and variation. This
section illustrates the findings of a select few participants due to word count
restrictions. This will be complimented with a summary table and informative quotes.
Table 2 illustrates that participant B begins to prepare seven days in advance.
The rider used a simulation practice with kinesthesis and imagery to reinforce
technical elements, “it was more like feeling… feeling how fast he [the horse] would
be going, the stride into the fence... I can see myself riding him; I try to feel what it’s
like.” The rider was able to recall this on the day of the event:
I made myself visualise the whole course before I did it, because once I’d
done it that day, I was then able to do that again the following weekend when
it was the actual, real course, and it didn’t seem so scary that time.
The night before the event, this rider used organisational preparation and
reflection to ensure everything was ready, “just got the pony ready, got the tack
ready, and just made sure everything was ready to go…I made myself visualise the
whole course.” The morning of the event the rider used relaxation, specifically
avoidance behaviour, “I was doing things and busy and it was all happening now and
I kept thinking ‘This is what you want to do, so just get on and do it’”. 10 minutes
27
prior to performance various multimodal strategies were used including, imagery and
relaxation, “I kept visualising the whole course… then I was concentrating on deep
breathing and relaxing”. During performance imagery and motivational self-talk was
used as correctional for performance:
I actually thought to myself ‘This is not how I visualised it!’ which reminded me
that when I visualised it we were actually cantering and moving forward… I
feel it, I feel my position and him moving...visualise that in my head, like the
feeling on the reins, where I'm putting my leg on… Once I got back into my
visualisation that we were going to get moving and we got away from the
tannoy, he jumped those beautifully.
Post performance the rider used reflection and imagery :
Yes, I rode back through the course lots of times, how we did it!...I tried to
remember exactly, rather than how I would have ridden it, how I did ride
it...I'm still just imagining and trying to relive how it felt.
28
Table 2.
Summary Table of Individual Experiences
Participant
7 Days
A
Preparation:
Organisational
B
Multimodal:
Preparation &
Imagery
Kinesthesis
Simulation training
C
Preparation:
Organisational &
Physical
Preparation
D
5 Days
2 Days
External
Imagery
Preparation:
Organisational,
Timing &
Physical
Preparation
Preparation:
Physical
preparation
E
F
Imagery
Night Before
Preparation:
Organisational
& Avoidance
More Capable
Other
Morning
Journey
10 Minutes
During
Post
External
Imagery
Relaxation:
Deep
Breathing
Mediation
Multimodal:
Imagery &
Self-Talk
External
Imagery
Reflection:
Imagery
Multimodal:
Imagery &
Relaxation
Multimodal:
Correctional
Imagery &
Self-Talk
(instructional &
motivational)
Kinesthesis
Multimodal:
Reflection &
Imagery
Preparation:
Organisational &
Reflection.
Previous
Performance
Accomplishment
Relaxation:
Avoidance
Multimodal:
Preparation &
Sequence
Imagery
Preparation:
Organisational
& Timing
Self-Talk:
Overt &
Instructional
Reads
dressage
test
Relaxation:
Deep
Breathing
Warm up Preplanned
Vicarious
Experience
Self-Talk:
Covert &
Instructional
Smile down
the centre line
Preparation:
Organisational
Preparation:
Organisational
Relaxation:
Avoidance
Sequence
Imagery:
External
Self-Talk:
Overt &
Motivational
Multimodal:
Self-Talk &
Reflection
Relaxation:
Avoidance.
Reflection:
Recall.
Multimodal:
Reflection and
Imagery.
Preparation:
Organisational
Horse & rider
don’t eat
morning of
Mood
assessment
Multimodal:
Reflection &
Imagery
Visualises
dressage
test
Relaxation:
Deep
Breathing.
