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Latin American Freedom Fighters, Part 2 - After the War
By Toni Lee Robinson
On December 10, 1898, envoys of Spain and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Paris. The "splendid little war" was
over. The Spanish colonies of Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam came under U.S. control.
The victory was a big turning point for the U.S. America had surprised the world with its might and resolve. It
emerged as a world power. It now held colonies like the great nations of Europe. Some people in the U.S. thought
it was high time for the nation to expand. For many people, the issue raised a big question. America had fought
for its own liberty, they said. How could a nation that believed in freedom practice imperialism (acquiring
colonies and ruling over them)?
The main impact of the war, of course, wasn't felt by the two countries who signed the peace treaty. It was
absorbed by the people of Spain's former colonies. They had struggled for many bloody years against the Spanish
rulers. Then the Americans had swept in and defeated Spain. The long battle for freedom was over, right?
No one from the colonies themselves had been invited to the peace talks, however. Many citizens of Cuba, the
Philippines, and Puerto Rico were uneasy. Had the war between Spain and America simply brought a new
colonial master to replace the old? In some cases, many years would pass before the question was fully answered.
Guam: Stuck on the far southern tip of the Mariana Islands, Guam hadn't played much part in the war. As a
Spanish territory, however, it was invaded by the U.S. in June 1898. The cannons of the U.S.S. Charleston roared
as the ship cruised into range. Guam's Spanish governor, Juan Marina, was shocked to find out the cannon fire
wasn't a good will salute. The surprised governor hadn't heard about the war. The only guns on the island were
relics, not safe to fire. There was no powder with which to fire them anyway. Marina surrendered Guam without
firing a shot. Today, it remains a U.S. territory.
Puerto Rico: Before the war, Luis Muñoz Rivera had convinced Spain to allow Puerto Rico a measure of
self-rule. The U.S. invasion brought a quick end to the first steps toward autonomy. At war's end, a military
government was set up. Offices were filled by U.S. appointees. Muñoz Rivera didn't like the U.S. plan. He
continued to work for freedom.
Muñoz Rivera took his case to the U.S. itself. He represented Puerto Rico in the U.S. Congress. In that position,
he pushed for liberty for Puerto Ricans. Muñoz Rivera died in 1916. The next year, Congress passed the Jones
Act, making Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens. The measure had been authored by Muñoz Rivera before his death.
Finally, in 1947, Puerto Rico won the right to elect its own governor. Luis Muñoz Marín, son of Muñoz Rivera,
became the island's first elected governor. Since then, Puerto Rico has taken more steps toward autonomy. It is
still, however, a territory of the U.S.
Cuba: Before the war, the U.S. Congress had passed the Teller Amendment. The act had declared that upon
winning the war and stabilizing the country, the U.S. would leave. Cuba would be an independent nation. The end
of the war came and went. In the U.S., debate raged over what to do with Cuba. Cuban freedom fighters were
dismayed. Spain's defeat wasn't going to give the island instant independence. Finally, the U.S. imposed the Platt
Amendment. This stated that the U.S. military would take care of any threats to the peace of Cuba. It also placed
limits on Cuba's dealings with other countries. It provided for a permanent U.S. military base in Cuba.
Cuban rebel leaders hated the idea. General Calixto García went to the U.S. to present Cuban views on the
issue. In December 1898, just a few months after helping force the Spanish out of Cuba, he became ill and died.
Máximo Gómez was over 60 when the war ended. Cuban independence was the goal for which he had fought
nearly all his life. When that didn't come to pass in 1898, he was disheartened. He withdrew to his villa near
Havana.
In his diary, Gómez wrote "...Cuba cannot have true moral peace - which is what the people need for their
happiness and good fortune [under U.S. occupation]." The people of Cuba, he said, had given all they had to be
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free. He felt the U.S. presence clashed with all the ideals that Cuba had been fighting for. Gómez died in 1901.
Cuba hadn't weathered its long battle well. The country was ravaged. It was deeply in debt. It wobbled back
and forth between rival factions within. Sometimes the conflicts erupted in violence. The U.S. military intervened
at these times. The island nation gained some autonomy in 1902, under U.S. President Teddy Roosevelt. Finally,
in 1934, Cuba attained its independence.
The Philippines: Emilio Aguinaldo had come out of exile to help the U.S. oust the Spanish. At the end of
the war, the rebel leader went about setting up a Philippine government. The U.S. refused to recognize the rebel
regime. American forces occupied Manila. Aguinaldo and his army remained in control of other portions of the
country. Tensions ran high between the two forces.
In February 1899, U.S. troops shot and killed a Filipino soldier who refused to stop at a boundary between the
two armies. Aguinaldo declared war on the U.S. For the next few years, the two armies fought for control of the
country. The war would consume many lives. The U.S. lost over 4,000 men. Sixteen thousand Filipino soldiers
died. Hundreds of thousands of civilians died of disease and lack of food. U.S. forces captured Aguinaldo in 1901.
Though the fighting went on here and there, the Filipinos had little left to invest in the struggle. On July 4, 1902,
the war was declared over.
Aguinaldo took an oath of loyalty to the U.S. When in public, however, he wore a black bow tie to show his
grief over the absence of freedom in his country. The Philippines was governed by the U.S. until 1946. At the age
of 81, Aguinaldo served in the first government of his free country. He died in 1964 at age 94.
The Spanish American War was the last blow to Spain's former empire. As the world passed into the 20th
century, Spain's reign as a great power ended. The war itself was a "little war" compared to some other conflicts.
The results, however, impacted the world.
Latin American Freedom Fighters, Part 2 - After the War
Questions
1. Explain how the U.S. acquired Guam, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
2. Define imperialism. Why did some people think the practice was not a proper policy for America?
3. Why does the article state that neither Spain nor the U.S. absorbed the major impact of the Spanish
American War? Who bore the brunt of the war and its outcomes?
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4. In June, 1898, the U.S.S. Charleston fired on Guam. The island's Spanish governor was surprised because
______.
A. He didn't think the U.S. cruiser was armed.
B. He found his garrison had run out of gunpowder and couldn't return the fire.
C. He didn't know Spain and the U.S. were at war.
D. He thought his cannons had sunk the Charleston the day before.
5. Puerto Rican Luis Muñoz Rivera was a hero to his people because ______.
A. He was the general who led an army of rebels to win Puerto Rico's freedom from Spain.
B. He was a great statesman who persuaded both Spain and the U.S. to grant Puerto Rico measures of
self-rule.
C. He was executed by the Spanish for standing up for Puerto Rico's right to freedom.
D. He was a brilliant guerilla fighter who died in battle.
6. After the Spanish American War, Cuban rebel leaders Calixto García and Máximo Gómez went on to lead
their nation in peacetime.
A. True
B. False
7. The war between America and the Philippines resulted in ______.
A. Filipinos winning their independence
B. The entrance of Spain into the conflict
C. The Philippines remaining a U.S. territory until after WWII
D. The deaths of many more Americans than Filipinos
8. How did the end of the Spanish American War affect each of the two big nations involved?
Some places in the world are still held as colonies today. Name five and tell what nation each belongs to. (Hint:
Check out the United Nations List of Non-Self-Governing Territories.) How would life be different for a person
living in a colony than it would be for a person in a self-governing country?
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Explain how the concepts of freedom, autonomy, and democracy are related. How do they fit into American
history? Name at least three instruments (documents) that support the importance of these ideals in the U.S.