Multimodal:
Imagery &
Self-Talk
Relaxation:
Deep
Breathing
Relaxes once
down the
centre line
Reflection:
Negative
Multimodal:
Preparation and
Sequence
Imagery
Preparation:
Organisational
Relaxation:
Avoidance
Multimodal:
Preparation &
Self-Talk
Multimodal:
Relaxation,
Imagery &
Process Goals
29
Table 2 indicates that participant C was predominantly preparatory in
organisation, timing and physical preparation until the night before the event, “preplan everything and plait him [the horse] all up and have him ready and clean.” The
night before the rider used multimodal strategies including, sequence imagery and
preparation:
I’ll run through it quite a few times before I go to bed – even in the shower,
drawing it on the tiles and at other times… I know exactly which point I'm
doing, which thing at. Just little things in your brain you think about.
Participant C used instructional, overt self-talk on the journey to the event.
This was done by reading the dressage test aloud, “I’ll literally talk to myself in the
car as I'm going, so I'm going through the tests as I'm driving”. However, during
performance self-talk remained instructional but became covert due to event
restrictions (British Dressage, 2015), “although it’s not supposed to be heard, I do
talk to him as we’re going round… I'm saying ‘Steady, steady. Wait, wait.’ And then
‘Off you go’.”
10 minutes prior to performance participant C used vicarious experience to
reinforce imagery and preparation. Additionally, it was used to identify ‘what ifs’ for
performance, “two numbers before me, I will watch them…in case there’s something
I have to address… something in the corner that spooks them.”
During performance the initial move was considered critical, the rider placed
importance on smiling when executing this action, “once the bell’s gone and I'm
going down, to make sure I do a nice turn to come in onto the centre line and a nice
smile. That’s my aim.”
Table 2 illustrates that participant E began preparation the night before
competition. Multimodal strategy refection and imagery was used to visualise the
location of the event, “I normally reflect back on if I've been to the place before, been
to a particular event before and how I got on the year before”. Imagery was also
used to memorise the dressage test, “I visualise the event the night before, I write
down the test with different colour pens on a piece of paper and just visualise it
through that…” Additionally, the rider engaged in avoidance behaviour which was
considered to be relaxing, “I'm not constantly focused on it, I do just chill out the night
30
before rather than having everything focused on it.” Ensuring that the rider wasn’t
constantly
thinking
about
31
performance.
The morning of the event the rider specified that they could not eat and
consequently, the horse did not ether, “It depends on the level of competition, so if
it’s qualifying, nerves. I don’t eat, Po does eat; I feel sicky, sicky nerves.” The data
illustrated that the rider emphasised the importance of assessing the horses’ mood
and the impact of this:
I think if I know that she’s in the right state of mind, I know that I’ll put myself
in the right state of mind and if she’s spooked and scared of random things in
the yard – you know, that she’s on one a little bit, then it gives me a bit of
nerves.
The rider visualised the dressage test on the journey, utilising reflection and
imagery to do so:
On the way to a competition it’s looking over the test and going over it and
over it again… I've done it at home in my own arena, so I can visualise myself
being there, doing it.
10 minutes prior to performance the rider identified ‘what ifs’, using imagery
and instructional self-talk:
I look out for things that might spook Po or just little things that might affect my
test...so it’s making myself aware, knowing which places in the test I need to
be more on my game...I’d stand there and visualise where I start and visualise
where I'm going to go to look and then throughout the test I’ll find all these
different things that might affect it.
During performance the rider placed importance on the initial movement, they
used relaxation techniques to manage emotional composure at this time, “before I go
in I just feel a bit uptight, but as soon as we get in there, you trot down the centre
line, I'm chilled then”.
Post-performance the rider reflected on negative aspects of performance to
identify areas for improvement, “When I've finished I always think negatively on it, I
always pick out the bad bits...and then we can improve on it before the next
competition.
32
4.4.
Rider-Horse Relationship
The results supported the importance of the rider-horse relationship (RHR) towards
performance. Furthermore, the perceived impact of the riders’ PPRs and
psychological skills on the relationship and subsequent performance was identified
as important. Table 3 gives insight into the type of psychological skills used during
PPRs and the proposed benefit for the rider and horse.
Table 3.
Riders’ perceived benefit of pre-performance routine and specific
psychological skill use on the rider-horse relationship.
Participant
Predominant Psychological Skill
Effect On Rider
Effect On Horse
Relaxation
Emotional Composure
Relaxation
rom
Reflection
Increase Perspective
Relaxation
the
Relaxation
Reduce Worry
Relaxation
tabl
Motivational Self-Talk and Relaxation
Emotional Composure
Relaxation
Motivational Self-Talk
Increase Confidence and Focus
Confidence
C
Physical Preparation
Emotional Composure
Relaxation
D
Motivational Self-Talk
Confidence
Confidence
E
Sequence Imagery and Instructional Self-Talk
Emotional Composure
Relaxation
Reflection
Increase Focus
Structure
Motivational Self-Talk
Confidence
Confidence
Relaxation and Imagery
Emotional Composure
Relaxation
A
B
F
e
it
can
be
see
n
that
a
F
com
mon
ly perceived effect of relaxation on the rider had a similar effect on the horse.
Participant A used relaxation as a preparation technique, this provided the rider with
the correct emotional composure and the perceived effect on the horse is considered
to be calming:
If I don’t get my breathing under control I can be breathless. Even before we
leave the yard, I need to deep breathe… to stop myself conveying to him that
I'm nervous as well. Because he’s actually not so nervous any longer and I'm
sure it’s because I can get myself under control.
33
Additionally, participant B used deep breathing to ensure emotional
composure and positive body language, “breathe calmly and be relaxed in the
saddle...I'm always trying to tell him through my body language”. Similarly, the
combination of relaxation and imagery had the same perceived effect on rider and
horse:
I kept visualising the whole course, and then as I walked away I kept doing it
so not only did I know the course really well but it almost felt like I’d already
done it… Yes, then I was concentrating on deep breathing and relaxing.
Motivational self-talk was used to relax riders prior to or during performance.
Participant D stated, “Talking to the horse, maybe asking him to be a good boy, to
ease my nerves”. Additionally, participant B used this technique during performance
to praise the horse and increase confidence and focus, “I was like ‘Come on!’ and
really …. Yes once he’d jumped on it was ‘Yeah! Good boy!’”.
34
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
35
5.1.
Introduction
This study explored the use of pre-performance routines in equestrian riders. This
chapter will provide insight into the main findings of this investigation by first offering
insight into the contribution to knowledge that the study has provided, followed by a
discussion upon the frequency of psychological skills used by the athletes. Then, a
critique of the structure of individual routines and the rider-horse relationship will be
offered. The strengths, limitations and implications for future research will be
addressed and practical implications suggested. The final section will conclude the
study.
5.2.
Contribution to Knowledge
The present study was the first to examine PPRs in equestrian riders and has
provided multiple contributions to knowledge within the PPR and equestrianism
literature. For example, the main findings of the study concluded that non-elite riders
place emphasis on organisational preparation, imagery, self-talk and a range of
multimodal strategies within their PPRs. Furthermore, the results highlighted the
variation in content and timing of PPR use across individuals. Additionally, the riderhorse relationship was proposed to be influenced by the PPR, which in turn affected
performance. The following subsection discusses these contributions to knowledge
in relation to existing theory and research.
5.2.1. Frequency of Psychological Skills
Preparation was the most frequently mentioned strategy throughout the seven day
time period, with it being identified 15 times as a standalone strategy and used by all
riders. Specifically, the subtheme ‘organisation’ was most commonly used with
‘timing’ and ‘physical preparation’ identified on fewer occasions. This is consistent
with Wolframm (2011a) comparison of elite and non-elite riders. The study found
non-elite riders placed emphasis on preparation of equipment rather than
psychological preparation (Wolframm, 2011a). Preparation formed the basis of PPRs
of the riders interviewed with various complimenting psychological techniques.
Seven types of multimodal strategies were identified by the riders, which
supported conclusions that performers would benefit from a combination of
psychological skills rather than a single strategy (Weinberg et al., 1981). Multimodal
36
strategies were identified 12 times over the time period with all riders mentioning one
or more strategy on at least one occasion. Strategies included, imagery and self-talk,
and preparation and imagery. These were identified six times over the time period by
five riders, with participant B using both combinations. This is coherent with
intervention literature which reported that imagery and self-talk increased selfconfidence in athletes (Hanton and Jones, 1999b). Furthermore, imagery and selftalk training was found to reduce negative emotions and thoughts in golfers,
enhancing performance (Thomas and Fogarty, 1997).The current study found
imagery most frequently in conjunction with another skill, consequently supporting
research which stated that imagery was typical of an effective multimodal strategy
(Shelton and Mahoney, 1978). Equestrian intervention literature stated that a
combination of psychological strategies are more likely to assist a novice rider by
increasing
concentration
and
subsequently,
performance
(Wolframm
and
Micklewright, 2011). Jackson and Baker (2001) found imagery and self-talk were
used to prepare for high pressure situations allowing performers to better cope with
arising demands. Similarly the present study found riders used internal imagery and
instructional self-talk to identify ‘what ifs’ for performance, enabling riders to consider
the effect demands may have on the horse consequently, aiding preparation for
performance.
Relaxation as a singular technique was identified seven times over the time
period. All riders used relaxation in varying forms, through deep breathing and/or
avoidance behaviour. Additionally, riders used relaxation techniques to either reduce
worry or aid emotional composure. These findings are consistent with Maynard,
Smith and Warwick-Evans (1995) study which suggested non-elite athletes would
adopt relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety intensity. More recently Neil et al.,
2006) stated that non-elite athletes favour relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety
symptoms. Relaxation strategies are logical in a sport which relies on harmony
between rider and horse (Borstel, 2007; Wolframm, 2013).
The present study
provided support for these findings. However, the results indicated internal and
external imagery were used by the non-elite riders, which were previously
considered to be elite level techniques (Neil et al., 2006). Imagery being considered
as an elite level technique may be due to the stages of learning (Fitts and Posner,
1967). Elite athletes are able to replicate skills will little conscious thought,
37
consequently becoming proficient with imagery. Whereas, non-elite performers are
more
concerned
with
38
the
reduction of anxiety intensity (Maynard et al., 1995) therefore, relaxation techniques
becoming more favourable.
Imagery as a standalone strategy was used by four riders and identified on six
occasion’s over the time period. Results indicated both internal and external imagery
were utilised by the riders. However, external imagery was identified seven days until
the morning of, with internal imagery utilised on the journey and during performance.
Change in imagery perspective may be due to riders visualising the skills differently
during practice and competition (Hall, Rodgers and Barr, 1990). Another explanation
may be mediating factors which effect imagery. Specifically, factors include imagery
ability, imagery perspective and imagery outcome (Murphy and Jowdy, 1992). Due to
the non-elite status of the riders, internal imagery use may be restricted due to
controllability of visualisations (Hall, 2001). The ability to maintain this image over a
time period may be difficult consequently, more appropriate prior to performance.
Self-talk was utilised by all riders and identified six times over the time period.
However, only two riders used it independently from other psychological skills. The
remaining four used it in conjunction with a multimodal strategy – for example, selftalk and imagery. Both motivational and instructional self-talk were identified in the
data providing support for different functions of self-talk (Rushall et al., 1988). Selftalk can combat negative cognitions and task irrelevant thoughts in athletes under
certain circumstances (Dugdale and Eklund, 2002), for example, dressage riders
required to remember a dressage test. The present study indicated that instructional,
overt self-talk was used to reinforce memory and concentration. Consequently,
instructional self-talk would be an appropriate strategy for riders to integrate into a
PPR. However, covert, instructional self-talk was used during performance due to
voice restrictions (British Dressage, 2015). Motivational self-talk can decrease
interfering thoughts that a performer may experience, consequently facilitating
performance (Hatzigeorgiadis, Theodorakis and Zourbanos, 2004). Riders perceived
motivational self-talk to increase the strength of the RHR by allowing maintenance of
emotional composure. Borstel (2007) argued riders who were able to remain
emotionally composed would transfer composure to their horses, consequently
facilitating performance. Equestrianism is reliant on precision of fine motor skills and
application of aids which are critical for effective communication between rider and
horse
(Wolframm
and
39
Micklewright,
2011).
Aids are a set of predefined cues that the horse has learnt to respond to when given
by the rider (McGreevy, 2002, 2007). Motivational self-talk has been suggested to
be of benefit to the RHR relationship (Wolframm and Micklewright, 2011).
Consequently, the findings support literature which suggested that positive self-talk
can impact on emotions and emotional composure (Frederickson, 2001).
5.2.2. Structure of Routines
Between seven days and the morning of competition preparation was the most
common strategy used. Including organisation, timing and physical readiness of the
horse. All riders stated preparation was an essential element to their PPR. The
Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen and Madden, 1986; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975)
suggested that an individual’s behaviour is planned in relation to intentions, for
example, planning for a competition. Linking to Locus of Control (Rotter, 1966) which
stated individuals should only be concerned with what they can control, for example,
adequate preparation for an event to reduce likelihood of stress related demands.
Although, preparation may differ due to individual differences and personal
preference (Blakeslee and Goff, (2007).
Multimodal strategies were popular the night before the event. Combinations
such as reflection and imagery, and preparation and imagery were identified.
Reflectional imagery and recall were used to visualise event location or performance.
Imagery within a combined strategy was used to aid concentration (White and Hardy,
1998) and learning of the dressage test and/or show jumping course. Participant B
used reflectional imagery for previous performance accomplishments which included
simulation training which had been performed seven days prior, increasing riders’
self-efficacy thus aiding performance (Bandura, 1997).
Relaxation was used on the journey to the event, as a means to cope with
arising emotional demands associated with the immediate competition. This
complements literature which suggested non-elite athletes used relaxation
techniques to reduce anxiety intensity (Hanton and Jones, 1999). Participant A used
deep breathing to decrease anxiety symptoms and increase attention consequently,
avoiding focus on task irrelevant information (Eysenk and Calvo, 1992). Similarly,
participant E used reflection and imagery to visualise themselves performing at
40
home, increasing confidence (Bandura, 1997) and directing focus to task relevant
information
41
(Eysenk and Calvo, 1992). Variation between PPRs may be a result of individual
differences (Blakeslee and Goff, 2007), task or skill level of the athlete (Cohn, 1990).
10 minutes prior to performance multimodal strategies were used by four of
the riders. Strategies included imagery and self-talk, imagery and relaxation, and
preparation and self-talk. Illustrating that a singular skill may not be enough closer to
performance. Catastrophe Theory (Hardy, 1990) suggested that under certain
circumstances such as performance, a combination of activation and cognitive
restructuring techniques might be more beneficial to performers than relaxation to
reduce debilitative effects of anxiety. Consequently, riders adopted multimodal
strategies to better prepare themselves to deal with performance demands.
However, external sequence imagery was used independently by participant D,
reinforcing the show jumping course and consequently increasing confidence. This
concept links to Bandura (1997) theory of self-efficacy which suggested that positive
imagery can have facilitative effects on an individual’s self-efficacy.
During performance there was a lack of consistency, with all riders reporting
the use of different strategies. This reinforces the variance between riders and their
PPRs, however some commonalities were identified. Both motivational and
instructional self-talk were used by three of the riders ensuring technical aspects
were performed correctly, increasing confidence of rider and horse. These findings
support those of Mahoney and Avener (1977) who found self-talk to be influential on
levels of self-confidence, relating to Bandura theory self-efficacy (1997) which
suggested that verbal persuasion can have positive effects on confidence.
Post-performance, four of the riders used reflection. Two riders used reflection
in a multimodal strategy, either, reflection and imagery or reflection and self-talk. The
multimodal approach allowed riders to analyse performance. Specifically, reflection
and imagery were used by participant B to analyse her performance. Furthermore,
participant D utilised reflection and self-talk, enabling the rider to analyse technical
aspects and improve future performances.
Singular approaches to reflection
included imagery and reflection on negatives. Participant A used reflectional imagery
for personal enjoyment, this was believed to enhance mood and derive satisfaction
from performance (Bouchard, 2000). However, this was not a strategy used for
42
technical improvement. Whereas, participant E used reflection to identify negative
aspects
of
43
performance, consequently aiding future performance. This technique originated
from reflective practice. Reflective practice allows an individual to increase selfawareness and knowledge of the self (Cropley, Miles, Hanton and Niven, 2007).
In summary, there were similarities in structure and timing of PPRs of the
riders. However, it was clear that routines were individualised with differences in
regards to structure, content and timing. These findings were coherent with existing
literature on PPRs which state that routines should be constructed intuitively, with
the correct combination of emotions and developed to meet the needs of the
individual (Gould and Udry, 1994; Hardy et al., 1996).
5.2.3. Rider-Horse Relationship
Content analysis showed that the rider-horse relationship (RHR) was an essential
element when assessing PPRs. Results demonstrated the relationship that exists
between an individualistic PPR and the RHR. For example, if the rider was able to
maintain emotional composure through the use of a PPR, then it lead to the horse
remaining calm and a successful performance. This is coherent with literature which
suggested that in addition to relevant riding techniques the development of strategies
to help the rider deal with irrelevant or detrimental thoughts, moods or emotions
would be vital for success (Wolframm, 2014). Riders of the present study used
various psychological skills and strategies to aid emotional composure, most
commonly deep breathing, internal imagery and motivational self-talk were identified.
Relaxation was found to reduce feelings of anxiety in the rider consequently,
supporting existing psychological skill literature (Neil et al., 2006). The importance of
a harmonious RHR was consistent throughout the data, literature suggests
psychological skills aimed at improving emotional composure would benefit the RHR
(Borstel, 2007; Wolframm, 2014). Additionally, Wolframm and Micklewright (2011)
intervention study emphasised the importance of communication between rider and
horse and the development of appropriate psychological skills which allow riders to
cope with pre competitive emotions more effectively. The riders of the present study
were conscious of remaining emotionally composed, ensuring steady breathing and
maintaining a positive body language. These skills were considered to be facilitative
to horse behaviour and performance. Research suggested that riders’ ability to
interact with the horse effectively through the use of predetermined aids and cues
44
(McGreevy, 2002, 2007) is essential to performance. The concept that the horse can
feel
tension
from
45
the
rider
was a recurring theme throughout the interviews and equestrian literature (Borstel,
2007; Wolframm, 2013).
5.3.
Practical Implications
The investigation highlighted the importance of developing individualistic PPRs
which meet the needs of the athlete (Hardy et al., 1996), and to also take into
account the rider-horse relationship when creating a PPR. The development of a
PPR should consider techniques that aim to increase harmony between rider and
horse (Borstel, 2007). The information acquired could be of use to practitioners
within the sport psychology field and the equestrian realm to enhance performance.
The results supported the literature which suggested PPRs should be
idiosyncratic in nature (Hardy et al., 1996) and athletes should find the correct recipe
of emotions for performance (Gould and Udry, 1994). From the data it is evident that
the riders developed routines which were unique to them. Consequently, the
implication for practice would be to ensure that the development of a PPR is based
around the needs of the athlete. Based on the findings of the current study riders
should engage in multimodal strategies and/or relaxation techniques immediately
prior to performance to aid emotional composure and the RHR. Furthermore, during
performance riders should engage in instructional and/or motivational self-talk to
increase self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Consequently, aiding the RHR as the
perceived strength of the RHR can have significant effects on confidence levels of
rider and horse (Wolframm, 2014).
Finally, the data indicated riders should maintain emotional composure during
performance to aid the RHR. The results illustrated that the riders achieved this with
the use of relaxation prior to and during performance, supporting the equine
literature which suggested that emotional composure is a critical factor for an
effective interaction between rider and horse (Wolframm, 2014). Furthermore, there
is evidence to suggest that horses can react to an increase in rider heart rate
(Keeling, Jonare and Lanneborn, 2009) therefore, the use of psychological skills
such as relaxation could be vital for performance. Importantly, PPRs should be
developed with the RHR in mind as it is evident that the relationship has an effect on
46
performance. However, more research is required into the RHR to fully understand
the
concept
and
to
47
better
prepare
riders. The adoption of reflective practice may be a useful technique for riders to
better understand strategies to facilitate their performance (Cropley et al., 2007).
5.4.
Strengths, Limitations and Areas for Future Research
The study was the first of its kind to investigate the use of PPRs within equestrian
riders. Semi-structured interviews provided the researcher with an opportunity to
gain valuable knowledge about the PPRs of the participants and the impact on the
RHR. Throughout the interview process the researcher demonstrated empathy with
the riders in the hope that they would elicit rich, meaningful responses (Creswell,
2007). Consequently, participants discussed experiences and provided specific, indepth examples of psychological skill use. However, the exploratory design of the
study meant that the data was descriptive in nature, answering the ‘what’ and ‘how’
rather than ‘why’. Development of the study should identify and question the ‘whys’
with regard to psychological skill effectiveness. Intervention literature suggested that
further research is required into the psychological skills which aid performers the
most during demanding situations and the effectiveness of these techniques
(Fletcher and Hanton, 2001).
The qualitative nature of the study meant that sample size was small and
consisted solely of females. Although the design generated meaningful data from the
individuals involved, the limited number of participants reduced the generalisability of
the data to the elite level and to male equestrian riders. Future research may benefit
from investigating elite athletes’ use of PPR in a comparative study, this would aid
practitioners and aspiring riders when developing an effective PPR. Additionally,
research into a mixed gender sample would be beneficial to the literature as gender
type may have an effect on PPR and psychological skill choice.
The emergence of new themes contributed to the PPR and equestrian
literature. The RHR was identified as an essential theme when investigating PPRs of
equestrian athletes. Interestingly, the participants believed that the PPR had
facilitative effects for the RHR. From this it can be concluded that the PPRs did have
a positive impact on the RHR and consequently performance. Nevertheless, the
actual impact on performance was not measured. Consequently, future research
48
should investigate this relationship further to aid understanding of the influence and
effectiveness that PPRs have on the RHR and, consequently, performance.
5.5.
Conclusion
The aim of the investigation was to explore the use of PPRs in non-elite equestrian
riders. As the study was the first of its kind within the sport psychology and
equestrian literature, it has contributed significantly to knowledge. Indeed, the
findings highlighted that non-elite riders primarily used organisational preparation,
imagery, self-talk and various multimodal strategies. The identification of individual
experiences provided insight into the variety of content and timings of PPRs,
illustrating the importance of developing an individualistic PPR. Additionally, the
emergence of the rider-horse relationship and the impact that this can have on a
PPR and subsequent performance has been identified as a vital area to be
considered by riders and practitioners. The practical implications emphasised the
importance of the development of an individualistic PPR which can meet the needs
of the rider and facilitate the RHR. However, it was concluded that further
investigation of the RHR would be required to fully understand the concept.
49
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APPENDICES
60
Appendix A: Participant Information Sheet
Title of Project: Explore the Use of Pre Performance Routines in Equestrian Athletes.
Background
This study is aimed at exploring the use of Pre Performance Routines in Equestrianism. It is
being conducted for an undergraduate student project under the supervision of a lead
lecturer. The study will be held within the empirical study unit of Cardiff School of Sport at
the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff.
In brief, the study is concerned with exploring the use of pre performance routines in
equestrian athletes. The project aims to derive the content of routines and any useful
strategies for implementing them in future athletes. The main areas of examination are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Investigate content and variation of pre performance routines.
Explore how athletes implement different preparation skills into routines.
Draw an understanding of routine complexitites and relevant strategies.
The study will be presented as an undergraduate dissertation to Cardiff School of Sport at
the University of Wales, Cardiff and might also be published.
Your participation in the research project
Why you have been asked
You have been invited to take part in the study because of your use of psychological
techniques prior to athletic performance. By taking part in the study you may develop a
greater understanding of why you use such methods prior to competition. The study hopes
to build on existing knowledge within the subject area from the results obtained.
What would happen if you agree to participate in the study?
If you agree to join the study;
1. You will be fully briefed prior to the interview and will understand the interview theme.
2. The interview will take place in an agreed location. It will be semi-structured and will
allow you to talk freely answering questions in regard to your pre performance routine
and psychological skills. It will last approximately 30 minutes and you can withdraw at
any time.
3. You may be asked to clarify answers at the end of the interview so that the results can
be of accurate representation.
4.
Are there any risks?
There are no significant risks to taking part in the study.
Your rights
By participating in the undergraduate study you rights are not affected. In the unlikely event
for something to go wrong within the study you as a participant are fully covered by the
university insurance. You have the right to withdraw from the study at any given time without
reason.
A-1
What happens to the results of the study?
The transcript from the interview will be analysed and submitted to the university. The
interviews will be anonymised and no description will be given that would identify the
individual. The study and results will be presented to the university as an undergraduate
dissertation.
Are there any benefits from taking part?
Yes, the study will provide you with the opportunity to discuss your use of pre performance
routines and psychological skills. By doing so you will develop of greater understanding of
the benefits of using pre performance routines in athletic performance.
What happens next?
With this information sheet there is a consent form for you to sign. By signing this form you
are giving your consent to participate within the study.
Further information
If you have any questions about the research or how I intend to conduct the study, please
contact me.
Hannah Wixcey

[email protected]
A-1
Appendix B: Cardiff Metropolitan University Consent Form
UREC Reference No:
Title of Project:
Name of Researcher:
14/5/37 1U
Explore the Use of Pre Perfomance
Routines in Equestrian Athletes.
Hannah Wixcey
Participant to complete this section:
Please initial each box.
1. I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet
dated …… for this study. I have had the opportunity to
consider the information, ask questions and have had these
answered satisfactorily.
2. I understand that my participation in the study is voluntary and
that it is possible to stop taking part at any time, without giving a
reason.
3. I also understand that if this happens, our relationships with UWIC,
or our legal rights, will not be affected.
4. I understand that information from the study may be used for
reporting purposes, but that I will not be identified.
5. I give my consent to participate within the study.
6. I agree to the interview being audio recorded for transcribing
purposes.
7. I agree to the use of anonymised quotes in publications.
__________________________________
Name of Participant
_________
Date
__________________________________
Signature of Participant
_________
Date
__________________________________
Name of person taking consent
_________
Date
__________________________________
Signature of person taking consent
_________
Date
* When completed, one copy for participant and one copy for
researcher’s files
A-2
Appendix C: Interview Guide
The purpose of this interview is to investigate your use of mental skills and PPR.
From this I hope to understand the content, variations and any relevant strategies
that may help future athletes.
I would like to remind you that there is no right or wrong answer and to take your
time when answering.
So first of all would you like to;
1) Talk to me about your successes or experiences as an equestrian athlete?
Themes:
1) When do you start to think about your performance?
2) What exactly are you doing (seeing, thinking, feeling) at these points?
3) What exactly do you see/hear/feel/do?
4) Can you describe to me how you do this?
5) Do these (images, thoughts, feelings) change throughout your routine?
6) Why do you use this/these technique/s?
7) How do you think it benefits you emotionally?
8) How do you think it benefits your performance?
9) How do you think it benefits the horse?
10) Talk to me about the relationship with the horse?
11) What is the reasoning behind using it?
12) Where did you learn to use it?
13) How does it help you? (Focus, confidence, organisation, concentration?)
14) Describe the importance of your routine?
15) Are all elements as important as one another?
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